Experiment No. 1 Objective: To verify polygon law of forces using a universal force table Apparatus: Experimental setup of universal force Table, slotted hanger weights, pulleys, spirit level, measuring tape, etc. Theory: When a number of coplanar & concurrent forces act on a body then the forces can be represented in direction and magnitude by side of a polygon in magnitude and direction taken in order. The resultant of all forces is represented in magnitude & direction by the closing side taken in opposite direction. If all the forces form a closed polygon i.e. the resultant is zero, the forces are in equilibrium. The last condition of equilibrium is possible to measure on a force polygon table. The table consists of a horizontal table with degree graduations [-360°] on its circumference & center of graduation being center of table, marked with a pin five adjustable pulleys are fixed, five suitable, desired cones of polygon of forces desired. A ring is placed in center and tied with 5 strings. Each of this string other end passes over a pulley and hangs down with a slotted wt hanger. Forces are loaded on the hangers of five strings in such a way that ring center coincides with table center. Now direction of forces is measured off as well as their magnitude. Force polygon for equilibrium system is thus constructed. The deviation direction & magnitude of one force is studied to examine the accuracy of law of polygon of forces. Five reading minimum need to be taken: Scanned with CamScannerProcedure: 1. Make force table horizontal with the help of sprit level and leveling screw. Fit 5 pulleys in 5 suitable corners. . Take 5 string 1 mts. Long and tie to ring in a loose fit or sliding knot, pass the other end over a pulley and tie to a weight hanger. . Central ring will probably move to a side and be stopped by central pin. . Load the hangers and adjust load & position of pulley to bring the central ring with its center to coincide with pins. 5. Note reading of magnitude and direction of all the forces. 6. Repeat the above steps keeping one force direction or magnitude constant and vary other's direction & magnitude. Take at least 5 such readings. 7. Draw the vector diagram with suitable scale moving in one direction for all the set of readings. 8. Find out the error in direction & magnitude of last side of the polygon. N Rw Result: The law of polygon has been verified with .......% error in magnitude aNd ...n.% error in angular position. Precautions: 1) The string must be inelastic & inextensible. 2) All strings should appear to pass through table center point. 3) Pulley should have very little friction 4) Tap the table to get the final equilibrium position Observations: Calculated Forces Applied by | Direction of forces: | closing | Difference | Difference S.No String (af) Polar force Fs_| (Absolute) (%) Fs | Os- | Fs- | @5- Fi | Fo | Fa | Fa | Fs | 61 | 62 | G3 | @4| Os} Fs’ | 6's Fs | @s | Fs/Fe’ | a5/s al alo|n|— Scanned with CamScannerExperiment No. 2 Object of Experiment: To verify the law of moments using a simple support beam. Apparatus: Simply support beam with a fixed scale, scale, weights. Principle under Study: A horizontal wooden beam with a scale fixed on it and slotted to hold weight at different positions. This beam rests on two spring balances on either end of beam. From law of moments Moment about pt A: R:'= Wali + Wel2 Ls Ry'= Wifls-Li] + WolLs-L2] Le By varying the distance of L2 & Li. Keeping Ws, Wz same we will obtain different values of Ri & Ro. Those will also be calculated as per above formula and compared. The % error to be tabulated. The spring balance initial reading to be noted and subtracted from each reading. Thus reaction due to mass of beam in eliminated. Also calibrate spring initially by placing standard weight on it. Make a graph of actual wt. And indicated weight and correct reading of R=(R-Ro) Procedure: 1) calibrate the two spring balances by putting dead weight of 1,2,3,4,5 kg and take reading of balance. 2) Note the distance between the two ends of spring balance support. Place the beam in position & load the weight W:, We at two position on the beam. Take different position Wi, Wo and record their position L:, L2 & Ri, Re, correspondingly. Evaluate R’;, R’2 theoretically wart Ls, Lo & Wi, We taken compare with observed values. Scanned with CamScanner~ Observations: Distance Corrected ce | Observed cted | Calculated Load | from side | Reactions | Reactions | “reaction | pifference | _% Difference S| «a ML kao | Gea | kon No. (cm) (Kaf) Ri- | Ri | R'rRi | R’rRe Wi | Wo} Li | Le | Ri | Re | Ri | Re | Ro | Re Ri | Ro PRs TR cn) | a| no] Result & Discussion: Discuss results of Ri, Re experiment and theoretical & state if law of moments is satisfied or not. Evaluate error in values. Precautions: 1. Parallax error in spring reading to be avoided 2. Calibration of spring balance to be accurate. Scanned with CamScannerExperiment No. 3 Object of Experiment: To evaluate the coefficient of friction between aluminum and other surfaces eg. Wood, steel, glass, leather etc using inclined plane. Apparatus: Inclined plane, weights (0-100g) slide boxed with different base surfaces. Theory: Resolving all the forces of a body m & applying equation of equilibrium when the body is just starting to move. Forces. 2Fy=0 WCos @-R=0 Fx =0 f.+W Sin@-P=0 fe=yR > uR+WSin 6 =P p= (P-WSin 8) / (W Cos 6) The sliding box is loaded with a wt W, wt of box W:. The string T is tied to box & passed over pulley and attached to weight pan P. Fix angle 6. Now increase P to a value that the box just ‘starts to move as a slight tap is given on incline record reading of P for different values of 6 evaluate the change the box with a different base material. Find y for three different surfaces. Observation: Surface of incline: - Wood Scanned with CamScannerContac | _ Weight loaded(kgf) Ss t | Box Total nile Tensio p=(P-w sin | Mean No. | Surfac | Wi. | wy | (Boxwt+ | TR) pan | e/(weose) | w e | (Wi) Ww) Procedure: Select one box material. Place it on an inclined plane & tie the rope, pass it over pulley and tie to weight pan like incline to an angle 20°. Add 100 g wt on box, start loading the effort pan. Tap incline slightly, when box just start to move record the effort load Take two reading at one angle @ & 2 different values of W, change angle 6 & W and take reading again. Now change the box with different base material and repeat as above. Do experiment with 3 different material. Result and discussion: Discuss consistence of 1 value and how it is different for different surface. Order of their increase/decrease. Precautions: 1. Incline angle should be accurately fixed. 2. String should be in extensible 3. String should be parallel to inclined plane. Scanned with CamScannerExperiment - 4 Aim: To verify the forces in the members of Jib Crane Apparatus: A laboratory sized model of Jib Crane, weights 1-15 kg., hanger, Scale. Theory: A simple Jib Crane is shown below in Fig. This consists of a fixed vertical post AB and a Jib AC. The jib AC has an in built spring balance. At the top of Jib - there are two hooks, one to hold the load. Support hook carries the tie rope support with a chain & hanger. The second hook carried the tie rope which is used to lift the jib this tie rope, in this model also carries a spring balance to read the tension. The jib and the vertical bar are joined at the bottom with a pin joint and the pin support damped to the base plate of the m/c. The jib is loaded with a load, as equilibrium is achieved then the Jib member is in compressible load and the vertical post in compressible load. Consider the joint B, A system of three concurrent, coplanar forces act here. By Lami’s Theorm , Procedure: 1. Note the initial reading of the spring balance in Jib and Tie rope member. 2. Load the pan at the end C. Scanned with CamScanner. Measure BA and AC . Allow the jib to settle to an equilibrium posit position. ; Construct a polygon ABC with there reading of the observed reading. 5 6 Construct a polygon ABC with there reading of w, t, CA, AB, BC 7. Take 5 such readings at different loads. ition. Give two joints to obtain a stable RY Observations: Initial reading Si (In Jib) = Th (In tie rope)= Theoretical Measurement | Correct forces Lengths S. | of Force (kgf) (kaf) (cm) ia % error No. Tete S87] t7 w] s | tb Ti | ap |ac| sc] s T < 7 1 2 3 4 5 Result Precautions: 1. The ready of B, C, AB, AC, should accurate determine to evaluate the angle of the beams. 2. The friction forces in beam spring should be minimized by lubrication 3. Allow equilibrium position to be attend with a few jerks to load. Scanned with CamScannerEXPERIMENT NO. - 5 AIM: - To find the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of a simple screw Jack apparatus. Apparatus: - Screw jack apparatus, pans, string, outside caliper etc. o— - ZZ i] w Pulley 2 ey 1 | o 7A —String — Square thread ‘screw THEORY:- ‘Screw jack is used to raise heavy loads. The apparatus works on a simple principle of screw and nut. The axial distance between the Corresponding threads is known as PITCH. Let this pitch be p & D is the diameter of the flanged table on which the load w is to be placed and lifted. Let the table turns through one revolution. Scanned with CamScannerLoad rises in one revolution = length of the screw jack = L L= 2xpiteh Or L = 2xp Effort moved in one revolution = nD VELOCITY RATIO = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load =mD/L = nD/2*p MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE Mechanical advantage (MA) is the factor by which a mechanism multiplies the force put into it. It is the ratio of the force exerted by a machine (the output) to the force exerted on the machine, usually by an operator (the input). The theoretical mechanical advantage of a system is the ratio of the force that performs the useful work to the force applied, assuming there is no friction in the system. In practice, the actual mechanical advantage will be less than the theoretical value by an amount determined by the amount of friction. Load Lifted _w i.e, M.A. = Le, MA. = Fre applied © Total effort in the two pans including the weight of the pan = P. EFFICIENCY T= MA/VR = (W/P) / (D/L) = WL/ nDP PROCEDURE :- 1. Wrap the string round the circumference of the flanged table and pass it over the pulley. Similarly, wrap another string over the circumference of the flanged table and take it over the second pulley. The free ends of both the strings be tied to the two pans where the effort is applied Scanned with CamScannerOBSERVATION: 10} (li) Pitch of screw jack (iii) Velocity ratio = D/L 2. Measure the pitch of the thread with the help of the Vernier Caliper. 3. Place the load W on the screw head and some weight in the pans so that the load W is just lifted. The effort P is equal to the sum of the weights in the two pans. 4, Increase the loads and find the corresponding efforts applied for the consecutive readings. 5, Calculate mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency in each case. 6. Plot the graph between load v/s efficiency, load v/s effort & load vs MA. Diameter of flanged table ‘S.No. | Load Effort | Mechanical Wik) Pika aevaniage | = MA/VR A MA=W/P- (MA/VR) X 100 Pr] Ps | P=PHP RESULT:- MA= VR = n= PRECAUTIONS:- Use both the pulleys to find the values of effort P to avoid the side thrust. The load and effort should move slowly. ‘Add weights in hangers gently. Lubricate the screw to decrease friction. BeONo 5. The string should not overlap, 6. There should be no knot in the string, 7. See that both the pans should move downwards. Scanned with CamScannerExperiment — 6 Aim: To determine the M.A, V.R. & 1 of a wheel and differential axle. Apparatus: Wheel & differential axle apparatus, caliper, scale, weights Wheel A Theory: When the larger wheel R is rotated r& r: rotate. Rope of r unwinds but rope of r= winds, and winds to a larger extend, thus lifting the load w:. The rope get started by (2nt2 - 2nri) & load lift up by 2n(re ~ r1)/2 = n(re ~ m1). Effort is being applied on wheel A & it moves, down by 2nR/rev. V Ratio = 2nR/ ltr MA=W/P & —)=MA/VR=(W/P)/(2R/ rer) Procedure: Rap the rope clockwise on axle r, and anticlockwise on axle r: & clockwise on effort wheel R. Load 5-25 kg on load hanger & 50-800 gms on effort hanger. Increase effort in steps & tap till wheel just start to move. Take 5 different loads. Observations: Dia of Effort Wheel, D = Dia of axle, d2 = Dia of axle di vR Dia of Rope = S.No. | Load (W) Effort (Pe) | MA=W/Pe | 1 =(MA/VR)X (kaf) (kaf) (100) Plot curve of Load vs MA Load vs Effort Load vs n Result and discussion: Discuss the efficiency obtained. Precautions: ‘a, Rope should be inextensible & negligible mums. b. Dia of rope should be small, otherwise correct the dia of ds, d2 & D. Scanned with CamScannerExperiment No. 7 Aim: To find out the Mechanical advantage (MA),velocity ratio (VR) and efficiency (n) of worm wheel apparatus and study the graphical relations (1) Load vs MA (2) Load vs VR & (3) Load vs n, Apparatus: Worm & Worm Wheel assembly, weight, outside calipers, scale, weights. Theory: This is an experiment to examine the working of a lifting M/C namely the work & wheel assembly (double start). The various terms used & their definition. Mechanical Advantage: (MA) is ratio of Load Lifted / Effort Applied = W/P. Velocity Ratio: Ratio of distance moved by the effort with the distance moved by the load in any particular interval of time. VR = Distance movably by effort /distance movable load = y/x Let the nos of teeth on load wheel beT. In one complete revolution f effort wheel the load W is displaced by one teeth. If R is = Radius of load wheel, r is = Radius of effort wheel. Then in one revolution of effort wheel effort moves down by y=n2r=nd (d — Dia of effort pulley) & load moved up by 2.nR/ No of Teeth of worm wheel gear K= per rev of effort pulley Hence VR = y/x = nd/nD/T/n = D.n/dT (D= Dia of load pulley, T = Total No. of Teeth, n=Teeth moved / effort wheel Rev) Efficiency is given by n = output / input = WX x /Pxy = (W/P)/(y/x) = Mech. Adv / Vel. Ratio = W.Dn/P.d.T The load on load wheel is loaded and weight on effort which are varied till the load just start to move under the force of effort wheel weight. The value of two effort & load weight are noted and equated to find VR, MA &n. Procedure: 1. Rotate effort wheel by revolution and find no. of teeths of load wheel move from initial position. A no of revolutions of effort wheel & corresponding no. of teeths of load wheel may be measured and average teeths of load wheel moved per one revolution of effort wheel taken. Measure the dia of effort and load wheel. . Find VR from above relation. . Lubricate the wheel properly. . Put different weights (1-5 kg) on load wheel rope hanger and wt. (50-250 g) on effort wheel rope hanger. Take about 6-8 readings. DRON Observations: No of teeth on worm wheel = Scanned with CamScannerDia of Worm Wheel Dia of effort Wheel No. of teeths of load wheel move / rev of effort wheel = n VR = d/D (N/T) S.No.] LoadWkg Effort P (Ka) Mech. Adv Efficiency MA=W/P |= (MA/VR) x (100) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (8 Average MA = Plot a Curve of load VS Effort Plot a Curve of MA VS Load Lifted Plot a Curve of Efficiency VS Load Lifted Determine slope, limiting etc. values of curve & discuss importance & Physical significance of each. Scanned with CamScannerExperiment No. - 8 Objective: To verify the forces transmitted by members of a Simple Roof Truss. Apparatus: Experimental setup of Simple Roof Truss, weights, measuring tape, etc. Theory: A truss is a structure made of slender members which are assumed to be pin connected at ends. It is capable of taking loads at joints.A truss can be plane or space truss. In plane truss, all the members lies in a single plane. The forces system acting on a truss is coplanar. The truss can be perfect or imperfect depending upon the number of members (m) and number of joints (j).The condition for perfect truss is_m = 2j - 3 .The simple roof truss setup consists of a pair of spring loaded compressible, shocker type rods. One end is a pin joint and it forms vertex of the truss and also have a hook hanging from same pin joint to carry the load. One lower end of this pair is fixed on the ground with a hinge joint. The other end is free to move on wheels. The two lower ends of truss carries a hook each from which the horizontal member of this assembly in form of a string with a spring balance is fitted to measure the tensile load. Procedure: 1. Check the initial reading in the spring balance of the members and the tie string, prior to attaching load to the vertex, and if there is an initial reading subtract it from the final value of readings. 2. Attach load W at the hook present at the vertex point 3. Note down the respective readings of compression and tension in the members of the truss. Note down the lengths /r, /2& /s, Calculate the angle 8. Repeat the experiment with different loads and note the readings. (Take 5 readings) Calculate the theoretical values of the forces in respective members. eNaame Now find out the percentage error between the calculated and observed readings. Scanned with CamScannerFigure: Apex Compressio e Compression member Hanger with load (WW) Tensile member Hinged (chain) end Roller Free body diagram: Ya Rs Calculations: i) Calculate the reactions : Taking the moment of all the forces about A. TMa=0 Rex h-Wx(h/2)=0 => Re=W/2 ZFy=0 Yat Ra=W => Ya=W/2 Scanned with CamScannerIFO Xa =0 ii) Calculate the angle 8 Considering the triangle CAD Cos @ = AD/AC @= Cos" (AD/AC) iii) Taking condition of equilibrium at joint A. iF YatT2sin@=0 => Ya=-Tsin@ T2=-Ya/sin 0 =(W/2)/sin® a . SFee Ti+T2cos0=0 Tein Ti=-Tecos@ Tacor8 Observations: S|load(W)[ tT | Te aC AB 8 Calculated % Difference No. | oan an | oan | (em) | (em) Forces | Th Te | Ta/ | Tete] . an | on | Ts Te : { 2 | Result and Discussion: Precaution: 1. Lubricate the parts before starting the experiment. 2. Suspend the weight without any jerk. 3. Measure the length of the members accurately 4, Take the readings from the spring balance accurately. Scanned with CamScannerEXPERIMENT NO. - 9 AIM: - To verify the Principle of Moments using the Bell Crank Lever apparatus. APPARATUS: - Bell crank lever apparatus, hangers, weights, scale. THEORY: Principle of Moments states, ‘the algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about any point in the plane is equal to the moment of the resultant force of the system about the same point’. This principle would be verified for a bell crank lever arrangement. A lever whose two arms form a right angle, or nearly a right angle and having its fulcrum at the apex of the angle is referred to as a bell crank lever. These levers were originally used to operate the bell from a long distance especially where change in direction of bell wires was involved and hence the name. Now bell crank levers are used in machines to convert the direction of reciprocation movement Scanned with CamScannerPROCEDURE: 1. Keep hanger at arbitrary location on the horizontal arm. Note the distance (x) from the hinge. Adjust the tension in the spring connected to the vertical arm such that the two pointers come in the same vertical line. in this position the horizontal arm is truly horizontal. Note the tensile force in the spring as the initial tension T\. 2. ‘Apply the weight (W) on the hanger. This will cause the arms to tilt and the pointers to move away from each other. Now adjust the tension in the spring such that the pointers once again come in the same vertical line. The horizontal arm is once again in its horizontal position. Note the tensile force in the spring as the final tension T; . The tensile force T on the vertical arm is the difference Tj ~ T.. 3. Since the external forces are being supported by the single hinge at the apex of the arms, implies that the resultant of these external applied forces passes through the supporting hinge. Therefore to verify the principle of moments we need to take moments (EM) of all the external forces (which includes the weight of the hanger hanging from the horizontal arm and the tension in the spring connected to the vertical arm) about the hinge and if the total sum is zero, verifies the law of moments since the moment of the resultant is also zero at the hinge. 4, Repeat the above steps by changing the distance of weight from the fulerum. PRECAUTIONS:- 1. Do not overload the horizontal arm as it may bend or crack at the hinge 2. Note if any, the zero error of the spring balance and accordingly correct the readings of the tensile force 3. Carefully place the loads in the hangers as they may slip and cause accident. OBSERVATION TABLE:- ‘S.No. | Weight Horizontal distance = Observed Calculated ‘% Error st wiko) x(em) tance ) force foros {cal - veem) | gh F (ko) | obs)/call x 100 RESULT: The sum of moments of all the applied external forces on the bell crank lever, within limits of experimental error being close to zero, is in accordance to the Principle of Moments. Hence the experiment is verified Scanned with CamScanner