CEE 408-17 Train Resistance 2020

Train Resistance Factors
and Calculation
CEE 408
Fall 2020
• Factors affecting train

energy requirements
• Davis equation and derivatives
• Grade and curve resistance
© 2020 Chris Barkan All rights reserved

© 2020 Chris Barkan All rights reserved 1 CEE 408 – Train Resistance
Energy is fundamental to railroad

operating efficiency
• Railroads’ core function is to $ Billions
provide transportation
0 10 20
• Transportation requires energy
Labor
to be converted into work
Fuel
• Railroads consumed 3.9 billion
gallons of fuel in 2014 at a cost Taxes*
of $11.5 billion Depreciation
• Fuel is 2nd largest cost in All Other

railroads’ operating budget
* Taxes includes income taxes and
• High premium on efficient use provision for deferred taxes
of energy (data from AAR Railroad Facts 2015)
• Need to be able to measure

how much energy is required
Two principal factors affecting transportation
energy efficiency
• Resistance
How much work is required to move something
• Energy efficiency
How efficiently energy is converted into useful work
“A railway vehicle moving upon level, tangent track,

in still air and at constant speed encounters certain
resistances that must be overcome by the tractive
effort of the locomotive”
(Chapter 16 - AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering)
Three basic types of "resistance"

1) Train resistance
Effects of inertia that tend to
keep a body at rest and the
effects of friction that cause it to
lose momentum once moving
2) Grade resistance
Effects of gravity when traveling
up (or down) a grade. Mass of
train and locomotive must be
lifted up the grade
3) Curve resistance
Wheels on curved track
experience additional resistance
What is resistance and how is it measured?
Resistance is typically measured

in “pounds per ton” (in U.S.)
Early measurement of railcar resistance simply

involved increasing weight of w and determining how
much was needed to make the car move.
This method was adequate for basic estimation of resistance but does
not account for effects of: speed, temperature, curvature, wind, etc.
Sources of rail vehicle resistance

C = resistances
that vary as the
square of speed
(affected by
aerodynamics of
the train)
A = resistances that vary with axle B = resistances that vary directly

load (includes bearing friction, with speed (primarily flange friction
rolling friction and track and effects of sway and oscillation)
resistance)
A varies with weight ("journal" or "bearing" resistance)
B varies directly with velocity ("flange" resistance)
Cross-section of the
C varies with the square of velocity (“air” resistance)
vehicle, streamlining of
The general expression for train resistance is thus: the front & rear, and
surface smoothness all
R = AW + BV + CV2 affect air resistance
where: R equals total resistance
W = weight
V = velocity
Resistances that vary with weight (W)
• Journal resistance
– Friction between journal
and bearing
• Rolling Friction
– Friction between wheel and rail
due to “creepage” at interface
– Minute elastic deformation of
wheel and rail surfaces
• Track Resistance
– Deformation of track structure
– Consequent “uphill” running
Journal resistance
• Early experiments on rolling
resistance were conducted with
cars equipped with “solid” or
“plain” journal bearings
• Nearly all freight cars today are
equipped with roller bearings
Starting Resistance (lbs/ton)

Above freezing Below freezing
Plain Bearings 25 35
Roller Bearings 5 15
• Plain bearings have much higher starting resistance than roller bearings
• Once they are moving and warmed up, there is little difference
Rolling friction
• Rolling friction is due to the dissipation of energy involved in the objects
in contact. The elastic deformation - compression - at the leading edge
of the contact patch hinders forward motion that is not fully
compensated as the objects spring back at the trailing edge of contact
Elastic deformation of
the wheel and rail
occurs in this area
Track resistance
• The load causes the track structure to deflect, which in turn uses
energy. As the wheel moves along the track, these deflections
contribute to the resistance of movement.
• Related to above, these deflections also create a situation in which

the wheel is running up hill, further adding to the resistance.
Track resistance is affected by track modulus
• Track with a low modulus offers more rolling resistance than stiff track
• Tests on stiffer track in the US and Canada have found reductions in
resistance ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 lbs./ton on tangent track
Lower Modulus
(less stiff track structure,
more resistance)
Higher Modulus
(stiffer track structure,
less resistance)
Factors affecting track stiffness

• Track support is most important
factor affecting track stiffness
• Concrete-tie track or slab track offers
lower resistance compared to wood-
tie track
• In cold weather, frozen subgrade
may stiffen track, thereby reducing
rolling resistance until thaw
• All of these will reduce rolling
resistance
Resistances that vary directly with speed (V)
• Oscillation causes lateral motion and resistance of several forms
– Flange contact
• consequent friction and impacts
• rail lubrication reduces resistance on both
curved and tangent track
– Wheel/rail interface friction
• lateral movement between wheel tread and rail head
– Oscillation can also induce various other energy losses into:
• vehicle suspension system (sway, bounce, buff, draft)
• track structure
Resistances that vary as the square of speed:

Streamlining and aerodynamic effects
• Streamlining of vehicles and train has Non-aerodynamic
a substantial effect on air resistance
as speeds increases
• Front and rear of train, as well as
smoothness of sides affect air
resistance
• Empty, open-top cars create
turbulence that increases drag Aerodynamic
• Wide spacing between cars also
creates turbulence that increases drag
• The aerodynamics of the whole train
may be more important than that of
individual vehicles
Rail vehicles differ in their air resistance
Locomotive
Boxcar Open-top Hopper
Bulkhead Flat Gondola
Trailer on Flatcar (TOFC)
Flatcar example of variation in aerodynamic resistance
Plain flat car Loaded pulpwood flat car
Centerbeam flat car Bulkhead flat car
Pretty picture, but aerodynamic nightmare
TOFC silhouette on bridge
…and empty slots even worse!
Summary of general train resistance

formula, variables and coefficients
R = AW + BV + CDV2
A B C
Vary with weight Vary with speed Vary with square of
speed
Journal resistance Flange friction & impact Head-end air pressure
Rolling friction Friction at wheel/rail interface Air friction along side
Track resistance Oscillation & sway: Turbulence between cars
impacts on vehicle & track
Turbulence at end of train
Wave action of rail
• Difficult to calculate all these analytically so the approach has been empirical
• Conduct exhaustive tests, collect data, and then develop formulae to fit the data
Empirical tests of train resistance
• Fundamental work done by U of I professors, beginning early in 20th century
• 1910: Edward C. Schmidt conducted
tests on the Illinois Central (IC) Railroad
to determine the rship between car
weight, train speed, and train resistance
• Investigated speed ranges from 10 - 40 mph
• 1937: J.K. Tuthill repeated the tests
with IC, but for speed ranges up to 70 mph
IC 30 - jointly owned Illinois Central Railroad & U
of I dynamometer car and Professor J.K. Tuthill
NOTE: The U of I Dynamometer Car has been preserved

at the Museum of Transportation in St. Louis
© 2020 Chris Barkan All rights reserved CEE 408 – Train Resistance
Original Davis equation

• Schmidt & Tuthill’s results were empirical tables and charts
• W.J. Davis with GE developed a general formula that used their data,
along with data from the Burlington, Pennsylvania railroads and
University of Illinois tests to develop a general equation for calculating
train resistance
29 CAV2
Ro = 1.3 + + bV + This is the “Davis Equation”
w wn
where: Ro = resistance in lbs. per ton
w = weight per axle (= W/n where n is number of axles)
W = weight of car
b = an experimental friction coefficient for flanges, shock, etc.
A = cross-sectional area of vehicle
C = drag coefficient based on the shape of the front of the
train and other features affecting air turbulence etc.
See Hay 1982 Table 6.2, p. 77 for values of A, B (=b) & C
(as used in the Davis equation as shown on this slide)
Speed and resistance for conventional freight train
B
A
At low speeds, journal resistance dominates, but as speed increases air

resistance becomes the dominant term
Total Resistance vs. Resistance Per Ton

• Davis equation can be written to express the total resistive force
instead of the resistance per ton
• Per Ton: 29n CAV 2
Ro = 1.3 + + bV +
W W
• Total Force: FTR = WRo = 1.3W + 29n + bVW + CAV2
where: FTR = resistive force in lbs Ro = resistance in lbs. per ton

w = weight per axle (= W/n) W = weight of car
b = flange friction coefficient A = cross-sectional area
C = drag coefficient
• Note that some resistive force varies with the weight of the car while
a portion is fixed with respect to car weight…
…Economies of scale!
Comparison of Empty and Loaded Car
Resistance Per Ton
• Empty or lightly loaded cars have

higher resistance per ton than fully
loaded
• What is the physical reason for this?
• What are the implications for:

– railroads and shippers?
– railcar manufacturers?
Modified Davis Equation

• Davis’ formula was modified and updated by the American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA, predecessor to AREMA) in 1970 to the following form:
20 KV2
Rm = 0.6 + + 0.01V +
w wn
where:
Rm = resistance in lbs. per ton
w = weight per axle (= W/n)
n = number of axles
W = weight of car
V = velocity
K = air resistance (drag) coefficient (p. 79 Hay)
K = 0.07 for conventional freight equipment
K = 0.0935 for containers on flatcars
K = 0.160 for trailers on flatcars
• The Modified Davis Equation is still commonly used for many basic train
resistance calculations
Example Calculation of train resistance
• Calculate train resistance using Modified Davis Equation
– Rm = 0.6 + 20/w + 0.01V + K V2 /wn
– 100 loaded 110-ton cars = 286,000 lbs. = 143 tons each
– assume 4 axles per car
– 10 mph
• Rm = 0.6 + (20 / 35.75) + (0.01 × 10) + (0.07 × 102 )/(35.75 × 4)
= 0.6 + 0.56 + 0.1 + 0.05
= 1.31 lbs. per ton
= 143 × 1.31 = 187 lbs. per car (at 10 mph)
• Total resistance of cars = 187 lbs. × 100 cars = 18,700 lbs
Impact of Aerodynamics
• Swap the coal hoppers with TOFC cars (of equal weight)
• Only the aerodynamic coefficient changes (K = 0.16)
– Rm = 0.6 + 20/w + 0.01V + K V2 /wn
• Rm = 0.6 + (20 / 35.75) + (0.01 × 10) + (0.16 × 102 )/(35.75 × 4)

= 0.6 + 0.56 + 0.1 + 0.11
= 1.37 lbs. per ton
= 143 × 1.37 = 196 lbs. per car (at 10 mph)
• Total resistance of cars = 196 lbs. × 100 cars = 19,600 lbs
• Note that only the term varying the with square of the speed is
changing, thus the difference in resistance between the two types
of equipment will grow rapidly as speed increases
Conventional Freight Train Resistance
B
A
Intermodal (TOFC) Freight Train Resistance
B
A
Note that intermodal trains are more likely to travel at higher speeds,
making them particularly sensitive to air resistance
Adjusted Davis equation
• The AREA developed adjustment factors to take into account
the differing wind resistance of different car types.
Radj = KRo
where:
Ro = from original Davis equation
K = air resistance (drag) coefficient (p. 79 Hay)
K = 1.00 for pre-1950 freight equipment
K = 0.85 for conventional post-1950 freight equipment
K = 0.95 for container on flatcar
K = 1.05 for trailer-on-flatcar and hopper cars
K = 1.20 empty, covered auto racks
K = 1.30 loaded auto racks
K = 1.20 empty, uncovered auto racks
Comparison of train energy equations

(from Hay 1982)
Note that these relationships don’t extend to zero miles per hour…
Sidebar: Starting Resistance
• Train resistance relationships described by the Davis equation
do not extend all the way to zero miles per hour
• “Starting Resistance” from a rest or at very slow speeds involves
static friction which is usually higher than dynamic friction
• Roller bearings can have a starting resistance of 5 to 15 lbs/ton
• In cold weather, starting resistance can exceed train resistance
at speed
• How does this relate to the discussion of coupler slack?
Starting Resistance
Canadian National Rwy. Train Resistance

Calculator
In the 1980s Canadian National Railway conducted extensive

testing to develop an up-to-date model and set of parameters
CaV2
RCN = 1.5 + 18N + 0.03V +
W 10000W
where:
RCN = resistance in lbs./ton
N = number of axles
W = total weight of locomotive or car in tons
V = velocity of train in mph
C = Canadian National streamlining coefficient
a = cross-sectional area of the locomotive or car in square feet
Coefficients for use with Canadian National model
Type of Equipment C coefficient* Area (ft2)
Box car 4.9 140
Bulkhead flat (loaded) 5.3 140
Bulkhead flat (empty) 12.0 140
Coal gondola (loaded) 4.2 105
Coal gondola (empty) 12.0 105
Covered hopper 7.1 125
Tank car 5.5 95
Standard flat car (without trailers) 5.0 25
Standard flat car (with trailers) 5.0 125
Caboose 5.5 145
Conventional passenger car 3.5 130
Modern lightweight passenger equipment 2.0 110
Freight locomotive 24.0 160
Multi-level auto transporter (open) 12.3 150
Multi-level auto transporter (closed) 7.1 170
* these values for C are only for use with CN model (From Chapter 16 - AREA Manual 1996)
Vehicle position in train affects air resistance
Lead locomotive (C = 24.0) Mixed freight consist (C = 5.0)
Lead locomotive (C = 24.0) Trailing Locomotive (C = 5.5) Boxcar (4.9)
• Resistance of vehicles in lead position is higher than in trailing position

• The shape and configuration of cars and trains varies and this also can
affect resistance
Values for CN streamlining coefficient, “C”
C coefficient
Equipment Type Leading Trailing
Freight locomotive 24.0 5.5
Open auto rack - 12.3
Mixed consist of freight cars - 5.0
Rail Diesel Car (RDC) 19.0 4.0
Conventional passenger locomotive 19.0 3.5
High-speed passenger 7.6 2.3
Maximum possible streamlining 7.0 2.0
* these values for C are only for use with CN model (From Chapter 16 - AREA Manual 1996)
Summary of factors affecting train resistance

Train resistance factors include:
1) Rolling friction between wheel and rail: Constant for a given
quality of track)
2) Bearing resistance: Varies with weight on axle, and at low speed
the type design and lubrication of the bearing
3) Train dynamic losses: Flange effects due to lateral motion and
resultant friction and impacts. Varies with speed, various aspects of
rail and track quality, wheel condition and contour, truck
performance, and vehicle dynamic responses
4) Air resistance: Varies directly with the cross sectional area of the
vehicle and its length and shape and with the square of its speed.
Also affected by zones of turbulence related to vehicle shape
Other factors affecting total resistance
• Grade
• Curvature
• Starting resistance
• Wind
• Temperature
• Of these, grade and curvature of most general importance

• Both of these can be incorporated into the basic train
resistance model
Grade Measurement
.
Railroads measure grade (g) in percent
that is, rise (y) as a percent of run (x)
1 foot rise in 100 feet of run is a 1% grade
Mainline railroad grades are rarely steeper than 2%
y = 100
0%
10
=
g
g = 10% y = 10
g = 1%
x = 100
Grade Resistance – Force View
• To maintain constant speed on a
grade, the locomotive must balance A = Slope angle
the force of gravity pulling the G = grade
railcar back down the slope
FG = W sin A
W FN
• For small angles of A typical of G = 1/100 = 1%
railroad grades… sin A = tan A = G
FG
FG = W tan A = WG
• For a 1% grade, FG = WG = 0.01W

• For each ton of weight on the 1% grade, FG = 0.01 × 2,000 = 20 lbs.
• Grade resistance is 20 pounds per ton per percent grade
RG = 20G
Grade Resistance – Work and Energy View

• On a 1% grade, y = 0.01x so for every unit of distance moved forward,
there is a 1/100th increase in height
• To move forward on this grade, the locomotive must impart enough
energy to move the train forward 100 units and lift it 1 unit
• Grade “resistance” is really just the force required to lift the weight of the
train vertically by 1 unit
• However, the work done in lifting the train 1 unit occurs over the run of
track needed to obtain this rise. On a 1% grade this is 100 units.
• Since work is constant but distance on a 1% grade is 100 times the rise,
the resistance of the load due to gravity is 0.01 or 1% of the weight
• Resistance expressed in lbs. per ton, 0.01 2,000 lbs or 20 lbs/ton
y = 0x = 0% grade y = 0.01x = 1% grade
Curve Measurement
• Railroads (and highways) generally
measure curves in degrees
• In a simple curve, the degree of
curvature (θ) is measured as the
angular deflection between the
alignment at two points on the
curve separated by a chord of 100'
• Railroads generally use a chord of
100' whereas highways generally
use 100' of arc.
– R = 50 / [sin (d/2)]
– R ~ 5729.67/d
– d ~ 5729.67/R
R = radius in feet, d = degree of curve in degrees

Curve Resistance
• Wheels are fixed to axles, so they
turn at the same rate, but the inside
and outside rails on curves each
have a different radius
• Consequent slipping and/or sliding
of inside and outside wheels,
respectively causes truck “warp”
and friction at wheel tread contact
• Momentum of forward movement is
lost and the flange is driven against
the rail causing friction
AREMA Curve Resistance Calculation
• The friction that results from curving is a
source of resistance
• The AREMA formula for calculating curve
resistance is:
Rc = 0.17g pounds per ton GRL
per degree of curvature
where: g = gage in feet
(For standard-gage track this computes to:
0.17 4.708 = 0.800)
• Calculated curve resistance for standard-
gage track
Rc per rail vehicle (lbs. per ton) =
0.800 GRL (tons) curvature
(degrees)
Train resistance formula including grade and curvature

• Complete total train resistance formula:
R = A + BV + CV2 + 20G + 0.8c
where: R = resistance in lbs. per ton (A, B, & C are as previously)
G = grade in percent
c = curvature in degrees
• This formula is part of the basis for computing train energy requirements
(i.e. locomotive power) including:
– ruling grade estimation for a train
– power and energy costs for various routes and trains
– speed and schedule
Tehachapi Loop in south central California
National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark
Example Calculation of train resistance - revisited
• Calculate train resistance using Modified Davis Equation
– 100 loaded 110-ton, 4-axle cars = 286,000 lbs. = 143 tons each
– 10 mph on a 0.76% grade and 6-degree curve
Rm = 1.31 lbs. per ton at 10 mph (calculated previously)
RG = 20 0.76 = 15.2 lbs. per ton
RC = 0.8 6 = 4.8 lbs. per ton
RTOTAL = 1.31 + 15.2 + 4.8 = 21.31 lbs/ton (at 10 mph)
Resistance per car = 21.31 143 = 3,047 lbs per car
Total resistance of cars = 3,047 lbs. 100 cars = 304,733 lbs
• Recall resistance on straight, level track was 18,700 lbs!

• Grades and curves have a dramatic effect on train energy
Effect of rail lubrication & steerable trucks

on curve resistance
• Rail lubrication
– Nearly eliminates curve resistance for curves less than 9
– Above 9 curve resistance is reduced by approximately 7 lb./ton
• Radial or self-steering trucks
– The figures cited in the previous slides apply to conventional,
3-piece trucks
– Steerable truck designs will have lower values because of their
better ability to align on curves
– The two effects are not fully additive, so the lubrication effect will
be lower for radial or self-steering trucks
Train Energy Calculators
• Using the CN model as a starting point, AAR has developed increasingly
sophisticated train energy calculators
eg. Train Energy Model (TEM)
• Railroads use these models with route specific data to calculate power
requirements and energy use
• In addition to helping railroads with train power planning, the model enables
users to calculate their energy consumption and consequent costs
• For this reason, the model is considered proprietary to the railroad industry
• Customers, particularly utilities purchasing large quantities of coal for power
generation, often contest railroads’ estimates of operating costs
• Train Energy Calculators are also embedded in other railway simulation
software such as Rail Traffic Controller (RTC) used in RailTEC research

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Train Resistance Factors

• Factors affecting train

© 2020 Chris Barkan All rights reserved

Energy is fundamental to railroad

of $11.5 billion Depreciation

• Fuel is 2nd largest cost in All Other

• Need to be able to measure

“A railway vehicle moving upon level, tangent track,

Three basic types of "resistance"

Resistance is typically measured

Early measurement of railcar resistance simply

Sources of rail vehicle resistance

A = resistances that vary with axle B = resistances that vary directly

Starting Resistance (lbs/ton)

• Related to above, these deflections also create a situation in which

Factors affecting track stiffness

Resistances that vary as the square of speed:

Boxcar Open-top Hopper

Bulkhead Flat Gondola

Trailer on Flatcar (TOFC)

Flatcar example of variation in aerodynamic resistance

Plain flat car Loaded pulpwood flat car

Centerbeam flat car Bulkhead flat car

Summary of general train resistance

NOTE: The U of I Dynamometer Car has been preserved

Original Davis equation

At low speeds, journal resistance dominates, but as speed increases air

Total Resistance vs. Resistance Per Ton

• Total Force: FTR = WRo = 1.3W + 29n + bVW + CAV2

where: FTR = resistive force in lbs Ro = resistance in lbs. per ton

• Empty or lightly loaded cars have

• What is the physical reason for this?

• What are the implications for:

Modified Davis Equation

• Rm = 0.6 + (20 / 35.75) + (0.01 × 10) + (0.16 × 102 )/(35.75 × 4)

Intermodal (TOFC) Freight Train Resistance

Comparison of train energy equations

Canadian National Rwy. Train Resistance

In the 1980s Canadian National Railway conducted extensive

Vehicle position in train affects air resistance

Lead locomotive (C = 24.0) Mixed freight consist (C = 5.0)

Lead locomotive (C = 24.0) Trailing Locomotive (C = 5.5) Boxcar (4.9)

• Resistance of vehicles in lead position is higher than in trailing position

Freight locomotive 24.0 5.5

Open auto rack - 12.3

Mixed consist of freight cars - 5.0

Rail Diesel Car (RDC) 19.0 4.0

Conventional passenger locomotive 19.0 3.5

High-speed passenger 7.6 2.3

Maximum possible streamlining 7.0 2.0

Summary of factors affecting train resistance

• Of these, grade and curvature of most general importance

Mainline railroad grades are rarely steeper than 2%

• For a 1% grade, FG = WG = 0.01W

Grade Resistance – Work and Energy View

y = 0x = 0% grade y = 0.01x = 1% grade

R = radius in feet, d = degree of curve in degrees

Train resistance formula including grade and curvature

• Recall resistance on straight, level track was 18,700 lbs!

Effect of rail lubrication & steerable trucks

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