MUSHROOMS – AN ALTERNATE CROP FOR FUTURE

 
Meera Pandey* and Senthil Kumaran**

*Principal scientist, Mushroom laboratory

**Senior Scientist, Agricultural Engineering
Indian institute of Horticultural Research
Hessaraghatta lake post, Bangalore-560089
E-mail: meera@icar.org.ernet.in
Ph: 080-28466420/21/22/23 Extn. 347
Fax: 080-28466291

INTRODUCTION

Global climate change in terms of increasing temperatures, carbon-di-oxide and low and
erratic rainfall are some of the impacts we are witnessing. India with its huge population has to
deal with the very basic problem of inadequate regional food supplies, diminishing quality of
health and delicately balancing the ecosystem under the changing climate scenario. The
magnitude of these problems is set to increase as the world’s population continues to grow. It is
going to be an enormous task under the changed climatic conditions due to low unpredictable
yield of major edible grain crops, scarcity of water, land erosion and low productivity. There will
be a need to diversify agriculture and search for new sustainable technologies and novel food
resources to fill the gap. The technologies chosen have to be ecologically sound so that
sustainable production can be undertaken without damaging the environment. Edible mushroom
production technology can be an effective biological tool which can offer partial but meaningful
solutions through (1) the generation of relatively cheap source of high quality food protein, (2)
the provision of health-enhancing dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals and (3) the
bioconversion/bioremediation of environmental adulterants for the maintenance of balanced
ecosystems which will help in restoring and replenishing earths overburdened ecosphere.

Advantage of Mushroom as an alternative crop:

Mushroom is an important source of nutrition especially protein and minerals for

vegetarian population. Global climate change is likely to have a major impact on the traditional

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cereal based food resources due to higher temperature and carbon di oxide concentrations,
scarcity of water and cultivable land and unpredictable yields. The problem may become more
challenging for developing countries like India due to its population boom especially of
unskilled, low literate population of rural areas. Hence there is a need to evaluate the available
agricultural technologies which will be sustainable under global climate change in terms of
providing nutrition and creating employment. Fungi and bacteria in general are able to adapt
better to the changed environmental conditions as compared to green plants. The advantages of
integrating mushrooms as an alternative crop are
1. Mushroom cultivation is an indoor activity and does not require cultivable land.
2. The relative ease with which mushrooms can be mass multiplied on lignocellulosic wastes
with minimal water requirement makes them a befitting nutrition source under adverse
conditions.
3. Although mushrooms alone can not be the answer to all food related problems, it can be a
very effective sustainable tool when integrated with other technologies for sustainable
nutrition and employment generation especially in unskilled low literacy sector.

GLOBAL SCENARIO
The global mushroom trade in 2001 was valued at over US$40 billion. USA, China,
Japan and Netherlands are the major global players in this industry. As evident from Table 1,
India lacks far behind countries like China which have similar agro-climate and human
resources.
Table 1 Global Mushroom and truffle production 2008

Production Production
Rank Area ( $1000) Flag (MT) Flag
1 China 2665574 * 1608219 F
United States of
2 602589 * 363560
America
3 Netherlands 397792 * 240000
4 Poland 298344 * 180000 F
5 France 249366 * 150450
6 Spain 218742 * 131974 F
7 Italy 165747 * 100000 F
8 Canada 144110 * 86946
9 Ireland 124310 * 75000 F
10 Japan 111050 * 67000 F

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 11 Indonesia 101684 * 61349
12 Germany 82873 * 50000 F
13 Australia 78070 * 47102
14 United Kingdom 72517 * 43752
15 Belgium 66298 * 40000 F
16 India 61326 * 37000 F
Republic of
17 47007 * 28361
Korea
Iran (Islamic
18 46409 * 28000 F
Republic of)
19 Hungary 39623 * 23906
20 Viet Nam 29834 * 18000 F

* : Unofficial figure
[ ]: Official data
F : FAO estimate
Source: fao.org (2008)

INDIAN SCENARIO
Although India is bestowed with all favorable conditions for successful mushroom
cultivation (ample agricultural waste to the tune of 144 million tons, Table 2.1, cheap labor,
suitable mushroom species and cultivation technology and diverse climatic conditions), yet it has
not been able to carve a niche for itself. The mushroom consumption data of India is lowest (50-
75 g/annum) among the countries whose data is available for e.g. 4.80-7.53 kg/annum in
Mexico and 1.8 kg/annum in Zimbabwe (Table 2.2 ) One of the major reasons for this is the
total lack of awareness about this crop.  The potential of mushrooms being a multifaceted crop
which can be utilized for food, medicine, diminishing environmental pollution, bridging the
protein gap among vegetarians and tackling malnutrition, creating self employment especially for
women and develop rural – urban agri-network for rural employment, has largely gone
unnoticed. To-day when the Indian Agriculture is looking for diversification, mushrooms stand
tall as one of the very important biological components which play a very vital role in finding
meaningful solutions to the problem of food, health and environment.

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 Table-2.1 Residue-wise Biomass Data at National Level

Based on Survey Data [2002-04]; Season: Agro

Crop Biomass
Biomass Generation
Crop Residue Area (kHa) Production Surplus
(kT/Yr)
(kT/Yr) (kT/Yr)
Paddy Straw 40905.9 99728.2 149539.8 30379.4
Cotton Stalks 8042.3 5747.8 30560.8 16490.5
Wheat Stalks 22095.6 62169.5 93252.0 16153.0
Paddy Husk 40905.9 99728.2 19938.6 12902.6
Wheat Pod 22095.6 62169.5 18650.4 8378.7
Cotton Husk 8042.0 5747.8 6320.6 4385.7
Cotton Bollshell 8042.0 5747.8 6320.6 4385.7
Maize Stalks 6231.8 11601.3 23201.7 4525.9
Banana Residue 106.6 3978.9 11936.5 4176.7
Coconut Fronds 1813.4 5974.1 7253.8 3620.5
Soyabean Stalks 6046.3 5820.9 9907.1 3268.6
Mustard Stalks 3935.1 3756.5 6756.5 2984.4
Tapioca Stalks 203.2 5486.4 3950.3 2765.2
Tops &
Sugarcane 4085.9 264223.6 13211.2 2490.7
leaves
Maize Cobs 6231.8 11601.3 5612.4 2046.9
Groundnut Stalks 6524.0 6813.7 13630.9 2115.1
Jowar Cobs 9267.4 10091.5 5044.8 1912.2
Jowar Stalks 9267.4 10091.5 17152.4 2043.2
Bajra Stalks 8312.0 5976.5 11953.2 1906.0
Coconut Husk & pith 1813.4 5974.1 3166.3 1583.1
Mustard Husk 3933.1 3755.0 1553.2 1475.6
Primary
Rubber 498.5 NA 1495.4 1196.3
wood
Pruning &
Coffee 350.4 266.3 1401.6 1121.3
wastes

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Groundnut Shell 6524.0 6813.7 2044.6 1205.4
Coconut Shell 1813.4 5974.1 1314.3 932.7
Gram Stalks 5928.4 4667.7 5381.9 989.8
Bajra Cobs 8312.0 5976.5 1972.3 932.6
Jowar Husk 9267.4 10091.5 2017.9 960.0
Arhar Stalks 2777.2 2021.4 5052.0 814.0
Castor seed Stalks 526.0 413.5 1656.4 733.8
Secondary
Rubber 498.5 NA 996.9 598.1
wood
Tea Sticks 486.5 909.8 909.8 582.3
Bajra Husk 8312.0 5976.5 1793.0 428.0
Safflower Stalks 293.1 159.3 477.5 382.0
Areca nut Fronds 262.8 265.3 788.4 275.9
Til Stalks 1209.0 472.9 1181.3 279.8
Arhar Husk 2777.2 2021.4 606.2 302.5
Sunflower Stalks 1331.0 694.7 1391.8 206.0
Ragi Straw 1453.9 1988.9 2585.4 216.5
Casurina Wood 21.2 NA 211.8 180.0
Guar Stalks 266.3 116.0 233.3 163.3
Meshta Stalks 479.2 810.9 1621.8 162.2
Eucalyptus Residue 16.3 3.06 162.8 138.4
Pulses Stalks 1874.9 1069.3 1390.1 139.0
Oilseeds Stalks 341.9 458.8 916.9 99.5
Masoor Stalks 373.6 327.6 589.6 88.2
Arecanut Husk 262.8 265.3 212.2 74.3
Potato Leaves 41.4 475.4 361.3 71.8
Urad Stalks 1458.0 643.2 707.2 76.0
Cuminseed Stalks 140.5 51.7 80.0 64.0
Moong Stalks 1300.8 551.3 605.3 60.4
Smallmillets Stalks 842.6 500.5 600.9 60.1

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Barseem Stalks 13.2 71.6 71.6 57.3
Urad Husk 1458.0 643.2 128.6 60.7
Barley Stalks 201.5 362.5 471.7 48.4
Cashewnut Stalks 181.5 82.3 148.3 36.1
Cardamom Stalks 68.2 125.6 43.6 34.9
Tobacco Stalks 163.8 316.7 316.6 31.7
Drychilly Stalks 121.9 144.3 216.4 23.5
Moong Husk 1300.8 551.3 82.5 24.8
Castorseed Husk 526.0 413.5 41.4 20.7
Horsegram Stalks 418.0 146.9 191.0 19.1
Coriander Stalks 145.2 163.8 188.3 18.8
Black
Stalks 203.8 58.3 29.1 17.5
pepper
Turmeric Stalks 27.1 95.9 28.7 14.4
Coffee Husk 350.3 266.3 133.0 13.3
Potato Stalks 41.4 475.4 23.8 11.8
Cashewnut Shell 181.5 82.3 41.2 10.0
Onion Stalks 102.9 1210.6 60.5 6.5
Kesar Stalks 10.4 8.9 9.4 7.5
Linseed Stalks 152.4 44.8 66.2 6.6
Nigerseed Stalks 272.6 74.8 80.9 5.3
Cowgram Stalks 53.2 42.7 46.9 4.69
Meshta Leaves 479.2 810.9 40.5 4.05
Peas &
Stalks 75.9 52.7 26.4 3.64
beans
Kodomillets Stalks 4.30 2.70 3.13 2.51
Moth Stalks 18.0 9.9 17.8 1.78
Sannhamp Stalks 5.2 5.6 14.1 1.41
Sweetpotato Stalks 8.8 95.4 9.5 0.95
Sawan Stalks 0.32 0.22 0.22 0.18

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Dryginger Stalks 20.6 105.5 5.3 0.53
Others Others 11.1 3.00 2.71 0.50
Total 142122.9 511461.2 502212.1 144013.0
  
Note 2: The distribution of species in each state considered uniform as given by FSI (Forest
Survey of India) and therefore the area will be the same for each class of forest.The accessed
biomass potential for wasteland is a projection based on the species availability in forest area.
For this assessment wasteland is considered as an extension of forest lands.

Source: biomass resource atlas of india, http://lab.cgpl.iisc.ernet.in

Table 2.2 Mushroom consumption data

Country Per capita Reference

consumption/annum
(Kg)
Australia 3.0 www.mushroom.net
Belgium 3.3 Desrumaux,-B(2001) Import, export and
consumption of mushrooms in Belgium in
2000 Champignonberichten; (192): 3-6:
Canada 1.6 http://mushrooms.ca
Germany 2.9 - MFPI (India) -report
India 0.05-0.075 B.L. Dhar and R.N. Verma (2001). The
mushroom industry in India-ISMS
Iran 0.250 Iran Daily, Sept 8, 2005
Japan 0.674 Mushworld.com, Feb 2006
Latin Amercia 0.125 Martinez-Carrera,-D (2002) Current
development of mushroom biotechnology
in Latin America. 14(2): 61-74
Mexico 4.80-7.53 Martinez-Carrera,-D;Aguilar,-A;
Martinez,-W; Morales,-P; Sobal,-M;
Bonilla,-M; Largue-Saavedra-A (1998). A
sustainable model for rural production of
edible mushrooms in Mexico. Micologia-
Neotropical-Aplicada- 1998; 11: 1-7

New Zealand 2.0 Peter K Buchanan and John Barnes. The

Mushroom Industry in New Zealand –
ISMS 2001

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South Cameroon 1.1-1.4 Dijk,-H-yan; Onguene,-N-A; Kuyper, T-
W Ambio-. (2003) Knowledge and
utilization of edible mushrooms by local
populations of the rain forest of South
Cameroon. ) 32(1): 19-23
Spain 1.0 Strategic Plan of the Mushroom Sector in
the Region of 'La Manchuela' ISMS-2001
USA 1.78 (2003) www.ers.usda.gov
Western Europe 3.0 Hans Megens. Western fresh mushroom
market key drivers and impact on chain
value. ISMS-2001
Zimbabwe 1.8 (wild) www.fao.org

MULTIFACIAL POTENTIAL OF MUSHROOMS

Nutritional potential
Mushrooms are the vegetables that are full of nutrients and therefore can make a very
valuable contribution to human nutrition especially in a country like India where the
predominantly vegetarian population suffers from acute malnutrition. Edible mushrooms provide
high quality protein that can be produced with greater biological efficiency than animal protein.
Mushrooms are a rich source of proteins, Table 3 (3-7%, Fresh weight basis and 25-40% dry
weight basis). It can therefore be an important protein source among the vegetarians (Chang and
Quimio 1982). As a dietary source of proteins mushrooms are superior to most common fruits
and vegetables with the exception of beans and peas (Chang and Miles 1989). Mushrooms can be
eaten fresh in salads or cooked unlike Soya or yeast which has to be processed before they are
acceptable on the table.
Table 3 Proximate composition of cultivated species of edible mushrooms

Species Moisture Crude Crude Carbohydrate Crude Ash Energy

protein fat Total N- fiber value
(N x free
4.38)
Agaricus bisporus 78.3-90.5 23.9- 1.7- 51.3- 44.0- 8.0- 7.7- 328-
34.8 8.0 62.5 53.5 10.4 12.0 368
A. campestris 89.7 33.2 1.9 56.9 48.8 8.1 8.0 354

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 Auricularia sp. 89.1 4.2 8.3 82.8 63.0 19.8 4.7 351
Boletulus edulis 87.3 29.7 3.1 59.7 51.7 8.0 7.5 362
Flammulina velutipes 89.2 17.6 1.9 73.1 69.4 3.7 7.4 378
Lentinula edodes 90.0-91.8 13.4- 4.9- 67.5- 59.5- 7.3- 3.7- 387-
17.5 8.0 78.0 70.7 8.0 7.0 392
Pleurotus eous 92.2 25 1.1 59.2 - 12.0 9.1 261
P. florida 91.5 27 1.6 58.0 - 11.5 9.3 265
P. ostreatus 73.7-90.8 10.5- 1.6- 57.6- 48.9- 7.5- 6.1- 345-
30.4 2.2 81.8 74.3 3.7 9.8 367
P. sajor-caju 90.1 26.6 2.0 50.7 - 13.3 6.5 300
Volvariella diplasia 90.4 28.5 2.6 57.4 40.0 17.4 11.5 304
V. volvacea 89.1 25.9 2.4 - 45.3 9.3 8.8 276

Note: All data presented as percentage of dry weight, except moisture (percentage of fresh
weight) and energy value (Kcal per 100 g dry weight).
Source: The Chang, S.T., and Miles, P.G., Nutritional attributes of Edible mushrooms. In
Mushrooms – Cultivation, Nutritional value, Medicinal effect and Environmental Impact, CRC
pressNew York, 27-37, 2004
Mushrooms contain all the essential amino acids. Lysine is the most important amino
acid in mushrooms which is low in cereals, (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Essential Amino Acid Composition of Edible Mushrooms

Amino acid Agaricus Lentinula Pleurotus Pleurotus Pleurotus Volvariella Volvariella Hen’s
bisporus edodes florida ostreatus sajor- diplasia volvacea egga
caju
Leucine 7.5 7.9 7.5 6.8 7.0 5.0 4.5 8.8
Isoleucine 4.5 4.9 5.2 4.2 4.4 7.8 3.4 6.6
Valine 2.5 3.7 6.9 5.1 5.3 9.7 5.4 7.3
Tryptophan 2.0 Nd 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.6
Lysine 9.1 3.9 9.9 4.5 5.7 6.1 7.1 6.4
Threonine 5.5 5.9 6.1 4.6 5.0 6.0 3.5 5.1
Phenylalanine 4.2 5.9 3.5 3.7 5.0 7.0 2.6 5.8
Methionine 0.9 1.9 3.0 1.5 1.8 1.2 1.1 3.1
Histidine 2.7 1.9 2.8 1.7 2.2 4.2 3.8 2.4
Total 38.9 36.0 46.0 33.4 37.6 48.5 32.9 47.1
essential
acidsb

Note: Data presented as grams of Amino acid per 100 grams of corrected crude protein. Nd = not
determined

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Sources: Data from Bano, Z., and Rajarathnam, S., In Tropical Mushrooms – Biological nature
and cultivation methods, Chinese University press, Hong Kong, 363-380, 1982., and Ling,
G.S.F. and Chang, S.T., In Tropical Mushrooms – Biological nature and cultivation methods,
Chinese University press, Hong Kong, 199-219, 1982.

Mushrooms rank very high in vitamin content especially B vitamins as compared to most
of the common vegetables eaten in the Indian diet (Table 3.2). The riboflavin, thiamin, Vitamin
B12, and niacin content of mushrooms is very high.

Table 3.2 Vitamin Contents of Cultivated Mushrooms (mg or g/100 g)a

Agaricus Agaricus Pleurotus

Lentinus edodes
bisporus/white bisporus/brown ostreatus
Vitamin fw dw fw dw fw dw fw dw
vitamin
1.3 17 1.6 21 2.1 25 1.6 20
C, mg
vitamin
0.05 0.6 0.05 0.6 0.05 0.6 0.07 0.9
B1, mg
vitamin
0.39 5.1 0.33 4.2 0.15 1.8 0.20 2.5
B2, mg
folates,
35 450 46 590 25 300 51 640
g
niacin,
3.3 43 4.1 53 2.6 31 5.2 65
mg
vitamin
0.06 0.8 0.05 0.6 0.07 0.8 0.05 0.6
B12, g
vitamin
<0.02   <0.02   0.1 1 0.02 0.3
D, g
dry
matter, 7.7   7.8   8.4   8.0  
%
a
fw, fresh weight; dw, dry weight.
Source:
Although Mushrooms lack Vitamin D as such, but contain high concentration of Ergosterol, Pro-
vitamin D which can be converted to vitamin D with ultraviolet irradiation. Mushroom is the
only vegetable source of vitamin D which is already available on shelves in USA, Table 3.3,
(Wright, B, 2008)

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 Table 3.3 Lipid and Sterol content of edible Mushrooms

Mushroom % Distribution of Fatty Acids

Total lipid Sterols (% of dry material)a
(% of dry material) I II III
Volvariella volvacea 3.0 0.47 0.05 0.35
Lentinula edodes 3.1 0.21 0.07 0.07
Agaricus bisporus 3.1 0.23 - -
Pleurotus sajor-caju 1.6 0.13 0.09 0.07
Auracularia auricula 1.3 0.07 - -
a I, provitamin - D2, II, provitamin – D4, III, γ – ergosterol.
Source: Data from Huang, B.H., et al., Mycologia, 77, 959-963, 1985.

Mushrooms are a good source of minerals like potassium, calcium, phosphorus and folic
acid. It is estimated that about 56-70% of the total ash content comprises of K, P, Na, Ca and Mg
of which K is nearly 45% (Chang and Miles 2004). Many varieties contain high amounts of
antioxidants like ergothionine too. It has also been reported that a total lipid content varies
between 0.6 and 3.1 % of the dry weight, is found in the commonly cultivated mushrooms. At
least 72 % of the total fatty acids are found to be unsaturated in all the four commonly eaten
mushrooms, (Table 3.4, 3.5) (Mattila et al 2000, www.isms.org). 

Table 3.4 Total Fatty Acid Content of Mushrooms

Mushroom Fatty acid ( % of total fatty acids)

c
14:0 16:0
c
16:1
c c
18:0 c
18:1 18:2
c

Volvariella volvacea 0.48 10.50 0.62 3.47 12.47 69.91

Lentinula edodes 0.07 15.81 2.51 3.01 5.65 67.79
Agaricus bisporus 0.86 11.75 1.32 5.36 3.57 69.22
Pleurotus sajor-caju 0.59 16.42 1.42 3.00 12.29 62.94
Auracularia auricula 0.69 17.30 1.12 7.35 31.60 40.39

Note: c14:0, myristic acid; c16:0, Palmitic acid; c16:1, Palmitoleic acid; c18:0, Stearic acid; c18:1,
Oleic acid; c18:2, Linoleic acid.
Source: Data from Huang, B.H., et al, Mushroom Science., 12, 1989

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 Table 3.5 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids in Mushrooms

Mushroom % Distribution of Fatty Acids

Saturated Unsaturated
Volvariella volvacea 14.6 (0.44) 85.4 (2.56)
Lentinula edodes 19.9 (0.42) 80.1 (1.68)
Agaricus bisporus 19.5 (0.60) 80.5 (2.50)
Pleurotus sajor-caju 20.7 (0.33) 79.3 (1.27)
Auracularia auricula 25.8 (0.0.34) 74.2 (0.96)

Note: Figures in parenthesis indicate percent of fatty per dry weight.

Source: Data from Huang, B.H., et al, Mushroom Science., 12, 1989

Medicinal potential
Mushrooms have been valued for millennia for the medicinal properties. Historically hot
water soluble fractions (decoctions and essences) from medicinal mushrooms i.e mostly
polysaccharides were used as medicine in the Far East, where knowledge and practice of
mushroom therapy primarily originated. Mushrooms such as Ganoderma lucidum, Inonotus
obliquus had been historically used for medicinal purpose in Korea, Japan, China and Russia.
About 700 species of mushrooms are known to posses significant pharmacological properties.
Most of the mushrooms contain biologically active substances (BAS) contained in fruiting
bodies, pure culture mycelia and culture filtrates. Polysaccharides represent the most important
group of mushroom derived BASs. Soon after the report of anti tumor activity of polysaccharides
derived from shiitake mushroom, three major drugs were developed from medicinal mushrooms.
All three were polysaccharides specifically β glucans: Krestin from cultured mycelium of
Trametes versicolor, Lentinan from fruiting bodies of Lentinula edodes and Schizophyllan from
liquid medium broth of Schizophyllum commune. In 40 years since then, medicinal mushrooms
have been intensively studied and many new anti-tumor and Immunomodulation substances have
been identified and put to practical use (Mizuno et al. 1995; Liu et al. 1999). Apart from these,
mushrooms also offer other potentially important therapeutic properties including antioxidants,
anti-hypertensive, cholesterol lowering, and liver protection, anti fibrotic, anti- inflammatory,

12
anti- diabetic, anti- viral and anti- microbial compounds (Chihara and Maeda 1969, Chihara,
1970, Chihara, G. 1987, Chiu et al 1998, Dennart and Tucker 1973,De Vere et al 2002).
A recent patent (PCT/NL2007/000086) was filed in March 2007 for the production of
oral vaccine through mushrooms. The patent includes a method for producing a mucosal vaccine,
by introducing in a mushroom host cell a nucleic acid sequence encoding an immunogenic
protein comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 70% homologous to a subunit of the
heat labile enterotoxin (LT) of E. coli or to a subunit of the cholera toxin (CT) of Vibrio
cholerae, allowing for expression of said nucleic acid sequence and harvesting basidiomycete
host cell comprising the immunogenic protein. The method claims that the basidiomycete can
produce edible fruiting bodies of the genus Pleurotus or schizophyllum
(www.freepatentsonline.com).
  The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) recently awarded
Pennsylvania State University and Agarigen Inc., a company based in Research Triangle Park in
Raleigh, NC, USA, $2.2 million in initial funding under the Accelerated Manufacture of
Pharmaceuticals (AMP) program for the rapid production of vaccines and other therapeutic
proteins in altered mushrooms. The immediate research goals are to maximize the level of
expression of various biopharmaceuticals and to devise efficient and economical methods for
their extraction and purification from mushroom tissue (www.agarigen.com). 

Recycling of agricultural wastes

Mushrooms are grown on organic wastes from farms, plantations and factories. These
otherwise waste byproducts can be profitably recycled to produce value added mushrooms.
Currently millions of tons of agricultural wastes like straw, corn cobs, grass, sawdust, sugarcane
bagasse, cotton waste, coffee pulp, oil palm waste, water hyacinth plants, coconut husk, tree
leaves, branches and logs etc are discarded, burned or dumped which create environmental
pollution. These wastes can be used alone or in combination to create mushroom growing
substrate. With moderate help and careful management, the very people hungry for food can
grow a new food source in the form of cultivated mushrooms (Chang and Miles 1989, Cho et al
1981, Garcha et al 1981, Stamets 1993). 

Environmental potential

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 The soils of industrialized areas are heavily contaminated with pollutants like
polychlorinated biphenols, heavy metals, pesticides and other radio active wastes. Mushroom
growing in such polluted environment can absorb toxins directly into their tissues especially
heavy metals. The saprophytic mushrooms like Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Gloephyllum
produce extracellular enzymes that can reduce recalcitrant hydrocarbons and other manufactured
toxins. These mushrooms are being utilized in many countries for the detoxification of PCB
(Polychlorinated biphenols), PCP (Pentachlorophenol), oil and pesticide/herbicide residues (Chiu
et 1998, Eggen 1999, Martiriani et 1996). These species are also being explored for the
amelioration of the impact of radioactive wastes by sequestering heavy metals. The use of
mushroom mycelia as tools for healing soil, what Stamets (2005) called “mycorestoration”, is the
use of fungi/mushrooms to repair or restore the weakened or damaged biosystems of
environment. The processes of mycorestoration include the selective use of mushrooms for
mycofiltration, to filter water; mycoforestry, to enact ecoforestry policy; mycoremediation, to
denature toxic wastes; and mycopesticides, to control insect pests. Mycoresoration recognizes
the primary role mushrooms can play in determining the balance of biological populations.

Biotechnological usage
Many white rot Basidiomycetes have the ability to selectively degrade lignin and
hemicellulose from wood cell walls. It is therefore logical to use these fungi for biotechnological
processes, either to improve the forage digestibility or to pretreat wood for pulping and other
processes. Among more than 200 fungi evaluated, the white rot fungus Phanerochaete
chrysosporium was found to be the best biopulping agent for hard wood and ceriporiopsis
subvermispora for soft wood (Otjen et al 1987, Blanchette et al 1988). Biopulping can  save by
upto 40 % energy. Pre-treatment of the wood for pulping by fungi increases the strength
properties from 1.01 to 3.62 mN n 2 g-1 for hand sheets made from pretreated Aspen wood.
Biopulping decreases the toxicity of the waste paper from 17 to 4 (100/EC50, where EC 50 is the
median effective concentration), and biological oxygen demand BOD decreased from 40 to 36
(g/Kg pulp). Cleavage of wood resins which create problem during pulping process can also
be reduced by biopulping.

Industrial usage

14
 Lignin, one of the three important constituents of wood: cellulose, lignin and hemi-
cellulose, is one of the most abundant renewable compound on earth. Lignin is a complex
polymer, which is particularly recalcitrant to biodegradation. To date, wood-rotting fungi are the
only organisms capable of degrading lignin that are used in a variety of industrial applications.
Lignin-degrading enzymes from wood-rotting fungi (laccases, manganese peroxidases and lignin
peroxidases) are used for bio-pulping, bio-bleaching, bio-transformation and bio-remediation,
mostly in pulp and paper, textile, food, chemical, cosmetics and other industries. All these
applications require large quantities of enzyme, which makes the selection of fungi producer
with high activity and optimization of culture conditions an important issue (Anne et al 1999,
Kirk et al 1983, Ander and Erickson 1977).

potential for rural upliftment

Mushroom growing is labor intensive and for a country like India where unemployment
is rampant, mushroom growing can create jobs both in semi-urban and rural areas. Some
technologies can utilize family labour, thus providing employment to all members of the family.
The labour of out of school youths and women can be effectively utilized. Mushroom growing
can be taken up by exclusive women groups too as the activities are mostly indoors (Meera
Pandey and Veena.S.S. 2003). Mushroom cultivation can be beautifully integrated in many of
the rural upliftment policies of the Government of India. For e.g. this technology can be
integrated with Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGA),
Mid-day meals and Aanganwadi. The unemployed rural youth, landless and women groups can
be engaged in a centralized mushroom growing farm at Panchyat levels. The mushrooms/
products from this farm can be sold through Khadi Gram Udyog outlets or other outlets. Such an
integration can not only help in creation of employment, but also a large amount of organic
manure will be generated as SMS which can be used to restore the soil health of the village.
Mushrooms can be integrated in Mid-day meal schemes of rural schools. This integration will
have twofold benefit. Firstly providing nutritious vegetable to the rural poor and secondly
creating employment for many who will take up the responsibility of making the mushrooms
available in the villages.
            
Mushroom as therapy for people with special needs

15
   Mushroom cultivation and especially oyster mushroom cultivation is a very ideal
technology which can be used as therapy for the physically and mentally challenged people.
FAO in Feb 1999 undertook the challenge of using mushroom cultivation technology to train the
poorest of the poor disabled people in Thailand to make them self reliant, to strengthen their
training capability and for their equal participation. The training had tremendous positive impact
in terms of being able to do things independently, acquiring new skills which could help them to
earn, gain self reliance and self confidence. Another study was undertaken by National institute
of science, technology and developmental studies (NISTADS) which involved New Delhi
municipal council’s (NDMC) Anchal school for the mentally challenged. Over three year period
ten people were trained in oyster mushroom cultivation. There was a very positive impact on
their overall mental and physical health which included motor co-ordination, attention spans,
stamina, manage money, deal with vendors and customers. Another spin off from such program
was on the parents of the participants who got a greater sense of hope and responsibility. Such
parents formed an association called Parent association for the trainable handicapped (PATH)
which motivated the professionals to have a fresh look at the capabilities of the special people
(fao.org,) 

Economic potential
Mushroom cultivation is a multitask enterprise which requires variable expertise and
logistic support. Hence mushroom cultivation can generate numerous intermediate businesses.
Intermediate enterprises like spawn production, supply of ready raw materials for cultivation like
chopped and pasteurized straw, pasteurized casing soil, enterprise for mushroom dehydration,
various mushroom product preparation, creating cold storage for mushrooms with other crops,
dried mushroom art etc can be the source of additional employment apart from the actual
mushroom cultivation business. Mushroom cultivation is also highly suitable for community
based enterprise among the landless (Keithy et al 1999). 

Utilization of spent mushroom substrate (SMS)

Mushroom cultivation is a brilliant example of ‘Zero emission ‘ the concept of total
recycling. Mushroom cultivation process utilizes the wastes generated by other crops and gives
in return nutritious vegetable.

16
 i. Animal feed
The spent substrate of oyster mushroom is further utilized as animal feed. Research at
the Hebrew University aided in the production of highly digestible nutritious feed for
cattle and sheep from the substrate left after oyster mushroom cultivation.

ii. Organic manure: Numerous studies have also indicated that this compost when added as
manure in the fields increased the yield of many vegetables like cabbage, beans,
celery and cauliflower. In Puerto Rico, the spent oyster mushroom substrate from
sugarcane bagasse is further composted for 3-4 weeks, dried, packed and sold to
nursery owners as an excellent medium for nursery beds (Abdallah et al 2000, Batista
et al, 2000, FAO, Nguyen et 1987, Zadrazil 1977, Zadrazil, F. 1984). The straw based
spent substrate of oyster mushroom can also be utilized for the multiplication of the
biological control agent Trichoderma by the farmers in their own fields. This will
have a dual impact of adding the bioagent along with organic manure.
iii. Reclamation and usage of barren non cultivabale land: Mushroom cultivation is
an activity which does not require fertile land for cultivation. Hence non cultivable
barren land can be used to construct temporary structures for the cultivation of
mushrooms. The SMS which comes out after cultivation can be spread as organic
manure in the same barren land which can be converted to a fertile land in due course
of time.
Mushrooms for aesthetic industry
Ornamental plant industry is a billion dollar global industry. This industry has a wide
array of cut flowers, numerous foliage plants and tree species. Mushrooms are an important part
of the plant kingdom and our forests are a home to numerous beautiful mushrooms in all shades
of colours and sizes. Thomas Carlyle aptly summed up the mushroom beauty as “Nature alone
is antique and the oldest art a mushroom”. This oldest natural art however is yet to find its
place in the ornamental plant industry. Research at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
(IIHR), Bangalore has ushered in a new era in ornamental plant industry by standardizing the
cultivation of an orange coloured Polyporus species botanically known as Pycnoporus
cinnabarinus. A new class of mush-florists can specialize in cultivating wild woody mushrooms
for ornamental purpose. These will not only help in the conservation of the wild species which

17
are on the verge of extinction due to forest depletion but also create a positive awareness about
these beautiful and silent creations which are constantly keeping our planet clean (Pandey and
Veena 2004 & 2007).
Mechanization
Mushrooms have immense potential. In order to make this crop viable at industrial scale,
it is essential to mechanize the various operations so that it can make meaningful contribution
and its potential is fully utilized. This can be achieved by making the various processes highly
input efficient with vast network for the availability of quality seeds, mushrooms and mushroom
products. Operation specific machinery have been developed by institutions like Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Bangalore to increase the productivity, maximize the input efficiency
and decrease labour drudgery. Mushroom spawn (seed) machinery like grain cleaner, grain
boiler, grain and chalk powder mixer, grain filler and spawn inoculators have been designed,
developed and marketed to State departments/ private entrepreneurs to facilitate the mass
production of quality seed and its regional distribution. The initial introduction of machinery has
already doubbled mushroom spawn production, reduced the labour and electrical energy input by
50% and enhanced labour efficiency. However, continuous efforts are required to improve the
efficiency of the available mushroom cultivation machinery and to develop species and operation
specific machinery to diversify the mushroom industry. (Senthil et al 2009, Senthil Kumaran and
Meera Pandey 2010).

Strategies to make mushroom as viable alternate crop in India

I. Strategies focussing on enhancing the volume of production and consumption (in

collaboration with extension workers, NGOs, nutritionists etc.)

 Extension oriented projects which will focus on increasing the awareness about the
nutritional and medicinal properties of various mushrooms. Many Medical Research
institutions like Amala Cancer Research Institute working on anti cancer properties of
mushrooms, National Institute of Nutrition under ICMR etc can be made collaborators
for effective impact.

18
 Extensive training by the research institutions so that proper scientific knowledge is
communicated for better success of the technology. (Many private training organizations
have been floating a lot of misinformation.)
 Development of mechanized spawn production lab in every district with trained technical
assistants (Paucity of quality spawn is another major reason for low mushroom
production)
 Formulation of standards for quality spawn certification.
 Training exclusive women groups in developing mushroom recipes suitable for everyday
Indian diet and using mushrooms for fortification. This will enhance the consumption
level and domestic market.
 Introduction of mushroom based food in mid day school meals, Aanganwadis etc so that
mushrooms can play a role towards mitigating the malnutrition prevalent among children
and women.
 Using mushroom cultivation technology (especially of oyster mushrooms) in the
rehabilitation of Trainable physically and mentally challanged population.

II. Research strategies focussing on developing technologies of applied scientific

value for immediate impact

 Utilization of solar energy in mushroom production processes to make it more energy

saving, eco-friendly, organic and low cost.
 Mechanization of various mushroom production processes to enhance labour efficiency,
quality and production.
 Development of low cost portable cropping units (mobile cropping chambers) for home
scale production (House wives can grow fresh mushroom for their family which will
enhance per capita consumption).
 Enhancing shelf life through agronomical, packaging and breeding techniques.
 Value addition through modern processing techniques.
 Developing technologies for the production of micronutrient and Vitamin D rich
mushrooms suitable for Indian population

19
  Developing technologies for the utilization of mushroom fungi (cultivated and wild) to
convert lignocellulosic wastes into value added organic manure
 Developing technologies for utilizing mushroom spent substrate (after complete harvest)
for vermicompost and as base material for on farm multiplication of bioagents like
Trichoderma harzianum.
 Developing models for production forecast

III. Research strategies for understanding basic mechanisms of the fungal system and
developing technologies of applied scientific value for long term impact

 Evaluating various cultivated and wild edible and medicinal mushrooms for their
nutraceutical properties.
 Evaluating various cultivated and wild mushrooms for pesticide bioremediation, for
laccase enzyme production, for their use in biopulping and paper industry etc
IV. Conceptual Research of applied/ commercial potential
 Focus on utilizing mushrooms for organic dye production for food and cosmetic industry
 Focus on commercializing wild mushrooms as ornamental plants for floriculture industry.
V. Indian Mushroom Data Base
 Generating a national mushroom data base through network projects on collection and
documentation of wild mushroom germplasm.
 
  Thus, mushrooms have immense potential for sustainable agriculture/horticulture, for
scientifically streamlined industry and enterprise and for creative art business too. The only
requirement is more research and increasing awareness about this new class of crop which can
bring about a nongreen revolution.

 
 
 

20
 Our research team has detected a number of fungal strains, which can grow in simple,
inexpensive media and ha

 
COMPOSTING
  OF ORGANIC MATTER VIA MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
VS. TRADITIONAL COMPOSTING METHODS
(Agricultural waste, wood debris, paper products, food waste etc)

ORGANIC MATTER

ORGANIC MATTER

MUSHROOM
CULTIVATION

GOURMET
MUSHROOM
COMPOSTIN
G

MEDICINAL BIOREMEDIATION
MUSHROOMS

SOIL
Net gain: gourmet/medicinal
mushrooms, COMPOSTING

Net. Gain: soil

Clean water, decontaminated
substrates 21
Net gain: gourmet/medicinal mushrooms, Clean water,
Highly enriched
decontaminated soil
substrates and SOIL
highly SOIL
enriched soil
Source: Stamets, P. 2005

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