Environment Ecology Compiled SUDARSHAN SIRJAN 2022 BATCH 1 1647824083072

Environment & Ecology- January, 2022 Batch
Preliminary Exam Syllabus Mains Exam Syllabus

▪ General issues on Environmental GS Paper 1
Ecology, Biodiversity and Climate ▪ Geographical features and their location- changes
Change(that do not require subject in critical geographical features (including water
specialization.) bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the
▪ Current Affairs (Related to Biodiversity, effects of such changes.
conservation efforts, developments in the GS Paper 3
field, etc.) ▪ Conservation, Environmental pollution and
Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment
▪ Disaster and Disaster management
Sources & Books:
1. Environment & Ecology a. Ecology and Ecosystem- Concept, Meaning, Properties

b. Ecosystem and Its functioning- System’s Analysis Approach
(Only Basic needed to be mentioned in mains for extra marks) and
Understanding
Source: NCERT 12th class Biology chapter 14
c. Types of Ecosystem
i. Terrestrial Ecosystem
ii. Aquatic Ecosystem
d. Environment Pollution: Types, Genesis and Their Impact
e. Contemporary Environmental Issues and Future Challenges
f. Environmental Impact assessment
Source- NCERT 12th class Biology Chapter 16
2. Biodiversity and a. Biodiversity- Concept and Importance

Conservation b. Brief of Biodiversity in India: Extent of Endemism of
biodiversity in India
c. Legislations On biodiversity in India
d. Protected flora and Fauna- Glimpse of WPA1972
e. Animal Diversity in India and ZSI
f. Plant diversity in India and BSI
g. Marine Organism- Protected Global areas, Organization, and
Effort
h. Protected area Network
i. Conservation Efforts
(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 1

j. Concept Of Sustainable Development
Sources-
● Chapter 15 - NCERT 12th class Biology
● MoEF&CC website
● PIB/The Hindu
3. Climate Change a. Concepts

b. Impact of climate change- India
c. Ocean Acidification
d. Ozone Depletion
e. Mitigation Strategies
f. Climate Change vis-a-vis Developmental issues
g. India and Climate change- Legislation
h. Global Climate change-related Organizations and schemes
Sources-
● NIOS Environment Module 4 section Regular Current
Affairs from any authentic source
4. Biosphere: An Ecosystem a. Biosphere as an ecosystem

b. Trophic level and energy flow
c. Circulation of matter- Biogeochemical and sedimentary cycles
d. Hydrological cycle
e. Biogeographical Realms
Sources- NCERT 12th class Biology Chapter 14
5. Biomes a. Meaning and concept

b. Classification of Biomes and related socio-economic activities
Sources-
● Basic Study from Geography NCERTs
● Certified Physical and Human Geography by Goh Cheng
Leong Part 2- Chapter 13 to 25
6 Sustainable Development Source: Visit United Nations Sustainable Development

2015- 2030 Knowledge Platform https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
7. Important Chapters of Source: Visit the Ministry of Finance’s following Website

Economic Survey Related to https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/
Environment Source
8. The Economics and Source: Regular Current Affairs from any authentic source

Geopolitics of Environment
9.Miscellaneous ● MoEFCC Website

● All the reports related to Environment and their publishing
authority
● Ecofeminism
● Module 8A and 8B of NIOS
● National Disaster Management Plan- NDMA and National
Policy on DM summary
Notes of the 3rd ARC report 1. India’s Key Hazards, Vulnerabilities

on Crisis Management 2. 12 Crisis Response Mechanism
3. Recommendations
Magazines
1. Only Yojana magazines released on environment issues
Table of Content
Protected Area Network 7
IUCN 7
IUCN and India 7
IUCN protected area categories: 7
IUCN Red List 9
IUCN criteria 9
IUCN Red list categories 9
Conservation Reserves and Community Reserve 10
Tillari Conservation Reserve 11
National Parks in India 11
Category II: National Park 12
Declaration of the Protected Area by the State government 12
Declared By the Central government 12
Project Tiger 12
National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA) 12
Powers and functions of NTCA 13
Structure of a Tiger Reserve 13
Tiger Task Force 13
Tiger Census 14
Methods for Tiger Census 14
Tiger Census, 2014 15
Tiger Census, 2018 15
M-STrIPES 16
Protection Status: 17

Global Tiger Forum 17
Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP) 18
Conservation Assured Tiger Standard Accreditation (CATS) 18
National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise 18
Jammu & Kashmir 19
Ladakh 19
Himachal Pradesh 20
Uttarakhand 20
Haryana 21
UttarPradesh 21
Rajasthan 21
Bihar 23
Assam 23
Arunachal Pradesh 24
Meghalaya 25
Nagaland 26
Manipur 26
Mizoram 26
Tripura 27
Sikkim 27
West Bengal 27
Jharkhand 28
Gujarat 28
Maharashtra 29
Karnataka 29
Orissa 30
Chhattisgarh 31
AndhraPradesh 31
Kerala 32
TamilNadu 32
Telangana 33
Goa 33
Jharkhand 33
MadhyaPradesh 34
Andaman & Nicobar 35
Biosphere Reserves 35
Introduction 35
Man And The Biosphere (MAB) Programme 36
Functions Of Biosphere Reserves 36
Structure and functions of BR 37

Criteria for World Network of Biosphere Reserves 38
Biosphere Reserve in India 39
Nilgiri Biosphere reserve 39
Nanda Devi BR 40
Gulf of Mannar BR 40
Pachmarhi BR 40
Achanakmar-Amarkantak BR 41
Cold desert BR 41
Dihang-Dibang BR 41
Simlipal BR 41
Agasthyamala BR 41
Dibru-SaikhowaNational Park 41
Biodiversity Hotspots 42
Hottest Hotspots: 43
Eight hottest hotspots: 43
Biodiversity Hotspots In India 43
Wetland 44
Introduction 44
National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) 45
Uses of wetlands 45
Ramsar Convention 46
International organization partners 46
A wetland can be considered to be internationally important if any of the following criteria
apply 47
The Montreux Record (Use ⭐ symbol for Montreux record) 47
Ramsar Sites in India 48
Kerala 49
Tamilnadu 49
AndhraPradesh 50
Odisha 50
West Bengal 50
Maharashtra 50
Gujarat 50
Madhya Pradesh 51
Tripura 51
Manipur 51
Assam 51
Rajasthan 51
Uttarakhand 51
Bihar 51

J&k 51
Ladakh 52
Himachal Pradesh 52
Punjab 52
UttarPradesh 52
Haryana 53
Gujarat 53
Project Elephant 54
Project Elephant 54
Objectives: 54
Elephant Corridor 54
MIKE Programme 55
Haathi Mere Saathi Campaign 55
Odisha 56
West Bengal 56
Andhra Pradesh 56
Chattisgarh 56
Meghalaya 56
Nagaland 56
Assam 56
Arunachal Pradesh 56
Jharkhand 56
UttarPradesh 57
Karnataka 57
Kerala 57
TamilNadu 57
Shivalik Elephant Reserve 57
Nilgiri Elephant corridor 57
Mangrove 58
Introduction 58
Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) 59
Odisha 63
West Bengal 63
Andhra Pradesh 63
TamilNadu 63
Andaman & Nicobar 63
Kerala 63
Karnataka 63
Goa & Maharashtra 64
Gujarat 64

Importance of Mangroves 64
India State of Forest Report, 2019 65
India State of Forest Report, 2021 65
Mangroves for the Future (MFF) 65
Conservation of Mangroves 66
Protected Area Network
IUCN
➢ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
➢ Established in 1948.
➢ It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and
education.
➢ It has a membership of over 1400 governmental and non-governmental organizations.
➢ IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, (and plays a role in the
implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity.
➢ It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature and the World
Conservation Monitoring Centre.
IUCN and India
▪ India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area, accounts for 7-8% of all
recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals.
▪ India became a State Member of IUCN in 1969
IUCN protected area categories:
▪ Category Ia – Strict Nature Reserve

▪ Category Ib – Wilderness Area
▪ Category II – National Park

▪ Category III – Natural Monument or Feature
▪ Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area
▪ Category V – Protected Landscape/Seascape/Area
▪ Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources
● In India,there are four major categories of Protected areas. These protected areas are
constituted under the provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The four categories of
protected areas are:
1.Wildlife Sanctuaries CAT 4
2.National Parks CAT 2
3.CommunityReserves CAT 6
4.Conservation Reserve CAT 5
● Apart From these protected areas,India also has the following:
•BiodiversityReserves
•TigerReserves
•ElephantReserves
NOTE-BIOSPHERE RESERVE – CAT 5 -UNESCO
● As of June 2021, there were 993 notified protected areas covering 5.59% of India’s land area.
This is far below Target 11 of the Aichi Targets – which states that by 2020, at least 17% of
terrestrial and inland water areas should be conserved under Protected Areas.

IUCN Red List
● The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List)
was founded in 1964.
● It has evolved to become the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global
conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.
● A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations.
IUCN criteria
● The IUCN system uses a set of five quantitative criteria to assess the extinction risk of a given
species.
● In general, these criteria consider:
1. The rate of population decline.
2. The geographic range.
3. Whether the species already possesses a small population size (mature individuals only).
4. Whether the species population is very small or lives in a restricted area.
5. Whether the results of a quantitative analysis indicate a high probability of extinction in the
wild.
IUCN Red list categories
● Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups:
1. Extinct (EX)– No known individuals remaining.
2. Extinct in the wild (EW)– Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population
outside its historic range.
3. Critically endangered (CR)– Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; Population decline-
more than 90% in the last 10
years or three generations.
4. Endangered (EN)– High risk
of extinction in the wild;
Population decline: >70% in the
last 10 years or three
generations.

5. Vulnerable (VU)– High risk of endangerment in the wild; Population decline: >50% in the last
10 years.
5. Near threatened (NT)– Likely to become endangered in the near future.
6. Least concern (LC)– Lowest risk (Does not qualify for a more at-risk category; widespread
and abundant taxa are included in this category.)
7. Data deficient (DD)– Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.
8. Not evaluated (NE)– Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
? The “Red Data Books'' published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) contain list of: (UPSC CSE 2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only (c) 2 and3 (d) 3only
Conservation Reserves and Community Reserve
● Conservation Reserves and community reserves are terms denoting protected areas which
typically act as buffer zones too or connectors and migration corridors between established
national parks,wildlife sanctuaries, and reserved and protected forests ofIndia.
● Such areas are designated conservation areas if they are uninhabited, completely owned by the
Government of India but used for subsistence by communities, and community areas if part of the
lands are privately owned.
● These Protected Area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment
Act of 2002− the amendment to theWildlife Protection Act of 1972.
● Amendments to the Wildlife protection act in 2003, provided a mechanism for
recognitionandlegalbacking to the community initiated efforts in wildlife protection.
● It provides a flexible system to achieve wildlife conservation without compromising community
needs. These categories were added because of reduced protection and around existing or proposed
protected areas due to private ownership of land and land use.

● These categories roughly correspond to IUCN Category V (conservation reserves) and VI
(community reserves) protected areas.
Tillari Conservation Reserve
● The Maharashtra Government has declared 29.53 sq km area of Dodamarg forest range in
Sindhudurg district as‘Tillari Conservation Reserve’.(Jul 2020)
•Tillari is the seventh wildlife corridor in the state to be declared as a ‘conservation reserve’
•The area covering nine villages in the forest range is known to serve as a corridor and even as a
habitat for the population of tigers and elephants moving between the three states of
Goa,Karnataka, and Maharashtra
•It connects the Mhadei sanctuary in Goa and Bhimgad Karnataka.
•It has semi-evergreen forests,tropical moist deciduous forests, and a number of unique trees,
butterflies, and flowers.
National Parks in India
• National park has more restrictions as compared to a wildlife sanctuary. Their

boundaries are fixed and defined.
• Here, no human activity is allowed.They cannot be downgraded to the status of a
‘sanctuary’.National parks can be declared both by the CentralGovernment and State
governments.
• National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India’s first national parkways
established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National
Park,Uttarakhand.
•The Chief Wildlife Warden shall be the authority who shall control, manage, and maintain all
protected areas.
•No alteration of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done without the
approval of the NBWL.
•National Board for Wildlife Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. chaired by the Prime Minister 47
members including the Prime Minister. Among these, 19 members are ex-officio members.
•Other members include three Members of Parliament (two from Lok Sabha and one from Rajya
Sabha), five NGOs, and 10 eminent ecologists, conservationists, and environmentalists.

Category II: National Park
• Large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large scale ecological processes, along with
the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a
foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational,
recreational and visitor opportunities.
Declaration of the Protected Area by the State government
•Initial Notification: The State government may, by notification,declare its intention to constitute
any area within or outside any reserve forest as a sanctuary/national park ifit considers that such
area is of adequate ecological,faunal,floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological
significance,for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
•Final Notification: After the initial notification has been issued and the period for preferring
claims has elapsed,the State government may issue a notification specifying the limits of the area
which can be comprised within the sanctuary and declare the said area shall be a sanctuary/national
park from such date as may be specified thenotification.
Declared By the Central government
•The CentralGovernment may declare an area to be a sanctuary/national park ifitis satisfied that the
area is of adequate ecological,faunal,floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological
significance,for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
Project Tiger
● Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973.

● The project aims at ensuring a viable population of tigers in their natural habitats and
protecting them from extinction..
● Project Tiger is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA)
● Boss? Ministry of Environment & Forest

● The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006 provided for creating the National Tiger
Conservation Authority.

● The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body.
● The Minister of State for Environment and Forests is the Vice-chairperson.
Powers and functions of NTCA
● Approval of Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by States .

● Laying down normative standards for tiger conservation,
● Providing information on several aspects which include protection, tiger estimation, patrolling,
etc.,
● Ensuring measures for addressing man-wild animal conflicts and fostering coexistence with local
people,
● Preparing annual report for laying before Parliament,
● Ensuring agricultural, livelihood interests of people living in and around Tiger Reserves.
Structure of a Tiger Reserve
● Tiger reserves which are governed by Project Tiger have two zones:
1. Core zone:
● Critical inviolate tiger habitat areas
● It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary
● It is kept free of all biotic and human disturbances
2. BufferZone:
● Surrounds core zone.
● It aims at promoting coexistence between wildlife and human activity.
● The livelihood, developmental, social and cultural rights of the local people are recognised in
this zone.
[Note: The alteration of boundaries or denotification of Tiger Reserves can be done by state
governments but only with the prior approval of NTCA and National Board for WildLife.]
Tiger Task Force
•The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory
authority with the legal backing to ensure tiger conservation.
•ESTD- 2005

•On the basis of the recommendations of the National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force was set up
to look into the problems of tiger conservation in the country.
•The recommendations of the Task Force include strengthening Project Tiger by giving it statutory
and administrative powers.
Tiger Census
● Indian Tiger Census is conducted by NTCA in collaboration with the Wildlife Institute of India
(WII). (The Wildlife Institute of India (WII), an autonomous institution under the Ministry of
Environment Forest and Climate change, Government of India, was established in 1982.Dehradun)
● Conducted after every 4 years (2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018).
● In the case of tigers, every individual tiger will have a unique stripe pattern— just like our
fingerprints. (Camera trapping method scans stripes)
● Where the camera trappings are unavailable because of logistical constraints, DNA extracts from
scat (poop) samples are collected for analysis. (July 29th- Global Tiger Day)
● 2021 Theme of Global Tiger Day: “Their survival is in our hand”
Methods for Tiger Census
1. PugmarkTechnique:
● Most popular technique
● A tiger leaves a distinct pugmark on the ground, different from that of others in the big cat family.
● This is the cheapest technique and can assess the number, sex ratio and age (young or adult) of
large cats but it is not very reliable as its accuracy is not very good.
2. Camera trapping Method:
● Heat and motion sensitive cameras with night vision facilities are installed in tiger areas and left
for several days to capture images of individual tigers.
● Accuracy is almost the same as the Pugmark method.
● But it does not involve a labor survey done in the Pugmark method, therefore there is no local
employment generation.
● Also cameras cannot be installed at every place that is likely to have tigers.
● Also, there is no certainty that the tiger would walk into a camera range.
● Salty, hot and humid areas=> Damage to camera

● Costlier method than Pugmark.
3.Poop/scat Method: Poop/scat (droppings of the tiger) is analyzed by DNA sampling to arrive at
a more accurate count.
4.Radio Collar Method: Tigers are captured and are fitted with a radio collar. (This method fails
when the concerned tiger enters the salty water)
5.Double-sampling Method: First count by Pugmark technique, then reconfirmation by Camera
trapping method;
Tiger Census, 2014
● “Status of Tigers in India, 2014” report by NTCA Findings:

● India is home to world’s 70% of the world's tigers.
● 30% increase from 2011; 2226 tigers in 2014 (1706 in 2010; 1411 tigers in 2006)
● Karnataka has the highest number of tigers.
● The tiger population has increased in Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
● The Mudumalai-Bandipur-Nagarhole-Wayanad belt across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala:
570 tigers. (world’s single largest tiger population)
● Decline in population in states such as Odisha, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh due to poaching
and insurgency.
Tiger Census, 2018
● This is the first time neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan took part in the
census because they constitute a larger tiger range in the Indian subcontinent.
● This collaboration ensured that there is no double counting of tigers that move between national
borders and it will be possible to count how many are shared between the countries.
● Parks sharing borders:
1. Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan: Manas National Park in Assam.
2. Valmiki Tiger Reserve in Bihar: Chitwan National Park in Nepal.
3. Pilibhit Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh: Shuklaphanta National Park in Nepal.
Findings of tiger census, 2018 - ‘Status of Tigers in India –2018’:
● There has been a 33 per cent jump in the number of tigers from 2014.

● The number of tigers increased from 2,226 in 2014 to 2,967 in 2018.
● Madhya Pradesh saw the highest number of tigers at 526, closely followed by Karnataka at 524
with Uttarakhand at number 3 with 442 tigers.
● India achieved its commitment to the St.Petersburg Declaration, of doubling Tiger population,
much in advance to the 2022 deadline.
● Chhattisgarh and Mizoram saw a decline in their tiger numbers while tiger’s numbers in Odisha
remained constant.
● India is home to 80 percent of tigers in the world. In 2006, there were 1,411 tigers which
increased to 1,706 in 2010, 2,226 in 2014 and 2967 in 2018.
●Increase in Tiger population: Madhya Pradesh (71%) > Maharashtra (64%) > Karnataka (29%).
• Madhya Pradesh's Pench Sanctuary and Kerala’s Periyar sanctuary emerged as the best-
managed tiger reserves in the country.
• Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu registered the “maximum improvement” since
2014.
• The Dampa and Rajaji reserves in Mizoram and Uttarakhand respectively are at the bottom of the
list in terms of Tiger count.
• No tiger has been found in the Buxa (West Bengal), Palamau (Jharkhand) and Dampa (Mizoram)
reserves.
•Corbett has highest number of 252-266 tigers in country
•Largest Tiger Reserve in India– Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana)
•Smallest Tiger Reserve in India– Bor Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra)
M-STrIPES
● M-STrIPES = Monitoring System for Tigers-Intensive Protection and Ecological Status.

● Android software for collecting, archiving and analyzing data.
● Forest guards in tiger reserves are equipped with personal digital assistants and GPS devices to
capture data relating to tiger sightings, deaths, wildlife crime and ecological observations while
patrolling.
● M-STrIPES maps the patrol routes of forest guards, and the resulting data are then analyzed in a
geographic information system.

The term ‘M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna
(b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves
(c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System
(d) Security of National Highways
Protection Status:
⚾⚾Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Red List: Endangered.
⚾⚾Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES): Appendix I.
Global Tiger Forum
• Global Tiger Forum is an Inter-Governmental international body working exclusively for the
conservation of Tigers.
• Established in 1994, the Global Tiger Forum (GTF) has its headquarters in New Delhi.
• The General Assembly of GTF meets after every three years.
• It utilizes cooperative policies, common approaches, technical expertise, scientific modules, and
other appropriate programs.
• The Global Tiger Forum was set up to promote a worldwide campaign to save the tiger, its prey,
and its habitat.
• The Global Tiger Forum has plans to promote a legal framework in the countries involved for
biodiversity conservation and to increase the protected area network of habitats of the tiger and
facilitate their inter passages in the range countries.
• It is the only Inter-Governmental body to save the tiger worldwide.
• 14 tiger range countries are its members. The UK , which is not a Tiger Range Country, recently
joined the GTF.
Global Tiger Initiative (GTI)

•The Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) was launched in 2008 as a global alliance of governments,
international organizations, civil society, conservation, and scientific communities, and the private
sector, with the aim of working together to save wild tigers from extinction.
•The GTI’s founding partners included the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
the Smithsonian Institution, the Save the Tiger Fund, and International Tiger Coalition
(representing more than 40 non-government organizations). The initiative is led by the 13 tiger
range countries (TRCs).
Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP)
● Tigers are scattered among 13 Asian Tiger Range Countries (TRCs): Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russian Federation,
Thailand, andVietnam.
● To solve the tiger crisis, which represents the larger Asian biodiversity crisis, the TRCs,
international organizations, and civil society came together on a collaborative platform within the
framework of the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) at St. Petersburg,Russia
● After a two-year process of sharing knowledge and best practices and developing a common
vision, a GTRP was developed, with the shared goal of doubling the number of wild tigers globally
by 2022.
Conservation Assured Tiger Standard Accreditation (CATS)
● Launched in 2013, implemented across 125 sites including India’s 94 sites.

● It is a globally accepted tool for conservation of tigers & sets best practices and standards to
manage tigers and assessments to benchmark progress.
● Global Tiger Forum & WWF are implementing partners of NTCA for CATS.
● 14 TR:- Manas, Orang, Kaziranga, Satpura, Panna, Kanha, Pench, Anamalai, Mudumalai,
Parambikulam, Sunderban, Valmiki, Dudwa, Bandipur.
National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise
(#for Tiger Reserve be used)

Jammu & Kashmir
Salim Ali NP, Dachingham NP, Kishtwar NP (#पि म से पुबा म िलखा आ है )
❏ Dachigam National Park➡Marsar lake (Kashmiri Stug-CR; Snow Leopard-VU)
❏ Kishtwar National Park is a national park located in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. It is bounded to the north by Rinnay river, south by Kibar Nala catchment, east by
main divide of Great Himalaya and west by Marwa river.
❏ Salim Ali National Park or City Forest National Park was a national park located in
Srinagar. (Himalayan Serow-VU)
Ladakh
❏ Hemis National Park is a high altitude national park in the eastern Ladakh Union
Territory of the Republic of India. Globally famous for its snow leopards.

❏ The park is bounded on the north by the banks of the Indus River, and includes the
catchments of Markha river.
Himachal Pradesh
Inderkilla NP
Khirganga NP
Pin valley NP
Great Himalayan NP
Simbalbara NP
❏ Great Himalayan NP, is one of India's national parks, is located in Kullu region in the
state of Himachal Pradesh. Tirthan flows through Great Himalayan National Park in H.P.
(Himalayan Tahr-NT; Himalayan Brown bear-CR)
❏ Simbalbara NP is a national park in India, located in the Paonta Valley of Sirmour
District, Himachal Pradesh, along its border with Haryana. The vegetation consists of dense Sal
forests.
❏ Pin Valley NP is a National park of India located within the Lahaul and Spiti district, in
the state of Himachal Pradesh, in far northern India. within the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve.
Uttarakhand
Govind Pashu Vihar NP

Gangotri NP
Valley of Flower NP
Nanda Devi NP
Rajaji NP
Corbett NP
❏ Rajaji NP ➡three wildlife sanctuaries in the area namely, Chilla, Motichur and
Rajaji sanctuaries were merged into one. three districts of Uttarakhand: Haridwar, Dehradun and
Pauri Garhwal. The Ganga and Song rivers flow through the park. (Asian Elephant-EN) (Corbett
Reserve@Ramganga River;Motichur, Chilla, Rajaji WLS)

❏ Valley of Flower NP is an Indian national park, located in North Chamoli, in the state of
Uttarakhand and is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of
flora. (Sambar,Slag-VU; Asean Black Bear- VU)
❏ Govind Pashu Vihar NP situated in the Uttarkashi district in the Indian state of
Uttarakhand. This is the place from which the Indian Government has inaugurated the
Snow Leopard Project 2009. (Bearded vulture-NT)
❏ Gangotri NP ➡nearby Kedarnath WLS, Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary. (White Bellied
Musk Deer-EN)
❏ Corbett NP is the oldest national park in India and was established in 1936 as Hailey
National Park to protect the endangered Bengal tiger. It is located in Nainital district and
Pauri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand and was named after Jim Corbett. #MAX TIGER
DENSITY
Haryana
Kalesar NP
Sultanpur NP
❏ Kalesar NP is a popular destination for leopards, panthers, and elephants. (Siberian
Crane-CR; Great White Pelican & Flemingo- LC)
UttarPradesh
Dudhwa Reserve is a protected area in Uttar Pradesh that stretches mainly across the Lakhimpur
Kheri and Bahraich districts and comprises the Dudhwa National Park, Kishanpur Wildlife
Sanctuary and Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary. The protected area is home for tigers, leopards,
Asiatic black bears, sloth bears, Swamp deer, rhinoceros, elephants & Pilibhit Reserve (T×2
Award)
Rajasthan
Sariska NP
Desert NP
Ranthambore NP

Mukundra hills NP @Darrah NP
❏ Desert NP➡Great Indian Bustard- CR – Rajasthan, Gujarat, Pakistan, Heaviest of the
flying bird (State bird of Rajasthan)

❏ Ranthambhore was established as the Sawai Madhopur Sanctuary in 1955 by the
Government of India and was declared one of the Project Tiger reserves in 1973. known for its
Bengal tigers. Other fauna include the Indian leopard, nilgai, wild boar, sambar, striped hyena,
sloth bear,
❏ Sariska NP ➡Alwar district, Rajasthan, Apart from the Bengal tiger, the reserve
includes many wildlife species including Indian leopard, jungle cat.
❏ Keoladeo NP or Keoladeo Ghana National Park formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird
Sanctuary in Bharatpur, Rajasthan. (siberian Crane-CR; Great Spotted Eagle-VU; Sarus
Crane-VU)
⇒Feb,2021- Bansi Paharpur sandstone-Pink coloured, high in demand. Illegal mining since 2016
has Damaged area. So, the Rajasthan state government shifted the boundary of Bharatpur's
Bandh Baretha wildlife sanctuary to make room for mining. These stones are also to be used for
Ram Mandir, Ayodhya.
⇒Oct,2020- A month and half long special drive to uproot the invasive lantana bushes in the
famous Sajjangarh wildlife sanctuary in Rajasthan’s Udaipur district has helped in ecological
restoration of grasslands and saved biodiversity. The sanctuary is famous for Long-billed vulture,
commonly known as the Indian vulture (Critically Endangered).
Which of the following are the tiger reserve?
1. Nanda Devi NP
2. Rajaji NP
3. Keoladeo NP
4. Darrah NP
5. Sariska NP
(a) 1&2 (b) 1,3 & 5 (c) 2,4 & 5 (d) 1,2,3 & 5
With reference to India’s Desert National Park, which of the following statements are correct?
1.It is spread over two districts.

Keoladeo NP
2.There is no human habitation inside the Park.
3.It is one of the natural habitats of the Great Indian Bustard.
Select the correct answer using the code given below; UPSC CSE 2017
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 und 3 only 3.1 and 3 only 4.1, 2 and 3
Bihar
Valmiki NP, Tiger Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary is located at the India-Nepal border in the West
Champaran district of Bihar, India on the bank of river Gandak. The Harsha – Masan River system
originates from the Valmiki Forests and forms Burhi Gandak River down south. River Pandai
flows into Bihar (India) from Nepal in the eastern end of the Sanctuary and meets Masan. ( Bengal
tiger-EN,Indian rhinoceros-VU)
⇒Union minister of state for environment, forests, and climate change Ashwini Kumar
Choubey on Thursday said the second reserve in Bihar would be set up in Kaimur. · The
state forest department had first spotted a tiger through camera traps in the Kaimur wildlife
sanctuary on March 26, 2020.
Assam
Raimona NP, Manas NP,Orang NP, Nameri NP, Kaziranga NP, Dibru-Saikhowa NP, Dihing
Patkai NP
❏ Raimona NP is bounded on the west by the Sankosh river and the Saralbhanga river on
the east. Both the rivers are tributaries of Brahmaputra. The Pekua river defines Raimona’s
southern boundary. It is famous for Golden Langur(IUCN-EN), an endemic species which has
been named as the mascot of Bodoland region.
❏ Bura Chapori Wildlife Sanctuary: Recently, Rhinoceros translocation study was carried
out in the sanctuary. Brahmaputra River flows through the sanctuary, Sonitpur district of Assam.
An ideal habitat for the Bengal florican (IUCN, Critically Endangered). Important fauna here
includes Indian-one horned rhinoceros, Asiatic water buffalo and Bengal tiger. It forms an integral

part of the Laokhowa-Burachapori ecosystem and is a notified buffer of the Kaziranga Tiger
reserve.
❏ Manas NP (Bengal florican-CR; Assam roofed turtle-EN; Hispid hare-EN; Gee’s
Golden Langur-EN; Pygmy Hog-CR; ⇒Mar,2021-Recently Himalayan Serow(VU)

seen in this region.
❏ Kaziranga NP which hosts two-thirds of the world's great one-horned rhinoceroses-
VU,The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and
eastern boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers
within the park are the Diphlu (Wild Water Buffalo-EN; Barasingha(swamp deer)-VU)
❏ Orang NP→ It has a rich flora and fauna, including great Indian rhinoceros, pygmy
hog, Asian elephant, wild water buffalo and Bengal tiger. Pachanoi river, Belsiri river and
Dhansiri River border the park and join the Brahmaputra river.
❏ Dihing Patkai NP Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts. Dehing is the name of the river that
flows through this forest and Patkai is the hill. Recently Assam govt notified it as 7th National
park of the state under World Life Protection Act, 1972 section 35. The Dehing Patkai Wildlife
Sanctuary is also known as the Jeypore Rainforest. White winged Wood duck-EN
❏ Nameri NP - Elephant
❏ Nameri National Park is a national park in the foothills of the eastern Himalayas in the
Sonitpur District of Assam, India. Nameri shares its northern boundary with the Pakhui
Wildlife Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh, The main Rivers are Jia- Bhoroli and Bor
Dikorai. Other tributaries of these two rivers are: Diji, Dinai, Nameri, Khari, Upper Dikiri
❏ Dibru Saikhowa NP is a national park in Assam, India, located in Dibrugarh and
Tinsukia districts. The park is bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit Rivers in the north
and Dibru river in the south. Species include Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded
leopard, jungle cat, sloth bear.
⇒Assam now has the third most National Parks after the 12 in Madhya Pradesh and nine
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Arunachal Pradesh
Mauling NP

Namdapha NP
Kamlang WLS
Pakki/Pakhui Reserve
❏ Namdapha NP is located between the Dapha bum range of the Mishmi Hills and the
Patkai range with a wide elevation. Noa dihing, tributary of brahmaputra. (Namdapha Flying
Squirrel-CR; Clouded Leopard-VU)
❏ Mauling NP is a national park located in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, spread
primarily over the Upper Siang district and parts of the West Siang and East Siang districts. The
Siyom river flows along the Western fringes of the park and several small rivers such as the Siring,
Krubong, Semong and Subong drain into the Siang river near the eastern boundary of the park.
A particular State in India has the following characteristics: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. It is located on the same latitude which passes through northern Rajasthan.
2. It has over 80% of its area under forest cover.
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes the Protected Area Network in this State.
Which one among the following States has all the above characteristics?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Assam
(c) Himachal Pradesh
(d) Uttarakhand
In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary located? (UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Manipur
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland
Meghalaya
Nokrek NP, Balpakram NP

❏ Nokrek NP, the core area of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, is a national park nearTura Peak
in West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India. All important rivers and streams of the Garo Hills
region rise from the Nokrek Range, of which the river Simsang, known as Someshwari when it

emerges into Bangladesh at Baghmara, is the most prominent. Rongbang Dare WaterFall. Nokrek
is also an important habitat of the Asian elephant. (Red panda-EN; Stump-tailed macaque-VU)
❏ Balpakram NP is a national park in the south of Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India.
Gyaneshwari River, Indian elephant.
Nagaland
Itanki NP➡Among the species that inhabit the park are the rare hoolock gibbon-EN, golden
langur, hornbill.
Manipur
Sirohi NP
Keibul Lamjao NP
❏ Sirohi NP famous shirui lily (Lilium maclineae).
❏ Keibul Lamjao national park is characterized by many floating decomposed plant
materials locally called phumdis. (Sangai deer/dancing deer-EN)
Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that
supports a rich biodiversity? (UPSC CSE 2015)
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park
(d) Sultanpur National Park
Mizoram
Murlen NP
Phawngpui NP
❏ Murlen NP is a national park located in the Champhai district Mizoram in India. Tupui
River.
❏ Phawngpui NP provides habitat for a range of birds including the rare Blyth's tragopan-
VU, Mrs. Hume's pheasant-NT, which is the Mizoram state bird.

Tripura
Clouded leopard NP
Rajbari NP
❏ Rajbari NP is a national park in the Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura, India. (Trishna
WLS)
Consider the following pairs (UPSC CSE 2014)
1. Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram
2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim
3. Saramati Peak : Nagaland
Which of the above pairs is /are correctly matched?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3only C. 1 and 3only D. 1, 2 and 3
⇒Malayan Giant Squirrel found in parts of NE, could vanish post-2050 due to Jhum poaching.
says Zoological Survey of India. "Near-Threatened" in the IUCN list.
Sikkim
Kangchenjunga NP→ Asian Wild Dog-EN
West Bengal
Singalila NP, Neora valley NP, Gorumara NP, Jaldapara NP, Buxa NP( )
Sunderban Reserve
❏ Jaldapara NP→ Torsa river, joins kaljani and meets Brahmaputra→ Chilapata Forests is
an elephant corridor → The park holds the largest rhino population in India after Kaziranga
National Park in Assam
❏ Neora Valley NP is situated in the Kalimpong district, West Bengal→ Neora River→
It is the land of the elegant red panda.
❏ Buxa NP→ Raidak and Jayanti river, tributaries of brahmaputra→Indian leopard, Bengal
tiger, clouded leopard, giant squirrel.
❏ Gorumara NP→ The park is located on the ﬂoodplains of the Murti River The major
river of the park is the Jaldhaka river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra river system. The park is rich

in large herbivores including Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant, sloth bear, chital, and
sambar deer.
❏ Singalila NP→ River Rammam and River Sirikhola flow through the park.
Consider the following areas: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. Bandipur
2. Bhitarkanika
3. Manas
4. Sundarbans
Which of the above are Tiger Reserves?
(a) 1 and 2only (b) 1, 3 and 4only (c) 2, 3 and 4only (d) l, 2, 3 and 4
Jharkhand
Betla National Park is a national park located on the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the Palamu district
of Jharkhand, India.
Gujarat
Marine NP, Gir NP, Blackbuck NP, Vansda NP

❏ Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, also known as Sasan Gir.Shetrunji River→
The four reservoirs of the area are at four dams, one each on Hiran, Machhundri, Raval and
Shingoda rivers, including the biggest reservoir in the area, the Kamleshwar Dam, dubbed 'the
lifeline of Gir’.(Asian lion-EN)
❏ Blackbuck National Park at Velavadar is situated in the Bhavnagar District of Gujarat
state, India. (Macqueen Bustard-VU)
❏ Vansda NP → Ambika River
❏ Marine NP in the Gulf of Kutch is situated on the southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch,
There are 42 islands on the Jamnagar coast in the Marine National Park, most of them surrounded
by reefs. The best known island is Pirotan Island.
⇒Recently Naliya Great Indian Bustard sanctuary in Kutch, Gujarat is in News as forest Fire
is there.

A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an Indian animal species. The animal has no
predators in that area but its existence is threatened due to the destruction of its habitat. Which one
of the following could be that animal? (UPSC CSE-2011)
(a) Indian wild buffalo
(b) Indian wildass
(c) Indian wild boar
(d) Indian Gazelle
With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the following statements:
1. The country’s total geographical area under the category of wetlands is recorded more in
Gujarat as compared to other States.
2. In India, the total geographical area of coastal wetlands is larger than that of wetlands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2012)
(a) 1only (b) 2only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Maharashtra
Sanjay Gandhi NP, Chandoli NP, Gugamal NP, Pench NP, Tadoba NP( ), Navegaon NP
reserve:- Melghat, nagzira, Sahyadri, Bor
❏ Tadoba NP →Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve→ It is Maharashtra's oldest national park.
the Andhari River. the Moharli and Kolsa ranges. Indian leopards, sloth bears, gaur, nilgai,
❏ Gugamal NP is part of Melghat Tiger Reserve. The area is rich in wild mammals
including Bengal tiger, Indian leopard
❏ Chandoli NP lies between the Radhanagiri and Koyna Wildlife Sanctuaries and forms the
southern part of the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. Warna river.
❏ Pench NP → Pench River→ Satpura range. The Bengal tiger is the main cat species.
⇒10 Apr, 2021- Navegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra= Some miscreants started
a forest fire.
Karnataka
Anshi NP
Kudremukh NP

Bannerghatta NP
Nagarhole NP
Bandipur NP
Kali NP
Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS

Bhadra TR
❏ Anshi / Kali Tiger Reserves→ Kali River, Dandeli WLS
❏ Nagarhole NP is a national park located in Kodagu district and Mysore district in
Karnataka, India. It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. the Brahmagiri hills. Kapila River,
Lakshman Tirtha river.
❏ Bandipur NP part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.Kabini river, species like Indian
elephants, gaurs, tigers, sloth bears
❏ Kudremukh NP Three important rivers, the Tunga, the Bhadra, and the Nethravathi.
(Lion tailed Macaque-EN)
Orissa
Simlipal NP
Bhitarkanika NP
Satkosia NP
❏ Bhitarkanika NP→ Brahmani, Baitarani, Pathsala & Dhamra River. Gahirmatha beach.
(Olive Ridley sea turtle-VU)
❏ Simlipal NP→ Barehipani falls; Hadgarh, Kuldiha WLS. (Mugger Crocodile-VU)
Two important rivers —one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in
Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha —merge at a place only a short distance from the
coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and
biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) Bhitarkanika (b) Chandipur-on-sea (c) Gopalpur-on-sea (d) Simlipal

Chhattisgarh
Guru Ghasidas NP
Indravati NP
Kanger Ghati NP
Achanakmar TR
Udanti & Sitanadi TR
❏ Indravati NP is a national park located in Bijapur district of Chhattisgarh state of India. It
is home to one of the last populations of rare wild buffalo. Reported from the area are gaur (Indian
bison), nilgai, blackbuck, chausingha (four-horned antelope). Wild buffalo-EN
❏ Kanger Ghati NP→ Kolab River
❏ Guru Ghasidas & Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve: National Tiger Conservation
Authority (NTCA) approved the Chhattisgarh‟s proposal to declare the combined areas of the
Guru Ghasidas National Park & Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary as a Tiger Reserve. The 11th
Technical Committee of the NTCA approved the proposal under the Section 38V (1) of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. [Section 38V (1) of WPA, 1972 (Tiger Conservation Plan) - The
State Government shall, on the recommendation of the NTCA, notify an area as a tiger reserve.] It
is located in the northern part of Chhattisgarh, bordering Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand. Both
Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary and Guru Ghasidas National Park were identified as reserve
forests. Turning Guru Ghasidas into a Tiger Reserve is important as it provides a corridor for tigers
to move between Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh) and Palamau Tiger Reserve
(Jharkhand). Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary. Rihand River flows in the western boundary.
The sanctuary experiences a warm and temperate type of climate. It is a part of the Sarguja
Jashpur Elephant Reserve since 2011.
AndhraPradesh
Sri Papikonda NP
Sri Venkateshwara NP
Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam

❏ Sri Venkateshwara NP is located near Seshachalam hills, Tirumala hills. (White Backed
vulture-CR; Yellow throated bulbul-VU)
❏ Papikonda NP→ Black-beiled tern-EN; Pale-capped pigeon-VU: oriental darter-NT
Kerala
Silent valley NP
Anamudi NP
Eravikulam NP
Pampadum shola NP
Mathikatton Shola NP
Periyar NP
Parambikulam TR
❏ Eravikulam NP→ Lakkam waterfalls. (Nilgiri Tahr-EN; Nilgiri Langur-VU;
Raorchestes resplendens-CR; Nilgiri Marten-VU)
❏ Silent Valley NP is part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Kunthipuzha River (Indian
Pangolin-EN; Black footed gray langur-VU)
❏ Anamudi Shola NP is located in Idukki district, Kerala.
❏ Periyar NP is located near Cardamom, Pendulum hill. Periyar, Pamba River. (Indian
Elephant-EN; Salim Ali fruit bat-EN)
TamilNadu
Guindy NP
Mudumalai NP
Mukurthi NP
Srivilliputhur-Meghamalai TR
Anamalai NP
Gulf of Mannar NP
Sathyamangalam TR
Kalakad Mundanthurai TR
❏ Mudumalai NP Indian vulture-CR; White-Rumped vulture-CR

❏ Gulf of Mannar NP→ Thoothukudi & Dhanushkodi. (Dugong/Sea Cow-VU; Indo
pacific bottlenose dolphin-NT)
❏ Guindy NP→ Indian star tortoise-VU; Blackbuck
⇒Feb,2021-Srivilliputhur-Meghamalai TR recently added. It is the 51st TR. near Meghamalai
Mountain. Meghamalai commonly known as the High Wavy Mountains, is a mountain range
located in the Western Ghats. The Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary can be an excellent buffer to
the Periyar Tiger Reserve and Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary which can immensely
strengthen the conservation in the southern Western Ghats – the range of hills south of the
Palakkad Gap.
With reference to "dugong", a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
2. It is found along the entire coast of India.
3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection)Act, 1972.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. UPSC CSE 2015
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2only (c) 1 and3 (d) 3 only
Telangana
Mrugavani NP
Mahavir Harina Vanasthali NP
Nagarjunsagar Srisailam
Kawal TR
Amravati TR
Goa
Mollen NP
Bhagwan Mahavir Sanctuary
Jharkhand
Betla NP(#Palamu NP)

Hazaribagh TR
MadhyaPradesh
Sanjay NP
Bandhavgarh NP
Panna NP
Mandla Plant fossil NP
Kanha NP
Satpura NP
Van Vihar NP
Omkareshwar MP
Dinosaur NP
Madhav NP
Pench NP
Kumho WLS
❏ Kanha TR → also called Kanha-Kisli National Park, is one of the tiger reserves of India
and the largest national park of Madhya Pradesh. The park has a significant population of the
Royal Bengal tiger, Indian leopards, the sloth bear, barasingha and Indian wild dog. “the Jungle
Book” by Rudyard Kipling ⇒⇒Nascot of NP- Bhoorsingh the Barasingha.
❏ Bandhavgarh NP- Before Corbett highest Tiger density.
❏ Panna TR→ Kenghariyal WLS, Ken River.
❏ Satpura NP → Panchmari
⇒Mar-2021- Night Safari start at Bandhavgarh, Kanha & Pench NP
If you want to see gharials in their natural habitat, which one of the following is the best place to
visit? (UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) BhitarkanikaMangroves
(b) Chambal River
(c) Pulicat Lake
(d) Deepor Beel

Andaman & Nicobar
Saddle peak NP
North button NP
Middle button NP
South button NP
Rani Jhansi Marine NP
Mt. Harriet NP
Mahatma Gandhi MAine NP
Campbell NP
Galathea NP
Highest number of National Park:

Madhya Pradesh(12)
Andaman & Nicobar (9)
Assam (7)
Biosphere Reserves
Introduction
• Biosphere Reserves are large areas of biodiversity where flora and fauna are protected.
• These regions of environmental protection roughly correspond to IUCN Category V Protected
areas.
• The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves of India, which protect larger
areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary).
• Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative parts of
natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine
ecosystems or a combination thereof

• The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves in India.
• 12 of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves,
based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
• Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an intergovernmental scientific programme.
• launched in 1971 by UNESCO,
• aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and
their environments.
Man And The Biosphere (MAB) Programme
● Launched in 1971 by UNESCO.

● It provides a platform for cooperation on research and development, capacity building and
networking to share information, knowledge and experience on three interlinked issues:
❏ Biodiversity loss,
❏ Climate change and
❏ Sustainable development.
● For implementation of its interdisciplinary work on the ground, MAB relies on the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
There are currently 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21 transboundary sites,
that belong to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
Criteria For Designation Of BRs
● A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of
nature conservation.
● The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable
populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
● Areas having rare and endangered species and indigenous varieties of biota.
● Areas having potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for
harmonious use of the environment.
Functions Of Biosphere Reserves
● Conservation of genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes preserving the traditional
lifestyle and resources of the local people.

● Sustainable economic, cultural, social and ecological developments.
● Restoration of any damage caused to ecosystems and habitats.
● Generation of a lot of scientific information for specific scientific studies and research.
● Helps in sharing knowledge through site specific training and education.
● Development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.
Structure and functions of BR
• Core Zone : Core zone must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species,
including higher order predators.
• contain centers of endemism.
• Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important
genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest.
• The core zone is to be kept free from human pressures
• Buffer Zone: These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing
value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, etc.
• Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR,
are likely to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.
• Transition Zone : The transition area is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. • This is
usually not a delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation knowledge and
management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere
reserve.
• This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and areas for intensive recreation and
other economic uses characteristics of the region.

The level of restriction in the increasing order is Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and
National Parks.
Criteria for World Network of Biosphere Reserves
•It should encompass a mosaic of ecological systems representative of major bio geographical
regions, including a graduation of human interventions
•It should be of significance for biological diversity conservation
•It should provide an opportunity to explore and demonstrate approaches to sustainable
development on a regional scale
•It should have an appropriate size to fulfill the three functions of biosphere reserves
(conservation, development, logistic support)
•It should include these functions through appropriate zonation, recognizing core, buffer, and outer
transition zones.

Biosphere Reserve in India
1. Cold desert BR
2. Nanda devi BR
3. Khangchendzonga BR
4. Manas BR
5. Dibru Saikhowa BR
6. Dihang-Dibang BR
7. Nokrek BR
8. Sundarban BR
9. Simlipal BR
10. Achanakmar-
Amarkantak BR
11. Seshachalam BR
12. Gulf of Mannar BR
13. Agasthyamalai BR
14. Nilgiri BR
15. Pachmarhi BR
16. Rann of Kutch BR
17. Panna BR
18. Great Nicobar
➔Oldest BR in India was the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve(2000); And latest BR in India is
Panna Biosphere Reserve(2020).
Nilgiri Biosphere reserve
• The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is an International Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats and
Nilgiri Hills ranges of South India.
• Mudumalai, Mukurthi, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Silent Valley national parks the
Wayanad ,Karimpuzha, Aralam (Kerala) wildlife sanctuaries, Sathyamangalam
• It includes the Bengal tiger, Indian leopard , Black panther , Gaur, Indian elephant, Mongoose,
Malabar giant squirrel, Lion-tailed macaque, nilgiri langur, Gray langur and Nilgiri tahr.

• It has the largest population of two endangered species- lion-tailed macaque and nilgiri tahr.
• About 80% of flowering plants reported from Western Ghats occur in Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve.
Which of the following protected areas are under nilgiri BR?
1. Karimpuzha
2. Agasthyamalai
3. Kalakkad
4. Meghamalai
5. Periyar
Select the correct option:
(a) 1 only (b) 1,2 & 3 (c) 2,3 &5 (d) 1,2,3 & 5
Which BR has two endangered species and 80% flowering plant reported?
(a) Nilgiri (b) Nanda Devi © Manas (d) Meghamalai
Nanda Devi BR
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks
Gulf of Mannar BR
• in the Coromandel Coast region.

• The chain of low islands and reefs known as Ramsethu, also called Adam's Bridge, which
includes Mannar Island, separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north
between Sri Lanka and India.
• The Malwathu Oya (Malvathu River) of Sri Lanka and the estuaries of Thamirabarani River
and Vaipar River of South India drain into the Gulf.
• The dugong (sea cow) is found here.
Pachmarhi BR
• Bori Sanctuary (518.00 km2)

• Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37 km2).
• Satpura National Park (524.37 km2)
• The highest peak is Dhoopgarh.

Achanakmar-Amarkantak BR
• The reserve is also the source of three major river systems: the Narmada, the Johilla and the Son
River.
Cold desert BR
It includes: Pin Valley National Park; Chandratal; Sarchu; Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary.
Dihang-Dibang BR
• Rare mammals such as Mishmi takin-EN, red goral-VU,red panda, Asiatic black bear.
• The Mouling National Park and the Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary.
Simlipal BR
• part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve

• includes three protected areas — Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadagarh Wildlife Sanctuary
• Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary
• Barehipani Falls
⇒Mar,2021- Recently a massive fire in the Similipal Biosphere was seen.
Agasthyamala BR
• border of Pathanamthitta, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram Districts in Kerala and

Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu,
• Inclusion of adjoining areas of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
• Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries (kerala).
• Kanikkarans are the Original tribal Settlers in Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve.
Dibru-SaikhowaNational Park
Originally created to help conserve the habitat of the rare white-winged wood duck-EN.
??? Consider the following pairs: [2013]
1. Nokrek Biosphere Reserve: Garo Hills

2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake: Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park: Dafla Hills
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
Biodiversity Hotspots
● A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region which has high biodiversity but that is under
threat from destruction mainly due to human activities.
● The concept of biodiversity hotspot was given by Norman Myers in 1988 in his two articles in
“The Environmentalist”.
● Myers listed two criteria for a region to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot: a. It must have at least
1,500 vascular plants as endemics— which is to say, it must have
➔ a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other
words, is irreplaceable.
➔It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.
● Myers originally recognised 25 hotspots but now 36 sites around the world follow his criteria.
● Conservation International has concluded the importance of biodiversity hotspots as- “Around
the world, 36 areas qualify as hotspots. They represent just 2.4% of Earth’s land surface, but they
support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics — i.e., species found no place
else — and nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species as endemics.”
? Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats, Sri Lanka
and Indo Burma regions as hotspots of biodiversity: [2011]
1. Species richness
2. Vegetation density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanical importance
5. Threat perception
6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid conditions
Which three of the above are correct criteria in this context?
(a) 1, 2 and 6 only (b) 2, 4 and 6 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 3, 4 and 6 only

Hottest Hotspots:
● Hottest hotspots are the areas which have much more endemism and richness in biodiversity
than other hotspots.
● There are five factors considered for designating a hotspot as hottest hotspot:
1. Endemic plants,
2. Endemic vertebrates,
3. Endemic plants/area ratio
4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio and
5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent.
Eight hottest hotspots:
1. Madagascar
2. Philippines
3. Sundaland
4. Brazil’s AtlanticForest
5. Caribbean
6. Indo-Burma
7. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests ofTanzania/Kenya
Biodiversity Hotspots In India
1.Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2.Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands
(and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
3.Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei,
Philippines)
4.Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)

Mura-Drava Danube:
● World’s First ‘Five-Country Biosphere Reserve’
● Context: Recently, Mura Drava-Danube (MDD) was declared as the world’s first ‘five-
country biosphere reserve’ by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO).
● About MDD: The biosphere reserve covers 700 kilometers of the Mura, Drava and
Danube rivers and stretches across Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary and Serbia.
Wetland
Introduction
• A wetland is a place where the land is covered by water. Marshes, ponds, the edge of a
lake/ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, low-lying areas that frequently flood — all of these
are wetlands.

• Wetlands are also considered the most
biologically diverse of all ecosystems,
serving as home to a wide range of plant and
animal life.
National Wetland Conservation

Programme (NWCP)
• The Government of India operationalized

the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) in close collaboration with the concerned
State Government during the year 1985/86.
• Under the programme 115 wetlands have been identified till now by the Ministry which requires
urgent conservation and management initiatives.
• The main wetland types are swamp, marsh, bog, and fen.
• subtypes include mangrove forest, carr, floodplains,sink, and many others.
• Many peatlands are wetlands.
➔A swamp is a wetland that is forested. Swamps are considered to be transition zones because
both land and water play a role in creating this environment.
➔A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes
can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams, where they form a transition between the
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are often dominated by grasses, rushes
➔A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material.
➔Fen: Peat rich areas that receive nutrients from the water that flows through them (surface
runoff, groundwater). Typically flooded in the winter and dominated by mosses, sedges, rushes,
and shrubs. Streams and/or pools may be present.
➔If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs, and then sometimes called
carrs. Carrs are wetlands that are dominated by shrubs rather than trees.
Uses of wetlands
• Water storage (flood control)

• Groundwater replenishment

• Shoreline stabilization and storm protection
• Water purification
• Reservoirs of biodiversity
• Pollination
• Wetland products
• Cultural values
• Recreation and tourism
• Climate change mitigation and adaptation
Ramsar Convention
• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for

the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
• It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971.
• Every three years, representatives of the Contracting Parties meet at the Conference of the
Contracting Parties (COP).
• COP12 was held in Punta del Este, Uruguay, in 2015.
• COP13 was held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in October 2018.
• China will host the next Ramsar COP14 in 2021.
• The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day
• There are over 2,300 Ramsar Sites on the territories of 171 Ramsar Contracting Parties across
the world.
• The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
• Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
International organization partners
• The Ramsar Convention works closely with six other organizations known as International
Organization Partners (IOPs). These are:
• Birdlife International
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
• Wetlands International

• WWF International
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
• Other Partners
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
• Convention on the Conservation of MigratorySpecies of Wild Animals
• Convention on MigratorySpecies (CMS),
• World Heritage Convention (WHC) and
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
• Project funding is done by various groups like multilateral development banks, bilateral donors,
UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP,Non-governmental organizations etc.
A wetland can be considered to be internationally important if any of the following criteria

apply
• "it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type
found within the appropriate biogeographic region."
• "it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological
communities."
• "It supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological
diversity of a particular biogeographic region."
• "it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge
during adverse conditions."
• "It regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds."
• "it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on
which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
The Montreux Record (Use ⭐ symbol for Montreux record)
• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Ramsar wetlands of
international importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or
are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human
interference.

• It is a voluntary mechanism to highlight specific wetlands of international importance that are
facing immediate challenges.
• It is maintained as part of the List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance
• The Montreux Record was established in 1990
Q. If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what
does it imply? [2014]
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the
wetland as a result of human interference.
(b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity
within five kilometers from the edge of the wetland.
(c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain
communities living in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed.
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’.
Ramsar Sites in India
presently there are 49 ramsar sites in India.

Kerala
Vembanad lake ⛱
Sasthamkotta lake
Ashtamudi lake ⛱
(#⛱
→lagoon )
❏ Vembanad lake→Kochi port; India’s largest lake; Vallarpadam, Willington IS, Vypin,
Mulavukad; Nehru trophy boat race organizes here; pamba,periyar, achankovil river; kumarakom
bird sanctuary
❏ Ashtamudi lake→Syzygium travancoricum(plant); kollam district; neendakara port;
kallada river; Muroe Is.
Tamilnadu
Point-calimere WLS→Spoon billed Sandpiper-CR

AndhraPradesh
Kolleru lake
? Which of the following are lagoon lakes?
1. Vembanad lake
2. Ashtamudi lake
3. Sasthamkotta lake
4. Kolleru lake
Select the correct option: (a) 1,2 & 3 (b) 2,3 &4 (c) 1,2 & 5 (d) 1,2,3,4
Odisha
Chilka lake⛱
Bhitarkanika mangrove
❏ Bhitarkanika mangrove→Gahirmatha WLS; Abdulkalam Is. (Wheeler Is.)
❏Chilika lake→Puri,khurda,ganjam district; Nalbana bird sanctuary; Daya river; (Spoon-billed

sandpiper-CR; Green sea turtle-EN; Lesser flamingo-NT; Irawody dolphin-EN). On the south
of Chilika rushikulya river flows where Olive ridley turtles are found.
West Bengal
Sundarban delta
East Kolkata Wetland (120 CR investment to protect East kolkata Wetland.....NOT IMP FOR
EXAM)
Maharashtra
Nandur Madhmeshwar
Loktak lake (2020)
Gujarat
Nal Sarovar→Indian wild Ass-NT

Madhya Pradesh
Bhoj Wetland→Upper lake (Bhoj tal)+Lower lake; (Sarus crane-VU; Black necked stork-NT;
White stork-LC)
Tripura
Rudrasagar lake→three striped roof turtle-CR
Manipur
Loktak lake⭐
Assam
Deepor Beel→Pabitra WLS; (Spot billed Pelium-NT; Baer’s Pochard-CR)
● Mandarin duck- Migratory species from Russia Korea Japan China- spotted in Maguri-
Motapung beel, a wetland in Eastern Assam. Other endemic species in this wetland-black-
breasted parrotbill and marsh babbler.
Rajasthan
Keoladeo wetland⭐
Sambhar lake
Uttarakhand
Asan barrage→Asan river; Yamuna River
Bihar
Kanwar lake→ Oxbow lake⇒Largest oxbow lake; Gandak lake; Dolphin observatory.
J&k
Wular lake
hokera/Hokersar lake
Surinsar-Mansar lake (added in 2020)

Ladakh
Tsokar lake (added in 2020)

Tso moriri lake→Bar headed goose-LC; Black necked crane-NT
Himachal Pradesh
Chandratal
Pong dam/Maharana pratap
renuka
Punjab
Nangal WLS
Roper wetland
Beas Conservation center
Harike wetland
Kanjli wetland
Keshopur Miani
❏Beas Conservation center→Indus river dolphin-EN; Gharial-CR
⇒Feb,2021- Recently Ghariyal from Chhatbir Zoo(Chattisgarh) released to Beas River
UttarPradesh
Sa Pa Na
Sars Sama
Sand ai n
Samapu Nawabganj
i
r
Parvati
Arga

⇒Recent Site→ Sur Sarovar
⇒Parvati Arga→ Oxbow lake; Part of Sarayu River
⇒Haiderpur Wetland in Uttar Pradesh has been added as the 47th Ramsar Site in December
2021. It is a human-made wetland formed in 1984 and is located within the boundaries of
Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary.
⇒Bakhira WLS (2022) → is the largest natural floodplain wetland of India.
Haryana
Sultanpur National Park (2021)
Bhindawas WLS (2021)
Gujarat
Thol Sanctuary (2021)

Wadhwana WLS (2021)
Khijadiya WLS (2022) → Fresh water lake, salt and freshwater marshlands
Match the column:

1. Kawar Tal→Yamuna River
2. Parvati Arga→Sarayu river
3. Asan Barrage→Yamuna River

Select the Incorrect Option: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c)1 & 2 (d) 1,2 & 3
PRE Question
Wetlands→Confluence of rivers
1. Harike wetland→Beas and Satluj
2. Keoladeo Ghana NationalPark→Banas and Chambal
3. Kolleru Lake→Musi and Krishna

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CSE 2012)
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3only C. 1 and 3only D. 1, 2 and 3

MAINS Question
GSM3-2018: What is a wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of
wetland conservation. Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India
Project Elephant
Project Elephant
• Project Elephant was launched in 1992.

• It is a centrally sponsored scheme.
• It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of the
Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
Objectives:
• to assist states having populations of wild elephants and to ensure long term survival of identified
viable populations of
elephants in their natural habitats
• addressing man-animal conflict.
• Developing scientific and planned management measures for conservation of elephants.
• Protecting the elephants from poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade and other unnatural causes
of death.
Elephant Corridor
• An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/narrow strip of forested (or otherwise) land that
connects larger
habitats with elephant populations and forms a conduit for animal movement between the habitats.
• There are 101 identified corridors in India (published by the Wildlife Trust of India in
collaboration with Project Elephant and the U.K.based NGO Elephant Family, 2017)
• Coal mining and iron ore mining are the two “single biggest threats” to elephant corridors in
central India.

• Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich states, but also have the highest number of
elephant corridors in the country, which makes them known for elephant-man conflicts.
• Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and destruction caused by developmental activities.
MIKE Programme
● MIKE= Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants.

● Established under CITES.
● CITES-MIKE prog. Started in South Asia in 2003.
● Monthly data collected from all sites and submitted to sub-regional office
⇒MIKE sites in India
• 1. Chirang Ripu (Assam )

• 2. Dihing Patkai (Assam)
• 3. Eastern Dooars (WB)
• 4. Deomali (Arunachal Pradesh)
• 5. Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
• 6. Mayurbhanj (Orissa)
• 7. Mysore (Karnataka)
• 8. Nilgiri (T N)
• 9. Shivalik (Uttarakhand)
• 10. Wayanad (Kerala)
Haathi Mere Saathi Campaign
• MoEF&CC in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).

• Aims to improve conservation and welfare prospects of the elephant - India’s National Heritage
Animal.
• It will also help in increasing awareness among people and developing not just friendship but also
companionship between people and elephants.
• Unlike the tiger, which faces the threat of extinction, the elephant faces threats of attrition.
• Campaign motto: ‘take Gajah (the elephant) to Prajah (the people)’.

Odisha
Mayurbhanj; Sambalpur; Baitarani; South Odisha; Mahanadi
West Bengal
Mayurjharna; Eastrn Duars
Andhra Pradesh
Rayla
Chattisgarh
Lemru; Badalkhar; Tamorpingla
Meghalaya
Garo; Khasi
Nagaland
Itanki
Assam
Chirangpu; Kaziranga-Karbi anglong; Dhansiri Lunding; Sonitpur; Dihing patkai
Arunachal Pradesh
Kameng; South Arunachal
Jharkhand
Singhbhum
UttarPradesh
Shivalik
Karnataka
Bandipur; Mysore; Dandheli

Kerala
Nilambar; Wayanad; Anamudi; Periyar
TamilNadu
Nilgiri; Coimbatore; Annamalai; Srivilliputtur

? With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
1. The leader of an elephant group is a female
2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? UPSC CSE 2018
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 and 4 only 3.3 only 4.1,3 and 4 only
Shivalik Elephant Reserve
- Nov,2020- The Government of India has asked the Uttarakhand government to consider
avoiding sensitive areas of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve while exploring land suitable
for use for the expansion of Dehradun’s Jolly Grant Airport.
- The area proposed for the expansion is a part of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve and it falls
within a 10-km radius of Rajaji National Park.
Nilgiri Elephant corridor
- Oct,2020- The Supreme court upheld a 2011 order of the madras high court on the Nilgiri
Elephant corridor, affirming the right of passage of the animals and the closure of
resorts in the area.
- The supreme court’s order to seal and close 27 resorts operating in corridors used by
elephants in the Nilgiris is a necessary step to restore the ecology of the spaces.
- Weak regulation of ecotourism is severely impacting important habitats of elephants.
- It’s the state’s duty to protect “Keystone Species” like elephants, which are very much
important to the environment.
- Fragmentation of forests makes it all the more important to preserve migratory corridors.

- The movement of elephants is essential to ensure that their populations are genetically
viable, and help regenerate forests on which other species, including tigers, depend.
Mangrove
Introduction
• Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral तटीय (near the seashore) forest ecosystem.
• These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats,
tidal creeks, backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical and
subtropical regions.
• Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20 m.
They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.
• Since mangroves are located between the land and sea, they represent the best example of
ecotone.
• Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to harsh coastal
conditions.
• They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.
• They produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem in the anaerobic
soil conditions.
• Mangroves grow below the high water level of spring tides.
Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
• Mangroves occur in a variety of configurations. Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching
prop roots down into the water.
Stilt roots:
• While others (e.g. Avicennia) send vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.

• Stilt roots are adventitious roots that grow from lower stem nodes and join and become deeper in
the soil.
• Prop root is an aerial root that develops from the horizontal branches of a tree.
Heritiera littoralis:
• Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself (before
falling to the ground).
• The seed germinates and grows from its own resources while still attached to its parent.
• Vivipary
Odisha
Subarnarekha
Bhitarkanika
Dhamra
Kalibhanjdia Is. (Mangrove Genetic Resources center)
Mahanadi
DeviKauda
Chilika lake
West Bengal
Sundarban delta
Andhra Pradesh
Coringa WLS→TungaBhadra River, Korangi River

East Godavari
Krishna

TamilNadu
Pulicat→Arani River Kaznuveli→Pabr River Pichavaram→Kollidam,

Uppanar river
Andaman & Nicobar
North Andaman;
Nicobar Kerala Kannur→ located on Northern
Kerala
Vembanad lake→Pamba River
Karnataka
Karwar→Kali nadi;
Sharavati river
Honnavar Kundapura→Panchyangovalid; chakra river; kolluru river
Mangalore forest division→Netravati river; Gurupura river
Goa & Maharashtra
Lake Vaitarna
Vasai Manori
Mumbra→Ulhas river
Vikhroli
Undalika revdanda
Shrivardhan
Veldur→Vashishti river
Vijaydurg→devgad; Vihotar river

Achra Malavar

Gujarat
Rann of Kutch→ Khambhat region, Dumas, ubharat region→near tapi River
Importance of Mangroves
• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help
to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already
occurring),stabilize the coastal shores, and provide a breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• They Prevent coastal soil erosion.
• They Protect coastal lands from tsunamis, hurricanes and floods.
• Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove Supports Numerous Florae, avifauna and wildlife.
• Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, rearing of several fishes.
• Theysupplywoods, firewood,medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
• They Provide numerous employment opportunities to local communities and augment their
livelihood.
India State of Forest Report, 2019
• About 40% of the world's Mangrove Cover is found in South East Asia and South Asia.
• The mangrove cover in India is 4,975 sq km, which is 0.15% of the country’s total geographical
area.
• Increase in the mangrove cover as compared to 2017 assessment: 54 sq km
• Among the states and UTs, West Bengal has the highest percentage of area under total Mangrove
cover followed by Gujarat and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
• Top three states showing Mangrove cover increase: Gujarat > Maharashtra > Odisha
India State of Forest Report, 2021
•Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km.

•It also recorded an increase of 17 sq km in mangrove cover in the country as compared to the
previous assessment of 2019.

•Top three states showing mangrove cover increase are Odisha (8 sq km) followed by
Maharashtra (4 sq km) and Karnataka (3 sq km).
Mangroves for the Future (MFF)
• Established in 2006
• Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique partner-led initiative to promote investment in
coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development.
• Co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, MFF provides a platform for collaboration among the many
different agencies, sectors and countries which are addressing challenges to coastal ecosystems and
livelihood issues.
• The goal is to promote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal management and to build
the resilience of ecosystem-dependent coastal communities.
• Member countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan,
Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam
• Objectives: To achieve its goal of conservation, restoration and sustainable management of
coastal ecosystems as key natural infrastructure which support human well-being and security,
MFF implements actions guided by three main objectives.
1. Improve, share and apply knowledge to support the conservation, restoration and
sustainable use of coastal ecosystems.
2. Strengthen Integrated Coastal Management institutions and empower civil society
(including local communities) to engage in decision-making and management that
conserves, restores and sustainably uses coastal ecosystems.
3. Enhance coastal governance at all levels (regional, national, provincial, district and
community) to encourage integrated management programmes and investments that are
ecologically and socio-economically sound, and promote human well-being and security.
Conservation of Mangroves
• UNESCO Designated Sites: The inclusion of mangroves in Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage
sites and UNESCO Global Geoparks contributes to improving the knowledge, management and
conservation of mangrove ecosystems throughout the world.

• International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem (ISME): The ISME is a non-governmental
organization established in 1990 to promote the study of mangroves with the purpose of enhancing
their conservation, rational management and sustainable utilization.
• Blue Carbon Initiative: The International Blue Carbon Initiative is focused on mitigating
climate change through the conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.
• It is coordinated by Conservation International (CI), IUCN, and the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO).
• International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem: UNESCO celebrates
this day on July 26 with the aim of raising awareness about mangrove ecosystems and to promote
their sustainable management and conservation.
• Mangroves for the Future Initiative: IUCN and UNDP developed a unique initiative to
promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation called the “Mangroves for the Future
(MFF)”.
• The member nations include Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar,
Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.
• National Mangrove Committee: The Government of India set up a National Mangrove
Committee in 1976 which advises the government about conservation and development of
mangroves.
• There are some important mangrove species in India:
• Avicennia Officinalis
• Morinda Citrifolia
• Rhizophora mucronata
• Sonneratia Alba
• Avicennia Alba
• Bruguiera Cylindrica
• Heriteira Littoralis (Sundari tree)
• Phoenix paludosa
• Ceriops Tagal
• West Bengal has 42.45 % of India’s mangrove cover (highest in the country.)
• Mangroves make 1 % of the tropical forests of the world.
• India has 3 % of the total mangrove cover in South Asia.

Further Refer this:
⇒https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/wildlife-biodiversity/scientificmanagement-of-
mangroves-is-need-of-the-hour-64007

Ecology_Ecosystem_Biome
Ecology & Ecosystem 70
Introduction 70
What is the Environment ? 70
Levels of Ecological Organization 71
Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment 74
Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions 74
Components of an ecosystem 74
Abiotic components (Nonliving) 75
Biotic components 77
Ecotone 77
Edge effect 78
Functions of an Ecosystem 78
Introduction 78
Energy Flow 79
Food chain 79
Food web 80
Ecological Pyramids 81
Pyramid of numbers 81
Pyramid Of biomass 82
Pyramid of energy 82
Limitations of pyramids 84
Ecological Succession 85
Orderly sequence of primary succession 86
Process of Ecological succession 86
Different types of Succession 90
Biotic Interactions 90
Some characteristics of Interaction: 95
Biogeochemical cycles 95
Water cycle/hydrological cycle 95
Carbon cycle 96
Phosphorus cycle 98
Nitrogen cycle 99
Biome 102
Introduction 102
Factors affecting biomes 102
Tundra Biome 103
Taiga or Boreal Biome 104

Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate) 104
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA 104
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate) 105
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) 105
Tropical RainForest Biome 105
Desert Biome 105
Grasslands 107
Ecology & Ecosystem
Introduction
● The term ‘ecology’ was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
● It was derived from two Greek words, ‘Oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning
study.
● Ecology may be defined as the scientific study of the relationship of living organisms with
each other and with their environment.
● It studies the interactions among organisms and their environment.
● Study of interaction between populations and intraspecific relationships.
● Study of structure and composition of the community and interspecific interactions between
members of the community.
What is the Environment ?
● The environment may be defined as the

surroundings or conditions in which an organism
lives or operates.
● The environment broadly includes living and
non-living components ie. biotic and abiotic
components.
● All organisms depend on their environment for
survival.
● Every living organism is constantly interacting
with its environment comprising air, light, water,
land or substratum and the various kinds of living organisms.

Levels of Ecological Organization
1. Individual/ Organism
● An individual (organism) is a living being that has the ability to act or function independently.
● Individuals make the basic unit of study in ecology.
● The organisms of a similar type have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring,
which are called species.
● An organism is fully adapted to its environment.It has a definite series of stages like birth,
hatching, growth, maturity, aging, and death.
Autecology the ecological study of a particular species.
2. Species
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.
⇒Habitat of an organism
● The physical environment in which an organism lives is called its habitat.

● Each organism has specific needs for its survival and lives wherever the surroundings provide
for those wants.
I. Space
II. Food
III. Water
IV. Shelter
⇒Keystone species
A keystone species is a species which has a disproportionately large effect on its natural
environment relative to its abundance, a concept introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T.
Paine. Indicator species, organisms—often a microorganism or a plant—that serves as a measure
of the environmental conditions that exist in a given locale.
Species जाित
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.

⇒Niche
● It refers to the functions that a species performs in its habitat.

● In other words, a niche can be considered as the ‘occupation’ of the species while habitat refers
to its ‘address’.
• A niche cannot be shared by two species as sharing would lead to competition between the
species until one of the species gets displaced.
• Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche- place where an organism lives
2. Food niche-includes consumption, decomposition, and competition for food
3. Reproductive niche-mode and time of reproduction of organisms
4. Physical & chemical niche- temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other
requirements.
⇒Adaptation
helps it to survive in its environment.

● Some examples are gills in fishes which help them to survive in water, thick fur of animals which
enable them to survive cold environments, etc.
• Desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf surfaces and stomata arranged in deep pits to
minimize water loss; a special photosynthetic pathway that keeps the stomata closed during day
time; spines instead of leaves
• Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plants. In some plants adapted to very dry (desert) conditions,
the stomata are closed during the daytime and open at night. These plants are said to show the
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway
• Mammals in cold climates have short ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
• Chaperone (protein)
• kangaroo rat adaptations
⇒Evolution
• Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species.

• It happens in order to make the organism better suitable to the present environment Evolution
• Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation etc
Speciation is the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by
which speciation is brought about. Geographic isolation leads to speciation.

Extinction
• The primary reason behind extinctions is environmental change or biological competition.
• Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changing
environment.
• At present, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction– human induced) is in progress.
3 Community समदुाय
● Many populations having different kinds of organisms sharing the same environment constitute
a community.
● The organisms that survive in an environment have adaptations and variations to suit their
surroundings.
● Climate plays an important role in deciding the community of a region as it influences the
environment of the region. Synecology the ecological study of whole plant or animal communities.
4 Ecosystem
● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
● It includes the community of living beings along with their physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials between them.
● All organisms in an ecosystem are dependent on all other species and the components which
are part of that community.
5 जीव म
● Biomes are divisions of the terrestrial part of the biosphere.
● A biome is characterized by its climate, vegetation, animal life,and general soil type.
● Every biome differs from each other.
● The boundaries and abundance of flora and fauna in a biome are determined by the climate in
the biome.
6. Biosphere
● The biosphere is a part of the earth where life exists.
● It is a zone comprising the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (land).
● It forms a narrow layer around the surface of the earth.
● The Sun is the source of energy for life within the biosphere.
● Air, water, and soil supply the nutrients required for living organisms.

Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment
● Ecosystem is a unit which has living and nonliving components and their interactions while
being dependent on one another.
● Ecology is the study of ecosystems. It studies the organisms and their relations with each other
and the environment.
● Environment usually refers to the physical surroundings in which an organism lives. An
ecosystem functions with the environment to make a big unit.
Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions
● The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
●An ecosystem consists of a community of living beings and their physical environment, which
interact and exchange materials between them. (Open System)
It has many interconnected habitats.
Components of an ecosystem
● The components of an ecosystem are broadly classified into

○ Biotic or living components
○ Abiotic or non-living components

Abiotic components (Nonliving)
Physical factors Sunlight, temperature,rainfall, They sustain and limit the

humidity and pressure growth of organisms in an
ecosystem
Inorganic substances Carbon dioxide, oxygen, They play an important role in

nitrogen, phosphorus,sulfur, the growth of living
water, rock, soil and other organisms.
minerals
Organic compounds Carbohydrates, proteins,lipids They form the building blocks

and humic substances of living organisms.
Therefore, they interlink the
biotic and abiotic components
Sunlight
● Plants use solar energy directly for photosynthesis and food production.
● Animals cannot use solar energy directly. Therefore, they obtain it indirectly by eating plants
or animals or both.
● Sunlight determines the temperature of all places which in turn decides the flora and fauna of a
region
● Energy also determines the distribution of organisms in the environment.
Temperature
Organisms can tolerate only some ranges of temperature and humidity.
● The levels of thermal tolerance of different species determine to a large extent their geographical
distribution.
● Eurythermal organisms - organisms which can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures. Plants- Roses, daisies, some vegetables and fruits etc. Animals- Cat, tiger, dog etc.
● Stenothermal organisms - organisms which are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures.
polar bear, frog, lizards, coconut,
▪Homeothermic animals are warm-blooded and maintain a constant body temperature, for
example birds and mammals.

▪Heterothermy is a physiological term for animals that vary between self-regulating their body
temperature, and allowing the surrounding environment to affect it.example- Cold Blooded
animal.
Thermal stratification is the phenomenon in which lakes develop two discrete layers of water of
different temperatures: warm on top (epilimnion) and cold below (hypolimnion). These layers are
each relatively uniform in temperature but are separated by a region of rapid temperature change
(the metalimnion or thermocline).
Water
● Water is essential for all living beings.
● It not only facilitates and provides a
medium for the majority of biochemical
reactions but also regulates the body
temperature of most of the living
organisms.
● Also, water bodies are the habitat for
many aquatic plants and animals.
● Euryhaline- organisms that tolerate a wide range of salinities. green crab
● Stenohaline- organisms restricted to a narrow range of salinities. plants and animals most
often found in the brackish waters of estuaries
Soil
● Soil provides water and nutrients in the form of organic and inorganic substances which are
tapped by the roots of plants which grow through the soil.
● The soil of a place is dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil developed.
Atmosphere
● All gasses essential for living organisms are present in the atmosphere.
● Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, oxygen for respiration and nitrogen for nutrition.
● Human beings and animals use oxygen for respiration.
● The amount of gasses present in the atmosphere are regulated through biogeochemical cycles.

Biotic components
Producers (autotrophs): उ पादक

● Producers are mainly the green plants and some bacteria and algae.
● They are also known as autotrophs/ self-nourishing organisms.
● The food for the entire ecosystem is provided by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
● Plants utilize sunlight, water, CO2 and nutrients for photosynthesis.
Consumers (Heterotrophs/ phagotrophs): macroconsumers उपभो ा
● They are called heterotrophs as they are incapable of producing their own food. They consume
food synthesized by the autotrophs.
● They can be grouped into three broad categories based on food preferences:
○ Herbivores - feed directly on plants, e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.
○ Carnivores - animals which eat other animals, eg. lion, cat, dog etc.
○ Omnivores - organisms which feed on both plants and animals, e.g. humans, pigs and sparrows,
etc.
Consumers can also be classified as:
1. Primary consumers: herbivores which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow, rabbit, deer, etc.
2. Secondary consumers: organisms who feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves, tigers, etc.
3. Tertiary consumers: organisms which feed on secondary consumers e.g. lions eating wolves,
humans, etc.
Decomposers(saprotrophs):
● Decomposers are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead
organic substances (detritus) of plants and animals.
● The products in the decomposition process are reused and recycled by the producers.
● Earthworms, nematodes, and arthropods etc. are also known as detritus feeders.
● They help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detritivores.
Ecotone
● Ecotone = transition zone of two or more diverse ecosystems.

● For e.g. the mangrove forests is a transition zone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem

● Ecotone is referred to as the zone of tension-because it inherits the conditions intermediate to
the adjacent ecosystems, and therefore has more
competition among species for available resources.
● Example-Wetlands.
● An ecotone can have a sharp vegetation transition,
with a distinct line between two communities.
● For example, a change in colors of grasses or plant
life can indicate an ecotone.
● Also, a change in physiognomy (physical appearance
of a plant species) can be a key indicator.
Edge effect
● Sometimes in an ecotone, the number and population density of some of the species is much
greater than either community. This is called the edge effect.
● The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.
● In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
● For example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between a forest
and a desert.
● Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit pronounced edge effects.
● As the edge effects increase, the ecotone allows for greater biodiversity.
Functions of an Ecosystem
Introduction
● Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems. They perform certain functions.These are:
(i) Energy flow through food chain
(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development

Energy Flow
● Energy helps organisms in their functioning and metabolic

activities.
● Energy flows from the producers to the consumers in a
unidirectional way.
● Food chains and food webs show the energy flow in an
ecosystem.
● The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
linked through them
Food chain
● A chain of interdependence of plants and animals for

food is called a food chain.
● A food chain also shows the transfer of energy from
plants to other organisms. Energy transfer is always
unidirectional.
● Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that
is known as their trophic level.
● The energy transferred decreases through each successive trophic level.

Types of food chains
There are two types of food chains in nature:
1. Grazing food chain:
● It starts from the green plants at the base of the food chain.
● Herbivores are at the next trophic level and then carnivores and so on.

● A grazing food chain (GFC)has
Grass (Producer) ---> Goat (Primary consumer) ---> Man (Secondaryconsumer)
2. Detritus food chain:
● It starts from dead organic matter of plants and animals.
● Microorganisms, detritus feeders, carnivores form the next trophic levels.
● The Detritus food chain derives its initial energy from the waste materials and dead organic
matter from the grazing food chain.
Food web
● It is a network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.

● This interconnection of food chains happens when one of the consumers is a member of many
food chains at a time.
● Food webs provide more realistic models of
energy flow through an ecosystem.
● A food web has all possible transfers of
energy and nutrients among the organisms in
an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces
only one pathway of the food.
● More complex the web, the more stable the
ecosystem is.
⇒ GPP vs NPP Gross Primary Production
Net Primary Production

● The total rate at which the solar energy is
stored by the process of photosynthesis in the
green plants is called Gross Primary
Production(GPP).
● GPP is also known as total photosynthesis.
● A part of the gross primary productivity is utilized by plants for its own metabolism.

● The remaining amount is called Net Primary Production (NPP). It is stored by the plant and is
made available to the consumers.
Ecological Pyramids
● Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem.

● Producer forms the base whereas the top carnivore forms the tip of the pyramid.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity
Pyramid of numbers
● This pyramid represents the total number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
● Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers can be either upright or inverted.
● Upright pyramids are generally seen in a grassland ecosystem where grasses are in abundance
and top carnivores are the least in numbers.
● Inverted pyramid: In a forest, trees (producers) form the base and provide food to herbivore
birds. Parasites and hyperparasites form the widertipof pyramid.

● Pyramid of numbers is not a good representation of the trophic structure of an ecosystem as
counting the numbers of organisms in each level is a difficult task.
Pyramid Of biomass
● In the pyramid of biomass, individuals in each trophic level are weighed (total dry weight)instead
of being counted.
● It represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level.
● Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. It is expressed as the
gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area.
● Upward pyramids of biomass are mostly found in terrestrial ecosystems where the biomass of
producers (autotrophs) is maximum and therefore they have a wide base.
● Inverted pyramids are generally found in aquatic ecosystems where producers are small
phytoplanktons who grow rapidly but have the least biomass therefore a small base.
Pyramid of energy
● Energy pyramid is the most common parameter to compare the functional roles of the trophic
levels in an ecosystem.

● An energy pyramid reflects the conversion of
solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy
at each trophic level.
● As there is loss of energy at each trophic level,
the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy
base at the bottom.
● Energy pyramid concept helps in explaining the
phenomenon of biological magnification, the
tendency for toxic substances to increase in
concentration progressively at higher levels of the
food chain.
● The amount of energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:
1.At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
2.A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higher trophic
level as heat.
⇒Ecological efficiency
● It is defined as the efficiency of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next trophic
level.
● Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed a 10%
rule.
● E.g. If autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal. and carnivores 1 cal.

Limitations of pyramids
● It does not take into account the same

species belonging to two or more trophic
levels.
● It assumes a simple food chain, which never
exists in nature.
● It does not accommodate a food web.
● Moreover, saprophytes are not given any
place in ecological pyramids even though
they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
⇒ Bioaccumulation is the gradual
accumulation of pollutants, chemicals
(chronic poisoning) or other substances in an
organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when the
rate of loss of the substance from the body of
the organism through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms), or
excretion is lower than the rate of accumulation of the substance. As persistent organic pollutants
like DDT are long lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the environmental levels of
the pollutant are not high.
⇒ Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each
trophic level with the passage of time. In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must
have a long biological half-life (long-lived), must not be soluble in water but must be soluble in
fats. E.g. DDT. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants
that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time.
Polychlorinated biphenyl

Ecological Succession
● It is a process by which one community is

replaced by another community over a period
of time.
● The changes are brought about by both the
biotic and abiotic components in the
community.
● The extent of change is influenced by the
physical environment.
● The first plant to colonize an area is called the
pioneer.
● The final stage of the succession is called the
climax community.
● A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long lasting.

● The stage leading to the climax community is called the successional stage or serre.
● Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage
in succession or seral communities.
Orderly sequence of primary succession
➔ Pioneer stage: Pioneer species / community; High growth rate but short life span; Ex-Bare
rock & Lichens.
➔ Intermediate stage: Seral community/ temporal community. Ex- grasses, shrub
➔ Climax community: Terminal or final community; stable, mature and more complex and
long lasting. Ex- Shade tolerant trees.
Types of serre Explanation
Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habit
Xerosere Succession in dry habit
Lithosere Succession on bare rock surface
Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas
Helosere Succession starting in saline soil or water
Senile Succession on microorganism on dead matter
Eosere Development of vegetation in an era
Process of Ecological succession
1. Nudation: the development of bare areas is the initial prerequisite. The cause of nudation
may be topographic (soil erosion, landslide, volcanic activity etc.), climatic and
biotic(human being and pathogen)
2. Invasion: This is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species
actually reaches this new site from any other area.
3. Competition and coaction: After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the
species at the limited place, there develops competition mainly for space and nutrition.

Individuals of a species affect each other’s life in various ways and this is called coaction.
The species, if unable to compare with other species, if present would be discarded.
4. Reaction: This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of the
modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it, is known
as reaction. As a result of
reaction, changes take place in
soil, water, light conditions,
temperature etc of the
environment. Due to all these
the environment is modified,
becoming unsuitable for the
existing community which
sooner or later is replaced by
another community (seral
communities). The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another in the given
area is called s sere, and various communities constituting the sere as seral communities.
5. Stabilization (climax): This is the final stage of development, climax community is nearly
stable and will not change so long as the climate and physiography remain the same.
However, the environment as well as community are in a dynamic state. Some ecologists
(Gleason,1929) have talked of retrogressive succession in which continuous biotic
influences have some degenerating influence on the process. Due to destructive effects on
organisms, sometimes the development of disturbed communities does not occur and the
process of succession instead of progressive becomes retrogressive. For example, forests
may change to shrubby or grassland communities. This is called retrogressive succession.
⇒Ecological succession is characterized by the following;
● Increased productivity,
● The shift of nutrients from the reservoirs,
● Increased diversity of organisms with increased development of niche, and
● A consequent increase in the complexity of food webs.
● Succession occurs faster in areas existing in the middle part of a large continent.

● This is because, here all communities and seeds of plants belonging to the different species
would reach much faster, establish, and ultimately result in the climax community.
● During succession, some species colonize an area and their populations become more
numerous, whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear.
● There are two types of successions such as;
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
★ Primary succession:
● It takes place in a region where a community never existed previously.
● Such regions include emerging islands, newly formed deltas, newly created ponds,
reservoirs etc.
● The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
● A pioneer species has a short lifespan though it may have a high growth rate.
● The collection of pioneer species that form in a bare region is called the pioneer
community.
★ Secondary succession:
● When an existing community is destroyed, another community forms at the same
place. Such a process through which a community develops after the destruction of
an existing community is called secondary succession.
● The removal or destruction of the existing community takes place due to natural
disasters like forest fires, volcanoes etc. pr due to human activities like tilling or
harvesting.
● In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil,
availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules present.

★ Primary vs Secondary Succession
● It is difficult to observe primary succession, unlike secondary succession. This is
because there are very few places on Earth that do not already have communities
of organisms.
● Primary succession is very slow as compared to secondary succession. This is
because soil formation takes a long time in primary succession while secondary
succession starts on soil that is nutritious.
★ Seral community
● In the succession process, the pioneer community after some time gets replaced by
another community with different species combinations.
● This second community gets replaced by a third community and so on.
● This process continues sequentially in which a community is replaced previously
by another community.
● Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during
succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
● The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area is
called sere(s).
★ Climax community
● The final community which is established by ecological succession and is in near
equilibrium with the environment is the climax community.
● The climax community that is established is stable, mature, more complex and
long-lasting.

● As long as it is undisturbed, a climax community remains relatively stable in
dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing climate and habitat factor.
Different types of Succession
● Autogenic and Allogenic:

➔ When succession is caused by living inhabitants of that community itself, the
process is called autogenic succession, while change is brought about by external
forces known as allogenic succession. An allogenic succession can be brought
about in a number of ways which can include: Volcanic eruptions; Meteor or comet
strike; Flooding; drought.
● Xerarch and Hydrarch
➔ Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for example on bare
is known as Xerarch.
➔ Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lakes is called Hydrarch.
● Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
➔ Succession in which the green plants (initially) are much greater in quantity is
known as autotrophic succession and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater
in quantity are known as heterotrophic succession.
Biotic Interactions
● The individuals in a biological community of an area or ecosystem interact with one

another in a number of ways.
● The interactions that occur among different individuals of the same species are termed as
Intraspecific interaction.
● The interactions among individuals of different species in a community are called
Interspecific interaction.

1. Amensalism: It is a type of negative association. In amensalism, one species is harmed by
the other species which remains unaffected by the
presence of the other species. For example, the
bread mold fungus Penicillium produces
penicillin, an antibiotic substance that inhibits the
growth of a variety of Bacteria. Penicillium
benefits apparently by having greater availability
of food when the competition because of the
bacteria is removed. Ex- Black walnut trees produce chemicals which prevent other trees
from growing near them.
2. Predation: Predators act as conduits for transferring energy from one trophic level to
another. They keep prey populations under control. The introduction of an exotic species
into an area may become invasive if there are no natural predators. Predators also help in
maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition
among competing for prey species. Prey species (plants and animals) are adopted in various
ways to prevent being captured by the predator.

3. Parasitism: One species is harmed and the other benefits. The parasite lives in/on another
living species called the host from which the parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter.
The parasite is benefited and the host is harmed. Parasites have special adaptations to
counteract and neutralise the mechanisms of the host species. Eg. The cuscuta plant has no
leaves. Tapeworm, roundworm,
malarial parasite, many bacteria,
many bacteria, fungi, and viruses
are common parasites of humans.
Ex- fleas and mosquitoes feed on
blood from other organisms. In this
type of parasitic relationship, the
host needs to stay alive and it is not
damaged greatly. Ectoparasites-
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called ectoparasites.
Eg.- lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Endoparasites- Endoparasites are those that live
inside the host body at different sites such as a tapeworm that lives inside
its host. Brood Parasitism- Brood parasitism in birds is fascinating.
⇒example of parasitism in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the
nest of its host and lets the host incubate them. Eg.- cuckoo and crow.
4. Competition: This is an interaction between two populations in which

both species are harmed to some extent. Competition occurs when two
populations or species, both need a vital resource that is in short supply. The vital resource
could be food, water shelter, nesting site mates or space. For instance, in some shallow
south American lakes visiting flamingos and resident fishes compete for their common

food, the zooplankton in the lake. Two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated
eventually. This may be true if resources are limited, but not otherwise. It can not be ruled
out the occurrence of interspecific competition in nature, but species facing competition
might evolve mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than exclusion. Eg.- resource
partitioning. If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid competition
by choosing, for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging patterns.
⇒ Resource partitioning- Species with similar
resource requirements can coexist because they use

limited resources: at different times, in different
ways, in different places.
5. Commensalism: The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither
nor harmed is called commensalism. Some species benefit by utilizing the shelter or
transport of another species. For example, epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like

ferns, mosses and orchids and use the surface of trees for support and for obtaining sunlight
and moisture. The tree
does not benefit from
this relationship and is
not harmed as well.
Other examples-
barnacles growing on
the back of a whale,
cattle egret and grazing cattle in close association, sea anemone and clownfish etc.
6. Mutualism: Both the species are benefitted in this interaction. In some interactions,
mutualism is so strong that the species involved in
the interaction cannot survive without each other.
Such an association is called a symbiotic
relationship. Some examples are, such as,
Lichens-algae and fungus; Mycorrhizae- fungus
and roots of higher plants; Plants and animals-
animals help in pollination and plants provide food. The ants obtain food and shelter, and
the acacia depends on the ants for protection from browsing animals.

Some characteristics of Interaction:
1. Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in their interaction
with each other.
2. In both parasitism and predation, only one species benefits (parasite and predator,
respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species( host and prey,
respectively).
3. Predation, parasitism, and commensalism share a common characteristic-the
interacting species live closely together.
Biogeochemical cycles
● The movement of nutrients from the environment into plants and animals and again back to the
environment is known as nutrient cycling.
● Nutrients are absorbed from the soil by green plants which are passed onto primary consumers
and thereafter to secondary and tertiary consumers.
● When the producers and consumers die, nutrients are released back into the soil by detritivores
from the dead remains of organisms.
● Nutrient cycle can be of two types
1. Gaseous - atmosphere or the hydrosphere is the main reservoir
2. Sedimentary - earth's crust is the main reservoir.
Water cycle/hydrological cycle
● Water is essential for life.

● It not only provides transportation for nutrient cycling, but also acts as a solvent medium for the
uptake of nutrients by various organisms.
● Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth.
● Water received from the atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water vapor
resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration.
● This continuous movement of water in the biosphere is called the water cycle (hydrological
cycle).
● The driving forces for the water cycle are solar radiation and gravity.

● Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in the water cycle. These two
processes alternate with each other.
● Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by the sun's heat energy. Plants
also transpire huge amounts of water.
● Water remains in the vapor state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind.
● Clouds meet with the cold air in the mountainous regions above the forests and condense to form
rain precipitate which comes down due to gravity
Carbon cycle
● Almost all the carbon in nature is derived from carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
● It is highly soluble in water. Therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon
dioxide.
● It is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants.
Steps in global Carbon cycle
1. Photosynthesis:
● Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis.
● A part of the food made is used by plants for their own metabolism.
● Rest of the food is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores, heterotrophs,
including human beings and microorganisms as food.
● Forests act as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due
to their long life cycles.

● A very large amount of CO2 is released through forest fires.
2. Respiration:
● Respiration is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water.
● The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living organisms
(plants, animals, decomposers etc.).
● Thus CO2 is released into the atmosphere through this process.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things. ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and
releases it to fuel other cellular processes.

3. Decomposition:
● All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plants is not metabolized by them
completely.
● A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to decomposers
on their death.
● The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the
atmosphere by decomposers.
4. Combustion: Burning of biomass releases
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5. Impact of human activities: Since the
industrial era, large scale deforestation and ever
growing consumption of fossil fuels by growing
numbers of industries, power plants
and automobiles are primarily responsible for
increasing the emission of carbon dioxide.
6. Storage in long term cycle:
● Some carbon accumulates as un-decomposed
organic matter in marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in ocean bottom where it remains buried
for millions of years.
● The carbonate rocks may be uplifted geologically and exposed to erosion, releasing the carbon
compounds into streams and rivers.
● When fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are burned, the carbon stored in them is
released back into the atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.
Phosphorus cycle
● Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems.
● Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth.
● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates.

● When rocks are weathered, minute amounts
of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution
and are absorbed by the roots of the plants .
● Herbivores and other animals obtain this
element from plants.
● The waste products and the dead organisms
are decomposed by phosphate solubilizing
bacteria releasing phosphorus.
Differences between carbon cycle and
phosphorus cycle
● Unlike the carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere.
● Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs.
● Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
Nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen is an essential component of protein required by all living organisms including human
beings.
● Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen but it cannot be used directly i.e in its elemental
form by the majority of living organisms.
● Therefore, the atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed i.e converted to ammonia, nitrites and
nitrates so that it is taken by various organisms.
● Like carbon dioxide, nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous
phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms.

Agents of nitrogen fixation Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed mainly by three agents:
1. Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria. Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the
root nodules of leguminous plants. b. Free Living e.g.
I. Nostoc
II. Azotobacter Cyanobacteria
2. Industrial activities e.g. manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers
3. Atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lightning
Processes in nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates.
● Nitrification:
○ It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and
Nitrococcus bacteria respectively.

○ Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can convert nitrite into nitrate.
●Assimilation:
● In this process, nitrogen fixed by plants is converted
into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc.
● These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
●Ammonification:
● Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products
such as urea and uric acid.
● These waste products as well as dead remains of
organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia
by the bacteria. This process is called ammonification.
● Ammonifying bacteria help in this process. Examples
of ammonifying bacteria contain bacillus, proteus,
clostridium,
●Denitrification:
● Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification.
● Denitrifying bacteria (e.g. pseudomonas) live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live
in an oxygen free medium.
● Denitrification is the reverse of nitrogen fixation.

Biome
Introduction
● Biome is an abbreviation for biological home.

● Biome means an assemblage of plant and animal communities with minimum common
characteristics.
● All the areas of biomes are characterized by more or less uniform environmental conditions such
as climate, soil etc.
Factors affecting biomes
(i) Day and night hours which are responsible for the duration of photosynthesis.
(ii)Mean temperature as diurnal and annual variation which decides the extreme conditions.
(iii) Length of growing season.
(iv) Precipitation, its total amount and spatio-temporal variation
(v) Wind speed, direction, duration and frequency.
(vi) Soil types
(vii) Slope
(viii) Drainage Types of biomes Biomes are classified in various ways.
There are five major biomes in the world.
1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Deserts
4. Tundra
5. Aquatic
⦁ Forest
• Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)
• Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Temperate Shrub Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical RainForest Biome

⦁ Tundra
• Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome
⦁ Grassland
• Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
• Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
(Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)
⦁ Desert
Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome
Tundra Biome
• There are two types of tundra – arctic

and alpine.
• Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains
above the treeline. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc.
• There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
• The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
• Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, arctic
willow live in the tundra region.

• Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
• Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.
● It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia,Siberia and the island group
of ArcticOcean.
Climate: 1. Long winters with little daylight.
2. Short summers with long daylight hours.
3. Precipitation is less (25 cm or less per year), that too mostly in the form of snow
Taiga or Boreal Biome
• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor. This is because:
✓ The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments
✓ The litter derived from conifer needles (leaf) decomposes very slowly and is not rich in
nutrients (humus content is low).
• conifers do not shed their leaves frequently. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous
forest with species such as spruce, fir and pine.
• The conifers require little moisture and are best suited to this type of subArctic climate.
• The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.
• Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel,
and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.

• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Supports luxuriant vegetation.

• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
• On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses are important.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leaved evergreen trees (mostly
evergreen oaks).
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the plants enables
them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
droughts.
• They are, in short, xerophytic (drought tolerant).
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry deciduous
forest; tropical deciduous forest. Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry
are some of the important species
Tropical RainForest Biome
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rainforest.

• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony,
dyewoods etc.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement
(canopy).
• Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a plant
that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from
the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
Desert Biome
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.

• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water.
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they
lie dormant.
● Almost 33% of the earth’s surface area is desert, getting less than 25 cm precipitation (OverallIt
include both hot and cold desert, not necessarily as a continuous belt like Taiga)
● Around 20% of these are sandy deserts located between 25-30 degree north and south latitude.
● The desert biome is characterized by very low rainfall (usually less than 25 cm per year) that
comes as short, hard showers.
● This biome covers almost 20% of the earth.
● True Desert~ 14%, another ~ 15 % earth land surface possesses some desert-like characteristics.
Hot vs cold deserts
● Deserts that receive rain as the main form of precipitation are called hot deserts while those which
receive snow as their main form of precipitation are called cold deserts.
● The hot deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico, Chile, Peru, Africa
(Sahara desert), Asia (Rub’Al Khali, Thar etc) and central and Western Australia (Tanami Desert,
Gibson Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert etc).
● Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland, Iran, Northern and Western China.
● Some famous cold deserts are: – Antarctica, Atacama, Gobi, GreatBasin, Namib, Iranian,
Taklamakan, Patagonia etc.
Hot desert Climate:
● Hot and dry summers, warm temperatures throughout the year.
● Average temperature: 20-25 degrees Celsius.
● The extreme maximum temperature for the Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49° C.
Flora:
● Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
● The plants must adapt themselves for harsh conditions and be able to obtain and conserve water.

● The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias, cacti, many other
succulents and hardy grasses.
● Many of the small plants are annuals.
Plant adaptations include-
● Small or no leaves
● reduced leaf surface area to reduce evaporation from the plants,
● loss of leaves during long dry spell,
● small hairs on the leaf surfaces,
● Succulent leaves and stems
● Ability to store large amounts of water.
● Well developed root system
● Annuals germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season
● Waxy/Thick skin to prevent water loss
Grasslands
● Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees.
● There are two main divisions of grasslands:
(1) tropical grasslands or savannas
(2) temperate grasslands
● A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem.
● They are also known as tropical grasslands and found in a wide band on either side of the equator
on the edges of tropical rainforests.
● Savannah can also be said to be a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland.
● Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa andAustralia.
Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
Distribution
● African Savannah- West African Region surrounding Sudan.
● South American Savannah- Called Cerrado (Brazil), Llanos (Colombia and Venezuela) and
Campos (Southern Brazil).
● Australian Savannah- Situated adjacently southward to the Northern monsoon line of
Australia.

● Indian Savannah- Parts of North Karnataka, Telangana and South Maharashtra region
temperate grasslands
Distribution:
● They are also called Granaries of the world.
● The temperate grasslands in different regions are called by different names. They are
○ The US prairies.
○ Russian steppes,
○ Veldts of Africa,
○ Pampas of South America (mostly located in Argentina andUruguay),
○ Steppes of Eurasia
○ Downs of Australia
○ Pustaz of Hungary
○ Canterbury of New Zealand Deserts

Aquatic_Ecosystem
Aquatic 109
Introduction 109
Freshwater regions 109
Coral Reefs & Concerns 113
Corals 113
Types of Coral Reefs 114
Global distribution of Coral reef 116
4.2.4 Importance of coral reefs 117
Threats to Coral Reefs 118
Extent of Coral Bleaching 120
Cause of coral bleaching in India 120
Impact of Coral Bleaching 121
Global Initiatives 121
Conservation of Coral Reefs in India 123
Steps to be taken 125
Eutrophication – Aging of Lakes 125
Eutrophication and Algal Bloom 126
Mitigation of Eutrophication 127
Aquatic
Introduction
● This biome covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface.

● It links all the other biomes.
● This is one of the most important biomes for the survival of species.
● Without water, Earth would have been a large desert.
● It can be classified as
1. Freshwater
2. Marine Aquatic
Freshwater regions
● Such regions have less than 1% salinity.

● The species which are adapted to survive in freshwater cannot survive in other water bodies which
have more salinity.
● Freshwater regions can be again divided into
○ Ponds and lakes
○ Streams and rivers
○ Wetlands (Studied in Pillar#1)
Ponds and Lakes -
● These regions range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
● Most of the ponds are seasonal unlike lakes.
● Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another
and from other water sources like rivers and oceans.
● According to depth and distance from the shoreline, lakes and ponds are divided into three different
“zones”.

Streams and rivers -
● They have waters which are flowing or in constant motion.
● They change their characteristics during their journey from the source to the mouth.
● The water at the source is cooler and clearer at the source with high oxygen levels. Therefore it
has freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs.
● At the mouth, water is murky and has fish that require less oxygen, such as catfish and carp.
Wetlands -
● Areas of standing water that support aquatic plants are called wetlands.
● These include marshes, swamps, and bogs.
● Flora include hydrophytes which are plants adapted to moist and humid conditions such as pond
lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce.
● Marsh flora also include such species as cypress and gum.
● Fauna include many species of amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders), and
furbearers.
● More Details on Pillar#1
Marine regions -
● Such regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface.
● Marine regions include the oceans, coral reefs and the estuaries.

● The algae present in the maine regions absorb a lot the atmospheric CO2 and contribute to the
oxygen supply on Earth,
● Almost all the rainfall on Earth is due to the evaporation of water from the marine regions.
Oceans -
● They are the largest of the water bodies.
● Oceans have four zones - intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic.
● All four zones have a great diversity of species

Coral Reefs & Concerns
Corals
▪ Coral polyps are small (0.25-12 inches), soft-bodied marine

organisms.
▪ They belong to the group cnidaria
▪ Note: other cnidarians include hydras, jellyfish, and sea anemones
▪ The coral polyps share a symbiotic relationship with algae called
zooxanthellae.
▪ The
zooxanthellae(algae) live inside the coral polyps and
perform photosynthesis, producing food & oxygen
which is shared with the coral.
● Pirotan Island is a coral island in the Gulf of
Kutch, near Jamnagar Marine National Park
(MNP), Gujarat. Since 2010 closed for tourism but
now State govt thinking of resuming

▪ In exchange the coral provides the algae with protection and access to light, which is necessary for
photosynthesis.
▪ Coral Reef = Coral Polyp + zooxanthellae
Types of Coral Reefs
▪ The corals secrete calcium carbonate which acts like a

cement.
▪ These bind together coral, sand and pieces of rubble to form
a solid structure known as the reef.
▪ The major types of coral reefs are:
1. Fringing Reefs: These are coral reefs that grow in shallow waters and in areas of low rainfall
runoff, primarily on the leeward side. They closely border the coastline or are separated from it by
a narrow stretch of water.
2. Barrier reefs: These grow parallel to the coast, but are separated from land by a lagoon.
Example: Great Barrier reef, Queensland, Australia.
3. Atolls: These grow surrounding (or partly surrounding) an island which then sinks relative to sea
level. Example: Maldives consists of 26 atolls.
1. Fringing reefs
▪ A fringing reef is a coralline platform lying close to shore extending outwards from the mainland.
▪ It is sometimes separated from the shore by a shallow lagoon.
▪ It is widest when fringing a protruding headland but completely absent when facing the mouth of
a stream.
▪ The outer edge grows rapidly because of the splashing waves that continuously renew the supply
of fresh food.
▪ The reefs may be about a mile wide, lying just above the level of low water and sloping steeply
downwards on the seaward side to a depth of about 100 feet .

2. Barrier reefs
▪ A barrier reef is separated from the coast by a much wider and deeper channel or lagoon .
▪ The reef is partially submerged.
▪ It lies above the water level and sand can accumulate on it, a little vegetation is possible.
▪ The barrier reefs have narrow gaps at several places to allow the water from the enclosed lagoon
to return to the open ocean.
▪ Gaps are very useful for shipping and provide the only entrances for ships to enter or leave the
lagoon.
▪ The best known barrier reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
▪ It is 1.200 miles long, separated from the coast by a channel 110 miles wide in places and over 200
feet deep.
3. Atolls
▪ Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except that they are circular in shape, enclosing a shallow lagoon
without any land in the center.
▪ The encircling ring is usually broken in a few places to allow the free flow of water.

▪ On the inside of the reefs, sand and limestone debris collect and palm trees like coconuts may grow.
▪ Such palm trees thrive well in the brackish water of the lagoon.
▪ The nuts fall into the water and are distributed widely by floating from one coral island to another.
▪ The calm waters are useful for fishing and canoeing.
Global distribution of Coral reef
▪ Some of the large atolls, e.g. Suvadiva in the Maldives, west of Ceylon have a lagoon over 40 miles
across.
▪ A number of them provide essential air bases for trans-Pacific aircraft.

▪ Coral reefs are mainly found in tropical seas (30°N to 30°S )where the sea is shallow (less than
100m); and warm (usually between 25° and 29°C).
In India, coral reefs are located in 7 regions:
▪ Goa coast
▪ Kerala coast
▪ Palk Bay,
▪ Gulf of Kutch
▪ Gulf of Mannar
▪ Lakshadweep islands
▪ Andaman and Nicobar islands
4.2.4 Importance of coral reefs
▪ Biodiversity:
▪ Coral reefs are extremely productive
ecosystems and are called ‘the rainforests of
the sea.’
▪ Despite covering less than 0.1% of the ocean floor, reefs host more than 25% of all marine fish
species and other marine animals.
▪ Regulating services:
▪ Coral reefs protect the shoreline and reduce flooding.

▪ Coral reefs contribute to land accretion (opposite of land erosion)
▪ Economic value:
▪ Coral reefs support human life and livelihoods
and are therefore important economically.
▪ For example: According to WWF, 1 sq.km of
well-managed coral reef can yield an average of
15 tonnes of fish and other seafood annually.
▪ Further, coral reefs support the tourism industry
in countries like Seychelles and Maldives.
▪ Cultural values:
▪ Coral reefs have aesthetic and recreational values
Threats to Coral Reefs
1. Climate Change and its impact on Coral reefs:

▪ With rising global temperatures, mass coral bleaching events and infectious disease outbreaks have
become more frequent.
▪ Bleaching is when corals lose the highly pigmented zooxanthellae from their tissues due to stress
from high sea temperatures and solar irradiation exposing the white calcium carbonate skeletons of
the coral colony.
▪ Ocean acidification:
▪ Carbon dioxide absorbed into the ocean from the
atmosphere has been reducing calcification rates in reef-
building and reef-associated organisms by changing
chemical
properties of seawater .This can ultimately lead to
dissolving coral reefs.
▪ Increased frequency and intensity of tropical storms:
Violent storms will lead to coral breakage, dislocation and degradation from wind and waves
▪ Changes in precipitation: increased precipitation will lead to more freshwater runoff.
▪ Freshwater run-off reduces salinity levels, may cause bleaching, and brings increased nutrients and
sediments, which can lead to disease outbreak.

▪ Altered ocean circulation patterns may lead to lack of food due to dispersal of larvae
Coral bleaching was first recorded in 1911 in the Florida Keys.

The first report on The “Status of Coral Reefs of Worldwide” (also known as
Wilkson Report) was published in 1988 by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Network and has been updated since then. The initial report focussed on
overfishing, pollution and other anthropogenic stresses on reefs. Later, the
impact of rising global temperatures on reefs has been focussed upon.
2. ENSO:
▪ Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as ENSO-related sea level
drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
▪ The consequent exposure to high or low temperatures, increased solar radiation and sea water
dilution by heavy rains could lead to zooxanthellae loss and also cause coral death.
3. Marine Pollution:
▪ Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to increased concentrations of various chemical
contaminants and oil.
▪ Plastic and garbage at the seaside often ends up in the sea and disrupts the coral reefs’ delicate
environment.
4. Overfishing and destructive fishing practices – such as purse seining, fine-mesh fishing, ‘moxy’
nets, cyanide fishing and blast fishing result in unsustainable damage to coral reefs.
5. Coral mining (for example in south and south-east Asia) which involves blasting of reefs and
coral being removed, cause immediate destruction but also result in indirect detrimental effects such
as sand erosion and sedimentation
6. Sedimentation: Erosion caused by construction, mining,
logging, and farming has led to increased sediment in rivers.
▪ The sediment drastically reduces the amount of light reaching
coral reefs and destroys them.
▪ Further, destruction of mangroves, which check sediments, have
aggravated the problem.
7. Poorly managed tourism has both direct and indirect negative effects on coral reefs.
▪ Snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs.

▪ Overexploitation of reef species as food, for aquaria and as curios for tourist markets can threaten
the survival of species.
8. Indiscriminate Exploitation of coral reefs for wildlife trade has also emerged as a major threat
to coral ecosystems.
9. Massive outbreaks of predatory starfish, invasive species also pose threat to survival of corals
Extent of Coral Bleaching
▪ According to a study published in the journal Science, the global proportion of coral being hit by
bleaching per year has increased from 8% in the 1980s to 31% in 2016.
▪ From 1980 to 2016, the number of bleaching events was highest in the western Atlantic, including
Central America and the Caribbean, which experienced 3 times more events than other regions such
as Australasia, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
▪ Since 1980, 58% of severe bleaching events have been recorded during strong periods of El Nino.
▪ The last coral bleaching event took place from 2014 to 2017.
▪ It had destroyed nearly 12000km of reefs. Global coral bleaching was also recorded in 1998 and
2010.
▪ In 2016-17, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia suffered extreme coral bleaching which killed
around 50% of its corals.
Cause of coral bleaching in India
▪ 1. The corals of Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

▪ These were severely affected by the 2004 Tsunami and have not yet fully recovered.
▪ Other reasons for coral bleaching in these islands include unregulated tourism, fishing and marine
pollution
▪ 2. Coral in the Gulf of Kachchh region:
▪ Siltation and Eutrophication due to developmental activities have been the major cause of bleaching
of corals.
▪ 3. Corals of Lakshadweep islands:
▪ Periodic dredging for boat passage in the lagoons, amongst others, affects the health of corals in
these coral islands.
4. Gulf of Mannar reefs

▪ They are affected due to intense local activities like intensive fishing, illegal harvesting of protected
species which affects the ecological balance, pollution from boats, construction along the shores etc.
Impact of Coral Bleaching
▪ Ecological Impacts of bleaching:

▪ Decline in marine species diversity
▪ Land masses will be directly exposed to waves leading to a risk of erosion.
▪ Changes in coral communities affect the species that depend on them
▪ Socioeconomic impacts of bleaching:
▪ Degraded coral reefs are not able to provide the ecosystem services on which local human
communities depend.
▪ Reefs damaged by coral bleaching can quickly lose many of the features that are important for the
aesthetic(branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art) appeal that is fundamental to reef
tourism.
▪ Thus there is loss of revenue from tourism.
▪ It can drive large shifts in fish communities.
▪ This results in reduced catches for fishers targeting reef fish species, which in turn impacts food
supply and associated economic activities.
▪ Coral reefs are a valuable source of pharmaceutical compounds.
▪ Degraded and dead reefs are less likely to serve as a source for important medicinal resources.
Global Initiatives
▪ 1. International Coral Reefs Initiative (ICRI)

▪ The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership between Nations and
organizations which aims to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the world.
▪ The Initiative was founded in 1994 by eight countries:
▪ Australia, France, Japan, Jamaica, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the
United States of America.
▪ India is a member of ICRI.
Main objectives are:

▪ Encourage the adoption of best practice in sustainable management of coral reefs and associated
ecosystems
▪ Capacity Building
▪ Raise awareness at all levels on the plight of coral reefs around the world.
▪ The ICRI declared 2018 as the third International Year of the Reef(IYOR).
▪ 2. Global Coral Reef monitoring network
▪ It is a network under ICRI which works to provide scientific information and communication on
the status of coral reef ecosystems to increase conservation and management for coral reefs
▪ 3. International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)
▪ ICRAN is a strategic alliance of private and public organizations that acts worldwide to address
the management of coral reef ecosystems and the needs of the communities that depend upon them.
▪ It operates by sharing and promoting traditional knowledge, current research, and best practices in
order to strengthen reef management.
▪ 4. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has included coral reef conservation
and restoration as an ecosystem-based adaptation measure (EBA) for coastal protection.
▪ 5. Coral Triangle Initiative: The six governments of the Coral Triangle – Indonesia, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor Leste have established partnerships
to conserve coral reefs and the multitude of species and fisheries they support.
⇒Mar-2020-About Great Barrier Reef:
• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which spreads across a length of over 2,300 km and is roughly
the size of Italy, is home to about 3,000 coral reefs, 600 continental islands, 1,625 types of fish, 133
varieties of shark and rays and 600 types of soft and hard corals.
• Warming ocean temperatures, a sign of climate change, is associated with the deteriorating health
of the Reef.
Importance of GBR: The Great Barrier Reef, which covers roughly 10 percent of the world’s coral
reef ecosystems;
• Supports a range of activities and contributes over AUD $5.6 billion each year to the Australian
economy and
• The Great Barrier Reef is also responsible for creating over 70,000 jobs.
• Protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms.

• It is the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food chains and corals also assist
in carbon and nitrogen fixing
• The fishing industry depends on coral reefs because many fish spawn there and juvenile fish spend
time there before making their way to the open sea.
Threats to GBR: In the 2019 Outlook Report prepared by the Australian government, it said that;
• Climate change was the greatest threat to the Reef.
• Other threats included
• coastal development,
• land-based run-off and
• direct human use, such as activities like illegal fishing.
▪ Recent Step taken in Australia to protect Great Barrier Reef:
▪ In 2018, the Australian government has announced its largest-ever investment in the coral reef:
▪ over half a billion Australian dollars ($378 million).
▪ The money will be used to counter water pollution, combat coral-eating starfish, increase public
awareness, boost reef monitoring, and improve the environmental impact of surrounding businesses.
Conservation of Coral Reefs in India
▪ 1. The protection of coral reefs has been stressed under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).
▪ Corals are included in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
▪ Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) also takes up the issue of coral reef
habitat destruction
▪ 2. On the recommendations of the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs
following coral reef areas in the country have been identified for intensive conservation and
management since 1987:
▪ Andaman & Nicobar Islands
▪ Lakshadweep Islands
▪ Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat)
▪ Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)
▪ 3. The coral bleaching Alert System (CBAS) has been initiated by INCOIS since 2011.

▪ This model uses the satellite derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in order to assess the thermal
stress accumulated in the coral environs.
▪ This information yields in drawing the early signs of the intensity and spatial extents of coral
bleaching
▪ 4. Recommendations of Task Force on Islands, Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Wetlands (11th
Five Year Plan 2007-2012)
▪ Initiatives on conservation, development and poverty reduction in coastal areas need to be more
effectively integrated
▪ Development of sustainable alternative livelihoods and viable options for coastal populations to
reduce the pressure on reef resources.
▪ Indian National Center for Ocean Information Services
▪ Management of coral reef areas should be improved by increasing the efficiency in use of funding.
▪ Increase enforcement of existing laws such as those relating to coral mining, while ensuring that
populations are not deprived of livelihood options
▪ Research into current conservation status of food fishes, lobsters, sea cucumbers, ornamental fishes
and other reef-associated biota
▪ Appropriate regulation mechanisms to ensure that fisheries are sustainable, possibly though
introduction of licenses and certification schemes.
▪ Develop mechanisms for managing coral reef information, including monitoring data, and ensure
that these are available to coral reef managers and decision makers.
▪ Coral reef management should be seen much more ‘as a way of life’ rather than a series of short-
term projects.
▪ Based on the recommendations of National Committees on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs,
24 wetland, 33 mangrove and four coral reef areas in the country have been identified by the Ministry
for conservation and management
▪ 5. The National Coral Reef Research Center has been established at Port Blair.
Database Network and Website on Coral Reefs has also been established.

Steps to be taken
▪ 1. It is important to undertake immediate actions to address climate change under the Paris
Agreement’s goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre industrial
temperatures.
▪ 2. Measures to combat local stressors causing coral bleaching:
▪ Regulate tourism
▪ Check water pollution by treating industrial effluents before discharging them into the sea,
reduction is use of chemical fertilizers in farms
▪ Ban fishing and harvesting of protected species.
▪ Regularly service and maintain fishing vessels so that they cause minimum pollution
▪ Regulate construction along the coast
▪ Banning of the quarrying of massive corals.
▪ 3. Coral restoration programs can play an important role in conserving coral reefs.
▪ For example, the innovative Force Blue project is training retired Special Forces soldiers to
transplant endangered coral species
▪ 4. A recent paper published in Nature argues that there should be focus on strengthening the
reefs, to make them immune to pollution (for example through genetic engineering and of
restoring reefs by targeting more resilient corals)
▪ 5. Improved scientific knowledge is required to inform an effective response to threats to coral
Reefs.
▪ 6. Community awareness and education programmes are required to educate and inform the
public, policymakers and other stakeholders of the ecological and socio-economic values of coral
reef ecosystems.
(VERY MUCH IMPORTANT FOR MAINS PERSPECTIVE)
Eutrophication – Aging of Lakes
• Lakes receive their water from surface runoff and along with its various chemical substances and
minerals.

• Over periods spanning millennia,
aging occurs as the lakes accumulate
mineral and organic matter and
gradually, get filled up.
• The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes
promotes the growth of algae, aquatic
plants and various fauna. This process is
known as natural eutrophication.
• Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at
an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the consequent aging phenomenon is known
as cultural eutrophication.
• On the basis of their nutrient content, lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients),
Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich). A vast majority of lakes in
India are either eutrophic or mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their surroundings
or organic wastes entering them
Eutrophication and Algal Bloom
• Eutrophic water body: it is a body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant
population, the decomposition of which kills animal
life by depriving it of oxygen.
• Eutrophication is the response to the addition of
nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or
artificially, fertilizing the aquatic ecosystem.
• Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria) thrive
on the excess nutrients and their population explosion
covers almost the entire surface layer. This condition is
known as algal bloom.

Mitigation of Eutrophication
● Treating Industrial effluents domestic sewage to

remove nutrient-rich sludge through wastewater
processing.
● Riparian buffer: Interfaces between a flowing
body of water and land created near the
waterways, farms, roads, etc. in an attempt to
filter pollution.
● Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the
buffer zones instead of deposition in water
(Wetlands, estuaries are natural riparian buffers).
● Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorus
fertilizers and using them at inadequate levels.

● Nitrogen testing & modeling: N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of
fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the
surrounding area.
● Encouraging organic farming.
● Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power plants.

Biodiversity and Conservation
Biodiversity 130
Definition 130
Origin of the Term 131
Levels of Biodiversity 131
Measurement of Biodiversity 132
Alpha, Beta And Gamma diversity 132
Biodiversity Depletion 133
Biodiversity Conservation Methods 133
The following methods are used in In-situ conservation: 133
⚾The following methods are used in ex-situ conservation 135
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation 137
Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation 137
Other Conservation Effort 138

Asiatic Lion Conservation Project 138
Asiatic Lions 138
Vulture Conservation 139
Causes of population decline⏬: 139
VULTURE ACTION PLAN 2020-25 140
Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers: 140
Rhino Conservation 140
Indian Rhino Vision- 2020 140
Snow Leopard Conservation 141
Project Snow Leopard 141
Sea Turtle Project 142
Context 142
Efforts 142
Crocodile Conservation Project 143
Context 143
Efforts 143
Project Hangul 143
Context 143
Efforts 143
Dolphin Observatory 143
African Cheetah Reintroduction 144
(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout →129

Project REHAB 145
Misc. Topic→ Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats 145
Elephant Corridor 146
Nilgiri Elephant Corridor 146
Misc Topic → Blue Flag Beaches 147
Misc. Topic → Sunderlal Bhaguna 148
Misc. Topic → Kasturirangan Committee on Western Ghats 148
Recommendations of Kasturirangan Committee 148
Some Important Species in News 149

Fishing Cat 149
Great Indian Bustard (GIB) 149
Disk Footed Bat 149
African catfish 150
Spinner Dolphin 150
Mugger Crocodile/ Broad Snouted Crocodile 150
Leopard 151
Pyrostria Lalji 151
Gharials 151
Olive Ridley Turtle 152
Black Softshell Turtle 153
Pygmy Hog 153
Skink Species 154
Whiteflies 154
Allium negianum 155
Asiatic Wild Dog/ Dhole /Indian wild dog 155
Biodiversity
Definition
● Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a
part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems’.
● Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region".

Origin of the Term
● The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist, Raymond F.
Dasmann, in the year 1968. (World Biodiversity Day-3rd March)
● The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985.
Levels of Biodiversity
There are three levels of biodiversity :

1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity and
3. Ecological diversity
⚾Genetic Diversity
● There can be a large number of genetic combinations possible within a particular group of species.
● E.g. Each human being is very different from all others.
● Genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species.
● Lesser genetic diversity increases the possibility of inbreeding which can eventually lead to the extinction
of the species.
● Wide diversity allows adaptation of some individuals to extreme conditions which in turn decide the
survival of a particular species.
⚾Species Diversity
● Species diversity refers to the number of species
of plants and animals that are present in a region.
● Species diversity consists of
1.Species richness (simple count of species)
( )
2.Species evenness (how equal the abundances of
the species are)( )
? Assertion-A) Species evenness is higher
Reason-R) Species richness in equal proportion
(a) Both A and R are correct and R explain A
(b) Both statements are individually correct
but R does not explain A
(c) A is correct but is R false

(d) A is false but is R correct
● A high level of species richness may indicate the presence of rare species or species that are unique to an
ecosystem.
● Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity.
● India is among the world’s 17 nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity.
● 17 megadiverse countries are: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South
Africa, United States and Venezuela.
⚾Ecological Diversity
● It is the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in a region.
● It also takes into account the variation in the complexity of a biological community, including the number
of different niches, the number of trophic levels and other ecological processes.
Measurement of Biodiversity
● Biodiversity is measured in terms of

○ Species richness
○ Species evenness
● The measurement of biodiversity as it indicates the health of an ecosystem.
? Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats-Sri Lanka and Indo-
Burma region hotspots of biodiversity:
1. Species Richness
2. Vegetation Density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanicalimportance
5. Threat Perception
6. Adaptation Of Flora And Fauna To Warm And Humid Conditions
Which three of the above are correct criteria? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) 1,2and 6 (b) 2,4and 6 (c) 1,3and 5 (d) 3,4and 6
Alpha, Beta And Gamma diversity
● R.H. Whittaker described three terms for measuring biodiversity over spatial scales: Alpha, beta, and
gamma diversity.

● Alpha diversity: It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem at a local scale expressed
by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
● Beta diversity: It is the ratio between regional and local species diversity. In other words, beta diversity
allows us to compare diversity between ecosystems.
Biodiversity Depletion
There can be three ways in which biodiversity of a region is depleted:

1. Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting, poaching, commercial exploitation.
2. Indirect ways: Loss or modification of the natural habitats, introduction of exotic species, pollution,
etc.
3. Natural causes: Climate change, volcanoes, earthquakes, epidemics etc
Biodiversity Conservation Methods
Biodiversity conservation efforts can be grouped into two categories:

1. In-situ (on-site) methods:
● It involves protection of plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected areas dedicated
for protection and maintenance of biodiversity.
2. Ex-situ (off-site) methods:
● These methods involve conserving species outside their natural habitats.
The following methods are used in In-situ conservation:
1. National Parks

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
3. Biosphere Reserves
4. Biodiversity Hotspots
5. Gene Sanctuary
6. Community Reserves
7. Sacred Groves
● A gene sanctuary is an area where plants/germplasms are conserved under natural conditions.
⚾Gene Sanctuary
● It may include both biosphere reserves as well as national parks.
● India has set up its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya for wild relatives of citrus.
● Efforts are also being made to set up gene sanctuaries for banana, sugarcane, rice and mango.
⚾Sacred Groves
● Sacred groves are protected forest out of religious
belief in fragments which usually have a significant
religious connotation for the protecting community.
Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited
within these patches. Other forms of forest usage
like honey collection and deadwood collection are
sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis. Indian
sacred groves are sometimes associated with
temples/monasteries/ shrines or with burial grounds.
Example: Kavus of Kerala, law kyntangs of
Meghalaya.
● Sacred groves enjoy various degrees of sanctity and protection from local communities.
● Meghalaya tribes completely prohibit any kind of human interference in their sacred groves.
● Whereas Gonds of Central India allow collection of deadwood and dry leaves from sacred trees.
● The groves not only protect floral and faunal diversity of the region but also protect associated water
bodies and prevent soil erosion and desertification.
● However, the introduction of the protected area category community reserves(Pillar 1) under the Wild
Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection
to community held lands, which could include sacred groves.
● Intensity of conservation→ Differs place to place.

● Status of sacred groves→ decline due to→
1) Displacement, 2) Encroaching, 3) Mainstreaming of tribes, 4) Sanskritisation(personification of nature).
● Measures for improving sacred groves:
- Recognition
- Involvement of tribes
- Right over land→ Recognise
- Awareness and education about sacred groves.
⚾The following methods are used in ex-situ conservation
1. Botanical Gardens
2. Zoo
3. Gene Banks
4. Seed Bank
5. Tissue Culture
6. Cryopreservation
⚾Zoos
● Species based conservation method.

● Public enjoyment and education + captive breeding.
● The role of zoos in conservation is limited both by space and by expense. Central
⚾Zoo Authority
● Established in 1992 under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
● The Authority consists of a Chairman, ten members and a Member Secretary.
● The Authority’s role is more of a facilitator than a regulator.
● Some of its functions include to:
○ Specify the minimum standards for housing, upkeep and veterinary care of the animals kept in a zoo;
○ Recognise or derecognise zoos;
○ Identify endangered species of wild animals for purposes of captive breeding and assigning responsibility
in this regard to a zoo.
● Sardar Patel Zoological Park -Located near Statue of Liberty, Narmada, Gujarat
● World’s ‘biggest zoo’ 250 acres in Jamnagar, Guj. Name "‘GREENS Zoological Rescue and
Rehabilitation Kingdom’, by Reliance Industries CSR fund, doing PPP for Leopard rehabilitation.

⚾Botanical Gardens
● Botanic gardens are institutions holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of
scientific research, conservation, display and education.
● Botanical gardens should always have complete documentation of their collections, control over plants
collected and demonstrate responsible management of their collections.
● Botanical gardens have three main objectives:
1. Recreation: Exhibitions, plant sales, picnics under the trees and relaxing in a natural environment
2. Education: This includes summer camps for kids, classes and seminars as well as publications and other
ways of sharing information between botanical gardens and horticulture and botany professionals.
3. Scientific study involving botany, taxonomy and systematics.
⚾Gene Banks
● Gene banks, also known as germplasm banks, are a type of biorepository which preserve genetic material
of plants and animals.
● For plants, this could be through in vitro storage, freezing cuttings from the plant, or stocking the seeds
(e.g. in a seedbank).
● For animals, it involves freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological freezers.
● Plant genetic material is preserved at -196° Celsius in Liquid Nitrogen.
➡Types of Gene Banks
1. Seed bank: It preserves dried seeds at a very low temperature.

2. Tissue bank: In this technique, seedless plants and plants that reproduce sexually are preserved through
particular light and temperature arrangements in a
nutrient medium.
3. Cryobanks: A seed or embryo is preserved at very low
temperatures (usually in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C).
Mainly for species facing extinction. Indian Seed Vault is
a secure seed bank located in a high altitude mountain
pass on the Chang La seed vault in Ladakh, India. It was
built in 2010 jointly by the Defense Institute of High
Altitude Research and the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources.

Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
● Animals are fully protected from all kinds of poaching and predation.
● The population of animals can be maintained and distributed in case of threats of becoming endangered.
● Selective breeding can be done to increase the population of healthier animals.
● The health of animals can be monitored and provided with medical assistance whenever required.
● These sites can be used for education and tourism.
Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation
● Limitation of animals to caged surroundings which does not match their natural habitats.
● Exposure to various diseases which decreases their chances of survival.
● Limited genetic diversity.
● Expensive to maintain.
● Reintroduction of animals into the wild may be difficult.
? Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ methods of conservation of flora? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) Biosphere Reserve (b) BotanicalGarden (c) NationalPark (d) WildlifeSanctuary
? Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence the following ways:
1. Soil Formation
2. Prevention Of Soil Erosion
3. Recycling Of Waste
4. Pollination Of Crops
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a.)1,2and3only (b.)2,3and4only (c.)1and4only (d.)1,2,3and4
? Consider the following statements:
1. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower latitudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
2. Along the mountain gradients, biodiversity is normally greater in the lower altitudes as compared to the
higher altitudes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) 1only (b) 2only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor2
⇒Nov,2020- HIGH BIODIVERSITY IN GANGA RIVER- Wildlife Institute of India (WII) in the
second phase of its survey of the entire main stem of the Ganga river (the main river without its tributaries),
has found that 49 per cent of the river has high biodiversity. These are the results of phase I of the survey.
The second phase of the survey is to be conducted shortly

⇒Migratory Bird Day observed on May 9. The theme of World Migratory Bird Day 2020 is “Birds
Connect Our World”.

⇒ Uttarakhand forest department has developed the country’s first lichen park in Munsiyari,
Uttarakhand. Lichen is a composite organism that emerges from algae or cyanobacteria living among the
filaments of the fungi, living in a symbiotic relationship. In local parlance, these are called “Jhula” or “Pathar
ke phool” .
Other Conservation Effort
Asiatic Lion Conservation Project
● It was launched in 2018 with an aim to protect and conserve the world’s last ranging free population of
Asiatic Lion and its associated ecosystem.
● It will strengthen the ongoing measures for conservation and recovery of Asiatic Lion with the help of
state-of-the-art techniques/ instruments, regular scientific research studies, disease management, and modern
surveillance/ patrolling techniques.
Asiatic Lions
● With timely and stringent protection offered by the State Government and the Center Government, Asiatic
lions have increased to the current population of over 500 numbers.
● The last census in the year 2015 showed the population of 523 Asiatic Lions in Gir Protected Area
Network. The census is conducted once every five years. The first Lion Census was conducted by the
Nawab of Junagadh in 1936; since 1965, the Forest Department has been regularly conducting the Lion
Census every five years.
● What is the Block counting method?
⇒ India uses this method to estimate the numbers. In this method, census enumerators remain stationed at
water points in a given block and estimate the abundance of lions in that block, based on direct sighting of
lions who need to drink water at least once in 24 hours during the summer.
⇒ Recently the Gujarat government is not in favor of translocating lions to Madhya Pradesh (MP). In
2013, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of creating a second home for them by translocating a few of
them to Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in MP.

Vulture Conservation
● India has nine species of vultures in the wild:

1. Oriental White-backed Vulture
2. Slender billed Vulture
3. Long billed Vulture
4. Egyptian Vulture
5. Red Headed Vulture
6. Indian Griffon Vulture
7. Himalayan Griffon
8. Cinereous Vulture
9. Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier Vulture Conservation
● The population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long billed
Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade.
● These species are ‘Critically Endangered’ (CR) under IUCN criteria.
Causes of population decline⏬

:
1. Main reason is the intake of Diclofenac sodium, an anti-inflammatory drug.

2. Diclofenac administered to animals=> carcass eaten by vultures => kidney failure=> neck drooping=>
death
3. Meloxicam is suggested as a better and safe alternative to Diclofenac.
1. The Vulture Breeding and Conservation Centre has been established at Pinjore, Haryana; Guwahati,
Assam; and at Buxa, WestBengal.
2. Vulture Safety Zones (VSZs): Natural habitat of wild vultures free from diclofenac infected carcasses;
VSZs declared in Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, UP, Gujarat etc.
3. Vulture Restaurants: Opened in Maharashtra and Punjab; vultures are fed diclofenac free carcasses
sourced from local people who are also involved in the conservation
4. Captive breeding centers at Zoos at Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Junagarh and Hyderabad have also been set
up through Central Zoo Authority.
5. Initiatives have been taken to strengthen mass education and awareness for vulture conservation.

VULTURE ACTION PLAN 2020-25
- Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) launched the
‘Vulture Action Plan 2020-25’ for the conservation of vultures in India.
- Conservation of Vulture 2006→ new plan now extends the project to 2025 to not just halt the
decline but to actively increase the vulture numbers.
Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers:
- Context: To increase the availability of food for vultures in the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR),
the Forest Department is allowing dead cattle from a nearby cow shelter to be left for the
scavengers.
- In a bid to save endangered species of vultures from extinction, the National Board for Wildlife
has approved a new plan that proposes setting up Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers in some
States.
- A captive breeding center would come up in the buffer zone of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.
Rhino Conservation
● Rhinoceros are shapers of their landscape and environment.

● They are a keystone species- known to have a disproportionately large impact on its environment relative
to its population.
● The habitat of the Indian rhino once extended from Pakistan into northern India and modern-day Myanmar,
reaching into Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan.
● In India, rhinos can now be found in parts of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam.
● In 2012, more than 91 per cent of Indian rhinos lived in Assam, according to WWF-India data.
● Within Assam, rhinos are concentrated within Kaziranga national park, with a few in Pobitora wildlife
sanctuary.
Indian Rhino Vision- 2020
● Launched under a partnership of Assam govt., International Rhino Foundation, WWF for Nature, the
Bodoland Territorial Council, and the U.S. Fish & World Wildlife foundation.
● Aim: Increase Rhino population to 3000 by 2020 in seven protected areas of Assam.

● Translocating rhinos after trimming their horns from two source populations (Kaziranga and Pobitora) into
five target protected areas (Manas, Laokhowa, Buracharpori-Kochmora, Dibru Saikhowa and Orange).
● It will save Rhinos from poaching and epidemics e.g. floods, epidemics in Kaziranga and reduce pressure
on a single protected area.
● Rhinos in Pobitora have exceeded carrying capacity and they must be translocated to protect the habitat
and reduce man-rhino conflicts.
Snow Leopard Conservation
● Listed on the IUCN red list of threatened species.

● Snow Leopard is found in 12 countries. They are India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
● In India, they inhabit the higher Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan landscape.
Project Snow Leopard
● Launched in 2009.
● Project is operational in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh.
● It aims at promoting a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework that fully involves
the local communities, who share the snow leopard’s range, in conservation efforts.
● It will reduce existing anthropogenic pressures on natural resources and promote conservation education.
Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Program (GSLEP)
● It is a high level intergovernmental alliance of all the 12 snow leopard range countries.
● GSLEP seeks to address high-mountain development issues using the conservation of the charismatic and
endangered snow leopard as a flagship.
•The GSLEP is a high-level inter-governmental alliance of all the 12 snow leopard range countries.
• The snow leopard countries namely, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
•It majorly focuses on the need for awareness and understanding of the value of Snow Leopard for the
ecosystem.
•The GSLEP Program (2019) is being organized by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change at New Delhi.
•Currently, the Steering Committee meeting of GSLEP is chaired by Nepal and co-chaired by Kyrgyzstan.

⇒PPP in Leopard rehab: Mukesh Ambani's private zoo @Jamnagar, Guj- "Green zoological rescue &
Rehabilitation Kingdom" to use Reliance’s profits → CSR → sheltering captured leopards in 250 acre.
⇒International Snow Leopard Day is observed on 23rd October to raise awareness on protection of snow
leopards. International Snow Leopard Day came into being on October 23, 2013, when 12 countries came
together for the first time to endorse the ‘Bishkek Declaration’ on the conservation of snow leopards. The 12
countries included India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection
Programme (GSLEP) was also launched on this day to address high-mountain development issues using
conservation of the snow leopard as a flagship.
● Madagascar chameleon species 'Brookesia nana': World's smallest reptile discovered. One theory behind
species size- Small island species tend to get smaller.
● Environment ministry portal Parivesh- people told to Voluntarily disclose ownership of Exotic pets
like iguana, snakes, turtles,civet cat, macaws, gibbon, crocodiles, pygmy falcons etc by 31/12/2020, then
immunity from prosecution.
● Uttarakhand Ecobridge in Nainital jungle to help the reptiles Cross Road during traffic.
● Eco bridges/Eco-Ducts to help the wildlife animals, apes and reptiles to cross highways in Uttarakhand.
⇒India's first snow leopard conservation center will be established in Uttarakhand.
Sea Turtle Project
Context
• Olive Ridley turtle visits Indian coasts during winter for hatching.
• MoEFCC in collaboration with UNDP started the project in 1999.
• Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun is the implementation agency.
Efforts
• Vulnerable in IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.

• The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS) in Andhra Pradesh is committed to the protection of Olive Ridley
turtles.
• Yanadi tribes are directly involved in the conservation bid.

Crocodile Conservation Project
Context
• The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975 in different States.
• It has taken the once threatened crocodilians back from the verge of extinction and set them on a sound
recovery path.
• Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute in Hyderabad was set up to increase the
number of qualified staff for the project's long-term success by providing training at project sites.
Efforts
• Creating sanctuaries to preserve the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat.
• Gharial is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
• Captive breeding of crocodilian species is established at Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa.
• National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh protects Critically Endangered Gharial species. Gharial:
IUCN- CR, WLPA,1971: Schedule I, 28 gharial hatchling is found in Mahanadi near Satkosia
range...Odisha- Gharial, Magar, saltwater crocodile
Project Hangul
Context
• The Kashmir stag, also known as the Hangul, is a subspecies of the Central Asian Red Deer that is native
to northern India and is the state animal of Jammu and Kashmir (now UT).
• At an elevation of 3,035 meters, it can be found in Dachigam National Park.
• The project started in the 1970s.
Efforts
• The UT of Jammu and Kashmir, in collaboration with the IUCN and the WWF, established a project to
protect these animals.
• Population increased to over 340 by 1980 from 150 in 1970.
Dolphin Observatory
- The Bihar government is setting up India’s first observatory for the Gangetic dolphins in
Bhagalpur district.

- The observatory is constructed at Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (VGDS).
- Observatory will aim to promote eco-tourism.
- There would be no adverse impact on the river’s ecology as the observatory is being constructed
on a Sultanganj-Aguwani Ghat bridge over the Ganga.
- Gangaetic dolphin → IUCN Status: Endangered → They prefer deep waters, in and around
the confluence of rivers. They can only live in freshwater and are essentially blind → They are
a reliable indicator of the health of the entire river ecosystem → It is also a National Aquatic
Animal of India.
African Cheetah Reintroduction
- Wildlife Institute of India (WII) experts evaluated sites in Madhya Pradesh for African cheetah
reintroduction.
- Experts looked for the best habitat based on prey base, safety and topography.
- Cheetah was declared extinct in India in 1952.
- Shortlisted sites include Kuno Palpur sanctuary, Nauradehi sanctuary, Gandhi Sagar sanctuary and
Madhav National Park (all lying in Madhya Pradesh).
- In 2010, a central government expert panel recommended KunoPalpur, Velavadar National
Park (Gujarat) and Tal Chapar sanctuary (Rajasthan) for reintroducing Cheetah.
- KunoPalpur was the preferred location. It was also the place prepared by MP to house Asiatic
lions.
- However in 2013, Supreme Court quashed plans for introducing African cheetahs to KunoPalpur
citing reasons like possible conflict with a parallel project to introduce lions at the same site, lack
of prey base, man animal conflict etc.
- SC left the decision for relocation of the African cheetah National Tiger Conservation Authority’s
discretion to be taken after a proper survey and the action of introduction of the animal.
- The Central government revived the plan in 2017.
- In January 2020, SC set up a three-member committee to guide the National Tiger Conservation
Authority in taking decisions for relocation after a proper survey.
- IUCN status: African Cheetah- Vulnerable and Asiatic Cheetah – Critically endangered.
- Asiatic cheetahs are much stronger and faster than African cheetahs.

Project REHAB
- It is an innovative way of preventing elephant–human conflicts.

- Demonstrated by Khadi & Village Industries
Commission’s (KVIC).
- The project has significantly reduced elephants’ presence at
places in Karnataka’s Kodagu district.
- It will soon be replicated in all states affected by elephant
attacks like West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil Nadu & Kerala.
- Under this project, bee boxes are used as a fence to prevent elephants from entering human
habitation
- The uniqueness of Project REHAB is that it does not cause any harm to both humans and the
elephants.
Misc. Topic→ Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats
- It is an on-going Centrally Sponsored Scheme, under which financial assistance is provided

to State/UTs for protection and conservation of wildlife.
- Conservation of Caracal cat (put under Indian critically endangered list) will get financial
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH).
- The list of critically endangered (locally) species under recovery programme
1. Asian Wild Buffalo
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Brow-Antlered Deer or Sangai
4. Dugong
5. Edible Nest Swiftlet
6. Gangetic River Dolphin
7. Great Indian Bustard
8. Hangul
9. Indian Rhino or Great One-horned Rhinoceros
10. Jerdon’s Courser

11. Malabar Civet
12. Marine Turtles*
13. Nicobar Megapode
14. Nilgiri Tahr
15. Snow Leopard
16. Swamp Deer
17. Vultures (entire group of species found in India)
18. Northern River Terrapin
19. Clouded Leopard
20. Arabian Sea Humpback Whale
21. Red Panda
22. Caracal cat
Elephant Corridor
- Elephant corridors are linear, narrow, natural habitat linkages that allow elephants to move
between secure habitats without being disturbed by humans.
- There are 88 identified elephant corridors in India (names not important). Out of them 22 in north-
eastern India, 20 are in south India, 20 in central India, 14 in northern West Bengal and 12 in north-
western India.
Nilgiri Elephant Corridor
- It is the largest protected forest area in India, spanning across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka &
Kerala.
- It is situated in the Masinagudi area near the Mudumalai National Park in the Nilgiris district.
- The corridor is situated in the ecologically fragile Sigur plateau, which connects the Western &
the Eastern Ghats & sustains elephant populations & their genetic diversity.
- It has the Nilgiri hills on its southwestern side & the Moyar river valley on its northeastern side
- The elephants cross the plateau in search of food & water depending on the monsoon.
- Context: SC upheld the Tamil Nadu (state) government’s authority to notify an ‘elephant corridor’
and protect the migratory path of the animals through the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. It was the
State’s duty to protect a “keystone species” such as elephants – Supreme Court.

Misc Topic → Blue Flag Beaches
- It is an eco-label certification that can be obtained by a beach, marina, or sustainable boating

tourism operator.
- ‘Blue Flag’ certification is awarded annually by the Denmark-based non-profit Foundation for
Environmental Education.
- It was started in France in 1985
- The programme promotes sustainable development in freshwater & marine areas through 4 main
criteria:
1. Water quality
2. Environmental management
3. Environmental education
4. Safety
- Members: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO), Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
- 13 pilot beaches have been identified by MoEF for the certification:
1. Ghoghla Beach (Diu)
2. Shivrajpur beach (Gujarat)
3. Bhogave (Maharashtra),
4. Padubidri (Karnataka)
5. Kasarkod (Karnataka),
6. Kappad beach (Kerala),
7. Kovalam beach (Tamil
Nadu),
8. Eden beach (Puducherry),
9. Rushikonda beach (Andhra
Pradesh),
10. Miramar beach (Goa),
11. Golden beach (Odisha),
12. Radhanagar beach (Andaman & Nicobar Islands)
13. Bangaram beach (Lakshadweep).

Misc. Topic → Sunderlal Bhaguna
- known as Defender of Himalayas & Environmental Gandhi.

- He joined Freedom Struggle in his initial years & opened schools for Untouchables.
- He protested for preservation of forests in Himalayas & led the Chipko Movement in 1970’s &
Anti- Tehri Dam movement starting in 1980’s.
- He was a follower of Gandhian Principles like Satyagraha, Peaceful Protests, Non – Violence,
SelfReliance etc.
- He believed that ‘Ecology is a permanent economy’.
- He died due to COVID – 19.
- Similar Citizen Led Environmental Movements: Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal- In 1964,
Chandi Prasad Bhutt founded an organization called Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM). It
aimed to foster small industries for rural villagers using local resources.
Misc. Topic → Kasturirangan Committee on Western Ghats
- Under pressure from various stakeholders, MoEF had set up the High-Level Working Group
(HLWG) under the Chairmanship of Dr K. Kasturirangan to study recommendations of the Gadgil
Committee.
- The HLWG had diluted many recommendations of WGEEP to satisfy the interests of the various
mafia.
- HLWG had suggested that 37% (60,000 hectares) of the Western Ghats should be declared as
ESA.
- The remaining 63% of human settlements, plantations & agricultural field classified as Cultural
Landscape.
Recommendations of Kasturirangan Committee
• A ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining.

• No new thermal power projects, but hydro power projects allowed with restrictions.
• A ban on new polluting industries.
• Building and construction projects up to 20,000 sq m were to be allowed but townships were to be
banned.

• Forest diversion could be allowed with extra safeguards.
⇒ Karnataka Chief Minister has informed the Centre that the state is opposed to the Kasturirangan
Committee report on Western Ghats.

Q. ‘Gadgil Committee Report’ and ‘Kasturirangan Committee Report’, sometimes seen in the news, are
related to
1) constitutional reforms
2) Ganga Action Plan
3) linking of rivers
4) protection of Western Ghats
Some Important Species in News
Fishing Cat
- The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) designated the Fishing Cat as ambassador of Chilika
Lake, Odisha in a step towards conservation of the feline species.
- IUCN: Vulnerable
- In 2012 West Bengal state govt declared it as their state animal.
Great Indian Bustard (GIB)
- It is reported that the Union Ministry of Power (MoP) and the Rajasthan government have rejected
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) proposal to put all power transmission lines passing through GIB
habitat underground.
- IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
Disk Footed Bat
- (April, 2021) India’s first disk-footed bat is recorded in Meghalaya that dwells in bamboo
grooves.
- Till now, the species was recorded in a few localities in Southern China, Vietnam, Thailand &
Myanmar.
- More than 50% of bats species found in India are located in Meghalaya.

- Bats: are the largest mammalian group after rodents. They are the only mammals capable of true
flight. They have a unique sonar-based echolocation mechanism to capture prey at night.
- Indian Flying Fox: IUCN- LC; known as the Greater Indian Fruit Bat; largest flying bat in
India; It can transmit several viruses to humans like Nipah Virus.
African catfish
- The banned African catfish (invasive species) is illegally reared and sold in Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.
- Factoring in the health & environment hazards posed by the African catfish, the Central
government issued a ban on catfish farming (Breeding, transportation and sale) in 2000.
- The fish variety has wreaked havoc in Kerala.
- The voraciously carnivorous fish was posing a threat to indigenous fish varieties.
Spinner Dolphin
• Spinner dolphin is a small dolphin found in offshore tropical waters around the world.
• It is famous for its acrobatic displays.
• Habitat: Coastal Waters, Islands or banks.
• Distribution: It lives in nearly all tropical & subtropical waters between 40°N and 40°S.
• The spinner dolphin is a rare mammal in Odisha.
• This species has an elongated rostrum & a triangular or sub-triangular dorsal fin.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Least Concern CITES: Appendix II
Mugger Crocodile/ Broad Snouted Crocodile
• It is also known as Marsh Crocodile or Indian Crocodile.

• It is a freshwater species (lakes, rivers, marshes).
• Habitat: Inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, and prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies.
It also thrives in artificial reservoirs & irrigation canals.
• Distribution: Found throughout India. Extinct in Bhutan ing, sacrificed in superstitious practices or used
as aphrodisiacs.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I

Leopard
• The Indian leopard is a leopard subspecies widely distributed on the Indian subcontinent.
• Habitat: It inhabits foremost savanna and rainforest, and areas where grasslands, woodlands & riverine
forests remain largely undisturbed.
• Distribution: Indian subspecies is found in all forested habitats in the country.
• It is absent only in arid deserts & above timber line in Himalaya
• Threat: hunting, poaching, habitat loss, depletion of natural prey, human conflict.
• State wise Leopard population: MP: 3421 MP is (Highest in both Tiger & Leopard).
Karnataka: 1783
MH: 1690
Central India has highest number of leopards followed by Eastern Ghats
• Rajasthan is the 1st state to launch Project Leopard.
• Conservation Measures: IUCN: Vulnerable WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Pyrostria Lalji
• Context: 1st record of the genus Pyrostria in India has been discovered from
the Andaman Islands by a team of researchers from India & the Philippines.
It is a 15-meter-tall tree.
• Most of the species of this genus are endemic to Madagascar.
• The tree is distinguished by a long stem with a whitish coating on the trunk,
and oblong-obovate leaves with a cuneate base.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Critically Endangered
Gharials
• Gharial is also known as a fish-eating crocodile.

• It is amongst the longest of all living crocodilians.
• Habitat: clean rivers with sand banks.
• Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal
Sanctuary, spread across 3 states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh, small non-breeding populations exist in Son,
Gandak, Hooghly & Ghagra rivers & Satkosia Sanctuary (Odisha).
• Now, extinct in Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
• Threats: The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial
embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand-mining, riparian agriculture and ingress of domestic
and feral livestock.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Critically Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Appendix I
• Context: In an effort to conserve the gharials in the Mahanadi river basin, Odisha forest department
announces cash reward for rescuing gharials.
Olive Ridley Turtle
• Operation Olivia: Indian Coast Guard undertakes the Olive Ridley

Turtle protection program under the code name 'Operation Olivia' every
year.
• Program was initiated in the early 1980s.
• It ensures that human activities do not endanger the Olive Ridley's in
Indian waters throughout its nesting period of 6 months by doing round
the clock surveillance.
• The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Pacific Ridley Sea Turtle) is the smallest of all marine turtle species.
• Distribution: They are found in warm and tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
• Olive ridley turtles are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers called
Arribada.
• Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary & Rushikulya Rookery Coast are the main Olive Ridley Nesting sites in
India.
• Mass mating picks up in December and continues till the month of January.

Threats: Unsustainable egg collection, slaughtering nesting females on the beach, and direct harvesting
adults at sea for commercial sale of both the meat and hides, coastal development, natural disasters,
climate change, and other sources of beach erosion.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Black Softshell Turtle
• Black Softshell turtle is a species of freshwater turtle.

• Habitat: Lower Brahmaputra River.
• Distribution: They are found in ponds of temples in northeastern India
and Bangladesh. Its distribution range also includes the Brahmaputra River
and its tributaries.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List status: Critically Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Pygmy Hog
• Context: Captive-bred pygmy hogs were released in the Manas National Park in Assam.
• This is the second batch to have been reintroduced into the wild under the Pygmy Hog Conservation
Programme (PHCP) in a year.
• PHCP is collaboration among: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust of UK Assam Forest Department
Wild Pig Specialist Group of International Union for Conservation of
Nature Union Environment Ministry
• By 2025, PHCP plans to release 60 pygmy hogs in Manas
• Pygmy Hog is the world's smallest wild pig. This species constructs a nest
throughout the year.
• It is one of the most useful environmental indicators of the management
status of grassland habitats.
• Habitat: Relatively undisturbed, tall Terai Grasslands.
• Distribution: Previously spread across India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Now only found in Assam (Manas
Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer reserves).

• Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinusoliveri), a parasite that feeds only on Pygmy Hogs will also
fall in the same risk category of critically endangered as its survival is linked to that of the host species.
• Threats: The main threats are loss and degradation of grasslands, dry-season burning, livestock grazing
and afforestation of grasslands. Hunting is also a threat.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I.
Skink Species
• Skinks are harmless insectivorous lizards found across the country in every biogeographic zone
• Researchers have discovered a new Skink species from Western Ghats. Source & Credits
• The species is named ‘Subdoluseps nilgiriensis’ after the
Nilgiris.
• It is considered a vulnerable species as there are potential
threats from seasonal forest fires, housing constructions and
brick kiln industries in the area.
Whiteflies
• A recent study shows how exotic invasive whiteflies in India are causing direct and indirect yield losses
in agriculture.
• Whiteflies are tiny, sap-sucking insects.
• They develop rapidly in warm weather.
• Despite their name, whiteflies are not a type of fly, though they do have wings and are capable of flying.
Control & Management: Water sprays, Reflective Mulches(are reflective material such as Aluminum or
Silver Polyethylene mulch that reflects light up onto the leaves of plants)

Allium negianum
• A plant discovered in Uttarakhand in 2019 has been confirmed as a new species

of Allium.
• It is the genus that includes many staple foods such as onion and garlic, among
1,100 species worldwide.
• Habitat: It can be found along open grassy meadows, sandy soils along rivers,
and streams forming in snow pasture lands along alpine meadows, where the
melting snow helps carry its seeds to more favorable areas.
• Distribution: In the eastern Himalayas, they are spread in the alpine temperate
zone. This region holds 6% of the country’s diversity. The western Himalayas hold 85% of the total
diversity.
Asiatic Wild Dog/ Dhole /Indian wild dog
• The Dhole or Indian Wild Animal is a highly social animal, living in large clans without rigid dominance
hierarchies.
• It plays an important role as apex predators in forest ecosystems.
• Distribution: They occur in most of India south of the Ganges, particularly in the Central Indian
Highlands and the Western and Eastern Ghats of the southern states.
• In North-East India, they inhabit Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya & West Bengal.
Threats: Habitat loss, depletion of its prey base, competition from other predators, persecution and
possibly diseases from domestic and feral dogs.
• Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Status: Endangered WPA: Schedule II CITES: Appendix
II
Species Name in News Area Conservation Status
Hispid hare/ Assam Southern foothills of the central IUCN Red List Status: Endangered
rabbit Himalayas WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Barasingha or swamp Northern & Central India, and IUCN Red List Status: Critically
deer Southwestern Nepa Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:

Appendix I
Bengal Florican Uttar Pradesh, Assam & IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Arunachal Pradesh Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
world - Cambodia, India and Appendix I
Nepal.
Greater Adjutant Storks Assam and Bihar IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Endangered
Black Necked Crane Tibetan plateau & migrate to IUCN Red List Status: Near Threatened
Tawang for the winter WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Gharial National Chambal Sanctuary, IUCN Red List Status: Critically

spread across 3 states of Uttar Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Appendix I
Pradesh
Mugger/ Broad Found throughout India. Extinct IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable
Snouted Crocodile in Bhutan WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Saltwater Crocodile (Odisha's Bhitarkanika Wildlife IUCN Red List Status: Least Concern
Sanctuary, Andaman and Nicobar WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Islands coasts & Sundarbans
Great Indian Bustard Rajasthan and Gujarat IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Appendix I
Humboldt Penguins South America(MIgrant IUCN Red List: Vulnerable CITES:

SPecies) Appendix I
Indus River Dolphin Indus River in Pakistan and in IUCN Red List: Endangered CITES:
River Beas Appendix I

Pink Headed Duck India, Bangladesh and Myanmar IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Appendix I
Siberian Crane Keoladeo National Park in IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Rajasthan. Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Appendix I
Fire corals Australia, India, Indonesia, IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Malaysia, Panama, Singapore Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
and Thailand Appendix II
Aldrovanda vesiculosa IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered

or the Waterwheel plant
(rootless aquatic plant)
Kaiser-i-Hind Butterfly Nepal, Bhutan & along the IUCN Red List: Near Threatened WPA:
Eastern Himalayas in India Schedule II CITES: Appendix II
(West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Assam, Sikkim and Manipur)
Irrawaddy Dolphin Chilika Lake in Odisha & IUCN Red List Status: Endangered
Songkhla Lake in southern WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Thailand
under Convention on Migratory
Species (CMS)
Dugong (Sea Cow) State animal of Andaman & IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable
Nicobar Islands WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
included in Convention on
Migratory Species (CMS)
Manda Buffalo National Bureau of Animal

Genetic Resources (NBAGR)

has recognised the Manda
buffalo as unique breed of
buffaloes found in India
Eastern Ghats and plateau of
Koraput region of Odisha
New Dinosaur Species Issi saaneq is the new dinosaur

species recently discovered
Indian Pangolin/ Thick- India, except the arid region, IUCN Red List Status: Endangered
Tailed Pangolin high Himalayas and the North- WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
East
Chinese Pangolin Southern Nepal, North-Eastern IUCN Red Lists Status: Critically
India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Endangered WPA: Schedule I CITES:
Myanmar, northern Indochina, Appendix I
southern China including the
island of Hainan, and most of
Taiwan
Swinhoe’s/Shanghai Eastern & Southern China & IUCN Red List Status: Critically
Softshell turtle/Red Northern Vietnam Endangered CITES: Appendix II
River Giant Turtle
Gray Slender Loris Tapti and Godavari Rivers, f IUCN Red List Status: Near Threatened
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil WPA: Schedule I CITES: Appendix I
Nadu
Red Slender Loris Sri Lanka

Air Pollution
Pollution 159
Definition 159
Classification of Pollutants 159
Air pollution 160
Major Gaseous Air Pollutants 161
Biological pollutants 164
Effects 167
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution 167
Steps Taken to Control Vehicular Pollution 169
Effects of Air Pollution: Acid Rain – Acidification 171
Programmes 173
✍✍ Mains Question 181
Pollution
Definition
• Pollution may be defined as the addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result
of human activities. The agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants.
Classification of Pollutants
I According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment
• Primary pollutants: These are persistent in the form in which they are added to the environment,
e.g. DDT, plastic, CO, CO2 , oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, etc.
• Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. For
example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons
II. According to their existence in nature
• Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutants when their concentration
reaches beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
• Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and are human made. E.g. fungicides,
herbicides, DDT etc.

III. In terms of ecosystem, the pollutants can be classified into two basic groups:
(a) Non-degradable Pollutants: These are not broken down by natural processes like the action
of microbes. Most of these Mutants get accumulated in the environment and also get biologically
magnified as these move along the food chains in an under-composed state. These may also react
with other compounds in the environment to produce toxins.
- These can be further subdivided into two more classes:
(i) Waste: e.g. glass, plastic, phenolic, aluminum cans etc.
(ii) Poisons: e.g. radio-active substances, pesticides, smog gasses, heavy metals like mercury, lead
and their salts.
(b) Degradable pollutants or Bio-degradable Pollutants (Odum 1971): These are natural
organic substances which can be decomposed, removed or consumed and thus, reduced to
acceptable levels either by natural processes like biological or microbial action or by some
engineered systems, like sewage treatment plants.
SIDE NOTE: ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX (EPI) was recently

released by Yale University. India secured 168 rank (compared to 177 in 2018) out of
180 countries in the 12th edition of the biennial Environment Performance Index. 32
performance indicators across 11 categories including Air Quality, Sanitation &
Drinking Water, Heavy Metals, Waste Management, Biodiversity & Habitat, Ecosystem
Services, Fisheries, Climate Change, Pollution Emissions, Water Resources, and
Agriculture.
Air pollution
● Air is said to be polluted when certain solid, liquid or gaseous substances (pollutants) present in
the atmosphere directly or indirectly harm living organisms, property and environment.
● Air pollution is the world’s single greatest environmental risk to health.
● Air pollution is said to cause roughly 7 million deaths annually.

Major Gaseous Air Pollutants
⦁ Carbon monoxide (CO)

• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and highly toxic gas that is slightly less
dense than air. It is short-lived (stay only a few months) in the atmosphere.
• Carbon monoxide is produced from the exhaust of internal combustion engines and incomplete
combustion of various other fuels. Iron smelting also produces carbon monoxide as a by-product.
• It forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
• In the presence of oxygen, carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.
• Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of combustion.
The majority of tropospheric ozone
formation occurs when nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide
(CO) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), react in the
atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight, specifically the UV

spectrum. NOx, CO, and VOCs are considered ozone precursors.
The general equation is: CxHyO3 + NO2 → CxHyO3NO2
→ Health Effects
• It is toxic to hemoglobin animals (including humans) when encountered in concentrations above
about 35 ppm.
• It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which usurps the space in
hemoglobin that normally carries oxygen.
⦁ Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
• Colorless and odorless gas. It is heavier than air.
• Natural sources include volcanoes, hot springs and
geysers, and it is freed from carbonate rocks by
dissolution in water and acids.
• Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs
naturally in groundwater, rivers and lakes, in ice caps
and glaciers and also in seawater. .
→ Effects on Health
• CO2 is an asphyxiant gas (asphyxia: a condition arising when the body is deprived of oxygen,
causing unconsciousness or death.).
• Concentrations of 7% may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen,
manifesting as dizziness, headache, and unconsciousness.
→ Effects on Environment
• Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas.
• Burning of carbon-based fuels since the industrial
revolution has led to global warming.
• It is also a major cause of ocean acidification because it
dissolves in water to form carbonic acid. H₂CO₃
⦁ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used in refrigerators,
air conditioners and aerosol sprays.
⦁ Ozone (O3 )

• It occurs naturally in the stratosphere and absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
• However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant (Greenhouse gas) with highly toxic effects.
• Vehicles and industries are the major sources of ground-level ozone emissions.
• Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen dioxide play a major role in converting O2 to O3 .
• Ozone makes our eyes itchy, and watery. It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia.
⦁ Nitrogen oxide (NOx )
• NOx is a generic term for the various nitrogen oxides produced during combustion.
• They are produced mainly in internal combustion engines and coal-burning power plants.
• They are also produced naturally by lightning. Oxygen and nitrogen do not react at ambient
temperatures. But at high temperatures, they produce various oxides of nitrogen. Such
temperatures arise inside an internal combustion engine or a power station boiler.
• Agricultural fertilization and the use of nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOx
, by promoting nitrogen fixation by microorganisms.
• NO and NO2 (contribute to global cooling) should not be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O –
GHG), which is a greenhouse gas ..
→ Effects on Health and Environment
• NOx gasses react to form smog and acid rain as well as being central to the formation of
tropospheric ozone
• When NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, they form
photochemical smog. .
⦁ Sulfur dioxide (SO2 )
• It is a toxic gas with a pungent, irritating smell. It contributes to acid rain.
• It is released naturally by volcanic activity. It is abundantly available in the atmosphere of Venus.
• Sulfur dioxide is primarily produced for sulfuric acid manufacture.
• Inhaling sulfur dioxide is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and premature death.
• It also weakens the functioning of certain nerves.
• It is also produced by
✓ burning coal in thermal power plants and diesel fuels.
✓ some industrial processes, such as the production of paper and smelting of metals.

✓ reactions involving Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) and oxygen.
✓ The roasting of sulfide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulfide).
⦁ Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a large group of carbon-based chemicals that easily
evaporate at room temperature.
• For example, formaldehyde, which evaporates from paint, has a boiling point of only –19 °C.
• Formaldehyde causes irritation to the eyes and nose and allergies.
• The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth
repellents, wood preservatives, and other products.
→ Health effects: irritation of the eye, nose and throat, headaches, nausea and loss of
coordination.
→ Long term health effects: suspected to damage the liver and other parts of the body.
⦁ Benzene
• Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals.
• It is an important component of gasoline (petrol).
• Benzene increases the risk of cancer and other illnesses.
• Benzene is a notorious cause of bone marrow failure.
⦁ Ethylene
• Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry.
• Much of this production goes toward polyethylene.
• Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone, used in agriculture to force the ripening of
fruits.
• Ethylene is of low toxicity to humans and exposure to excess ethylene causes adverse health
effects like headache, drowsiness, dizziness and unconsciousness.
• Ethylene is not but ethylene oxide is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). C ₂H ₄
Biological pollutants
• It includes pollen from plants, mites, and hair from pets, fungi, parasites, and some bacteria.
• Most of them are allergens and can cause asthma, hay fever, and other allergic diseases.

⦁ Asbestos
• Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– chrysotile,
crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite.
• It is now known that prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibres can cause serious and fatal illnesses
including lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).
⦁ Radon
• It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil.
• Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house and causes lung
cancers.
⦁ Particulate pollutants
• Particulate pollutants are matter suspended in air such as dust and soot.
• Major sources of SPM (suspended particulate matter) are industries, vehicles, power plants,
construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard, market place, industries, etc.
• Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 micrometers
(µm) in diameter.
✓ Particles less than 10 µm float and move
freely with the air current. Particles which are
more than 10 µm in diameter settle down.
✓ Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent
aerosols.
• According to the Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB), particulates size 2.5 µm or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing the
greatest harm to human health.
• These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the lungs and can cause breathing and respiratory
symptoms, irritation, inflammations and pneumoconiosis (disease of the lungs caused due to
inhalation of dust. It is characterized by inflammation, coughing, and fibrosis – excess deposition
of fibrous tissue).
⦁ Fly ash

• Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants as by-products of coal burning operations.
• Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies.
• Fly ash affects crops and vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces.
→ Composition
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and
magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
• Major oxides present are aluminum silicate (in large amounts), silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) and
calcium oxide (CaO).
→ Uses
• Cement can be replaced by fly ash up to 35%, thus reducing the cost of construction, making
roads, etc.
• Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength and durability.
• Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments and in concrete roads.
• Fly ash can be used in the reclamation of wastelands.
• Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
• Fly ash can increase crop yield when added to the soil. But if it gets deposited on the leaf, it will
reduce photosynthesis.
• It also enhances the water holding capacity of the land.
⦁ Lead
• It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc.
• It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
• Lead affects children in particular.
• Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol for a smooth and easy running of
vehicles.
• The lead particles coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles are mixed with air.
• It produces injurious effects on the kidney and liver and interferes with the development of red
blood cells.
• Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning.
• It has long term effects on children as it lowers intelligence.
⦁ Styrene Gas

• Styrene is an organic compound that is a derivative of benzene.
• It is stored in a liquid state and evaporates easily.
• It must be kept under 20°C.
→ Uses
• It is the main raw material for synthesis of polystyrene.
• Polystyrene is a versatile plastic that is used to make parts of various appliances such as
refrigerators or micro-ovens, automotive parts, computers, disposable items, etc.
Effects
• It affects the central nervous system.

• It causes breathlessness & respiratory problems, irritation in eyes, indigestion & nausea, & loss
of consciousness
• It is the mucous membrane that is mainly affected by exposure to styrene gas and it can be fatal.
• There is a chance of developing leukemia and headaches in patients.
⇒ Recently The gas that leaked from a chemical factory on the outskirts of Visakhapatnam
leaving people dead is called styrene.
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
Control of Industrial Pollution
• Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by: ✓ use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied
natural gas (LNG) in power plants, fertilizer plants etc. which is cheaper in addition to
being environmentally friendly.
✓ installing devices which reduce the release of pollutants.
• Devices like filters, electrostatic precipitators.

Filters
• Filters remove particulate matter from the gas stream.
• Baghouse filtration system is the most common one and is made of cotton or synthetic fibers (for
low temperatures) or glass cloth fabrics (for higher temperature up to 2900C).
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)

• Electrostatic precipitation can remove over 99 per cent particulate matter present in the exhaust.
• The emanating dust is charged with ions, and the ionized particulate matter is collected on an
oppositely charged surface.
⦁ Working
• An electrostatic precipitator has electrode wires that are maintained at several thousand volts,
which produce a corona that releases electrons.
• These electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge. The collecting plates
are grounded (relatively positive charge) and attract the charged dust particles.
• ESPs are used in boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal power plants, cement
factories, steel plants, etc.

Catalytic converter
• Catalytic converters, having expensive metals namely platinum palladium and rhodium as the
catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing the emission of poisonous gases.
• As the exhaust passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into
carbon dioxide and water, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide
and nitrogen gas, respectively.
• Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic converters should use unleaded petrol because the lead
in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Apart from the use of the above mentioned devices, other control measures are:
• increasing the height of chimneys.
• closing industries which pollute the environment.
• shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas. development and
maintenance of a green belt of adequate width.
⇒Mar,2021-Flex Engine / flexible-fuel vehicle / dual-fuel / Alternative fuel engine: Capable of
using traditional Petrol/diesel, as well as alternative fuels such as ethanol and methanol. The
Highway Minister told Indian automakers to focus on this.
Steps Taken to Control Vehicular Pollution
• Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl lead was added in the petrol to raise octane level for the
smooth running of engines. Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent the emission of
lead particles.

• Usage of alternative fuels like CNG in public transport vehicles is made mandatory in cities like
Delhi. All the buses of Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of 2002.
• Simultaneously parallel steps taken in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution include phasing out
of old vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low sulfur petrol and diesel, use of catalytic
converters in vehicles, application of stringent pollution-level norms for vehicles, etc.
⦁ BS VI from 2020
• From April 2017, BS IV norms are applicable nationwide.
• October 2018: Supreme Court ordered a ban on the sale of Bharat Stage IV vehicles from April
1, 2020.
• The central government had announced the April 1, 2020 deadline for adopting Bharat Stage VI
emission norms by manufacturers.
Bharat Stage (BS) norms
• The BS norms are instituted by the government to regulate the emission of air pollutants from
motor vehicles.
• The norms were introduced in 2000.
• The norms limit the release of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM) and sulphur oxides from vehicles using internal combustion
engines.
• The norms are meant to be adopted by using appropriate fuel and technology.
• As the stage goes up, the control of emissions becomes stricter.
• BS IV and BS VI norms are based on similar norms in Europe called Euro 4 and Euro 6.
⦁ Differences between BS IV and BS VI
• The extent of sulfur is the major difference between Bharat Stage IV and Bharat Stage VI norms.
• BS-IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm) sulfur; the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm
sulfur.
• BS VI can bring
✓ PM in diesel cars fell by 80 per cent.
✓ nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per cent and petrol cars by 25 per cent.
• BS VI also makes onboard diagnostics (OBD) mandatory for all vehicles.

• RDE (Real Driving Emission) will be introduced for the first time that will measure the emission
in real-world conditions and not just under test conditions.
Impact
• Compliance requires a higher investment in technology to make new vehicles.
• Upgrading vehicles in stock is an additional burden for the manufacturers.
• BS Vi-compliant vehicles will be expensive.
• BS Vi-compliant fuel too will be more expensive.
Effects of Air Pollution: Acid Rain – Acidification
• Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than normal (pH
of less than 5.6. pH below 7 is acidic).
• Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gasses such as sulfur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels.
• It is also recognized that acidic smog, fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere and settle on dust
particles which in turn accumulate on vegetation as acid depositions.
• When rain falls, the acid from these depositions leak and form acid dews.
Types of Acid Deposition
• "Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (a form of deposition
material) from the atmosphere.
⦁ Wet Deposition
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids can fall
to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals.
⦁ Dry Deposition
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust or
smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, vegetation,
cars, etc.
⦁ Effects on humans
• Bad smells, reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract.
• Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer.
⦁ Effects on soil

• The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient cations like potassium and magnesium in
the soil cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil infertile.
⦁ Effects on aquatic life
• Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH changes.
• Acidic lake waters may kill microbes and turn them unproductive.
⦁ Effect on terrestrial life
• Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy metals like aluminum, lead and mercury. Such metals
when percolate into ground water affect soil micro flora/fauna.
• Other indirect effects of acid rain on wildlife are loss or alteration of food and habitat resources.
⦁ Effects on microorganisms
• pH determines the proliferation of any microbial species.
• The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is near neutrality.
• Most fungi prefer an acidic environment.
• Most blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline environment.
• So, microbial species in the soil and water shift from bacteria bound to fungi-bound.
• This causes a delay in the decomposition of soil organic material.
⦁ Effect on buildings, monuments and materials
• Many old, historical, ancient buildings and works of art/textile etc. are adversely affected by acid
rain.
• Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain. Smoke and soot cover such objects..
• Many buildings/monuments such as Taj Mahal in Agra have suffered from acid rain (Marble
Cancer).
⦁ Acid Rain Areas
• They are concentrated in the industrialized belt of the northern hemisphere.
• Scandinavia, Canada, the Northeast United States and North-western Europe.
⦁ In India
• In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in 1974.
• Instances of acid rain are being reported from metropolitan cities.
• Lowering of soil pH is reported from north-eastern India, coastal Karnataka and Kerala, parts of
Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar.

⦁ Acid Rain Control
• Use of low sulfur fuel or natural gas or washed coal (chemical washing of pulverized coal) in
thermal plants can reduce incidences of acid rain.
• Buffering: the practice of adding a neutralizing agent to the acidified water to increase the pH.
Usually, lime in the form of calcium oxide and calcium carbonate is used.
Programmes
National Ambient Air Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in
Quality Standards the outdoors. National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the standards for
(NAAQS) ambient air quality set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that
are applicable nationwide. The CPCB has been conferred this power by the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The NAAQS have been
revisited and revised in November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
• sulfur dioxide (SO2 ),
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ),
• particulate matter having micron (PM10),
• particulate matter having a size less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5),
• ozone,
• lead,
• carbon monoxide (CO),
• arsenic,
• nickel,
• benzene,
• ammonia, and
• benzopyrene.
National Air Quality Index Launched by the Environment Ministry in April 2015.
(AQI) • Initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’.
→ AQI
• It helps the common man to judge the air quality within his vicinity.
• Index constituted as a part of the Government’s mission to improve the
culture of cleanliness.
→ Old vs new

• While the earlier measuring index was limited to three indicators, the current
measurement index has been made quite comprehensive by the addition of
more parameters.
→ Previously who measured Air pollution
• Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control
Boards have been operating the National Air Monitoring Program
(NAMP).
→ Why is AQI necessary?
• Quality of data from some cities remains weak, and the standards set for
pollutants fall short of World Health Organization recommendations.
• The pollution related analysis using a vast number of complex parameters
was complicated for the common man to understand.
→ Categories of air pollution under AQI
• There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately
polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
→ Pollutants considered
• The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2 , SO2 , CO,
O3 , NH3 , and Pb).
The Air (Prevention and ● Aims for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
Control of Pollution) Act, ● Establishes Boards at the Central and State levels.
1981 ● For better monitoring of air pollution, ambient air quality standards were
established.
● The Air Act prohibits the use of polluting fuels and substances and regulates
the use of appliances that give rise to air pollution.
● It empowers the State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to
declare any area or areas within the State as air pollution control area or areas.
● Establishing or operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area
requires consent from SPCBs.
National Clean Air ● It was launched by the Ministry of Environment and Forests recently.
Programme ● It was launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019.
● It provides a framework for the Center and the states to combat air pollution.

● NCAP has a goal to meet the prescribed annual average ambient air quality
standards at all locations in the country in a stipulated time frame.
● It has been launched to cut down particulate matter by 20-30% in at least
102 cities by 2024.
→ Need for NCAP
● Cities occupy just 3% of the land, but contribute to 82% of GDP.
● They are also responsible for 78% of Carbon dioxide emissions.
● Though cities are engines of growth and equity, they have to be sustainable.
● NCAP has been launched as an inclusive program to reduce pollution and
make cities sustainable.
→ Features of NCAP
● The national level target of 20%–30% reduction of PM2.5 and PM10
concentration by 2024 is proposed under the NCAP taking 2017 as the base
year for the comparison of concentration.
● NCAP is a mid-term, five-year action plan with 2019 as the first year.
● There are 102 non-attainment cities identified for implementing mitigation
actions under NCAP.
● For each of these cities, a city specific action plan is being made.
● Cities have already prepared action plans in consultation with the Central
Pollution Control Board.
● Smart Cities program will be used to launch NCAP in the 43 smart cities
falling in the list of the 102 non-attainment cities.
● NCAP will be evolved based on the evolving scientific and technical
information.
● In addition, the following would be constituted for effective implementation
of NCAP
○ Sectoral working groups
○ National level Project Monitoring Unit
○ Project Implementation Unit
○ State level project monitoring unit
○ City level review committee under the Municipal Commissioner
○ DM level Committee in the Districts
● Other features of NCAP include:

○ increasing number of monitoring stations in the country including rural
monitoring stations,
○ technology support,
○ emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives,
○ setting up of certification agencies for monitoring equipment,
○ source apportionment studies,
○ emphasis on enforcement,
○ specific sectoral interventions etc.
State of Global Air 2020: State of Global Air 2020 (SoGA 2020) has been released by the Health
HEI Effects Institute (HEI).
•It highlights that air pollution is the largest risk factor for death among all
health risks and it is the first-ever comprehensive analysis of air pollution’s
global impact on newborns.
• HEI is an independent, nonprofit research institute funded jointly by the
USA’s Environmental Protection Agency and others.
→ Key Points
• India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal are among the top ten countries with
the highest PM2.5 (particulate matter) exposures in 2019 and all of these
countries experienced increases in outdoor PM2.5 levels between 2010 and
2019.
• India is also among the top ten countries with highest ozone (O3) exposure
in 2019. Also, among the 20 most populous countries, India recorded the
highest increase (17%) in O3 concentrations in the past ten years.
•Long-term exposure to outdoor and household (indoor) air pollution
contributed to over 1.67 million annual deaths from stroke, heart attack,
diabetes, lung cancer, chronic lung diseases, and neonatal diseases, in India
in 2019.
Central Pollution Control • ● Statutory organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Board Climate Change (MoEFCC).
● It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974.

● Also derives its powers from the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981.
● Apex organization in the country to control pollution.
→ Functions of CPCB:
● Coordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards
● Conducts environmental assessments and research.
● Maintains national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in
consultation with zonal offices, tribal, and local governments.
● Monitors water and air quality, and maintains monitoring data under
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
● Advises the central government to prevent and control water and air
pollution.
⇒2020-November-Indo-Gangetic plain = most Polluted region in the India&
world!-CPCB
⇒ Mar-2020-The Supreme Court has declined to intervene in an appeal
filed by the CREDAI’s Kerala chapter against the NGT’s ruling that sided
with Kerala State Pollution Control Board’s decision to place
constructions between 2,000 sq.m and 20,000 sq.m in the orange

category.
The Air (Prevention and ● Aims for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
Control of Pollution) Act, ● Establishes Boards at the Central and State levels.
1981 ● For better monitoring of air pollution, ambient air quality standards were
established. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
● The Air Act prohibits the use of polluting fuels and substances and regulates
the use of appliances that give rise to air pollution.
● It empowers the State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to
declare any area or areas within the State as air pollution control areas or
areas.
● Establishing or operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area
requires consent from SPCBs

The Environment ● EPA is an umbrella legislation that includes the Water Act, 1974 and
Protection Act (EPA), theAir Act.
1986
● Under the Environment Act, the Central Government can:
1. Set standards for emissions and discharges of pollution in the
atmosphere by any person carrying on an industry or activity;
2. Regulate the location of industries;
3. Look after management of hazardous wastes,
4. Empower any person to enter, inspect, take samples and test.
● From time to time, the Central Government issues notifications under
the Environment Act for the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas
or issues guidelines for matters under the Environment Act.
● The Act prescribes stringent penalties to the defaulters for violation
of the provisions of the Act.
● The jurisdiction of Civil Court is barred under the Act.
● Every State has to set up Green Bench Courts to attend to Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) cases concerning environmental hazards.
→ Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority
(EPCA)
•EPCA was constituted with the objective of ‘protecting and
improving’ the quality of the environment and ‘controlling
environmental pollution’ in the National Capital Region. The EPCA
also assists the apex court in various environment-related matters in the
region.
•EPCA is a Supreme Court mandated body tasked with taking various
measures to tackle air pollution in the National Capital Region. It was
notified in 1998 by the Environment Ministry under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
→ Functions:
•To protect and improve the quality of the environment and prevent and
control environmental pollution in the National Capital Region.

•To enforce Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) in NCR as per the
pollution levels. Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control)
Authority (EPCA) will implement an emergency action plan in Delhi
to tackle rising air pollution.
•The emergency plan is called the Graded Response Action Plan
(GRAP).
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala •PMUY was launched in 2016 and is implemented by the Ministry of
Yojana (PMUY) Petroleum and Natural Gas through its Oil Marketing Companies.
•Through PMUY, initially, 5 crores below poverty line (BPL)
households were targeted for providing deposit free LPG connections
to BPL households by 31st March, 2019. This target has been achieved.
SAFAR •The System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research
(SAFAR) is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) to measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by
measuring the overall pollution level and the location-specific air
quality of the city.
•The system is indigenously developed by the Indian Institute of
Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and is operationalized by the India
Meteorological Department (IMD).

• It has a giant true color LED display that gives out a real-time air
quality index on a 24x7 basis with color-coding (along with 72 hours
advance forecast). The ultimate objective of the project is to increase
awareness among the general public regarding the air quality in their
city so that appropriate mitigation measures and systematic action can
be taken up.
•SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning
System operational in Delhi. It monitors all weather parameters like
temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV
radiation, and solar radiation.
•Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene,
Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
SAMEER App • SAMEER App is one of the air pollution mitigation measures which
provides hourly updates on the National Air Quality Index (AQI).
•The app is developed by the Central Pollution Control Bureau (CPCB)
which provides information on air quality for more than 100 cities
across the country.
•The app represents the listed cities in a color-coded format based on
their AQI levels.
•The app can also be used to file or track complaints related to garbage
dumping, road dust, vehicular emissions or other pollution issues in a
particular area.
WAYU (Wind •The air purifying devices include WAYU (Wind Augmentation
Augmentation Purifying PurifYing Unit) and High-Efficiency Particulate Arrestance (HEPA)
Unit) filters. WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit).
•It is developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and
dense traffic zones.

•It has been indigenously developed by the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research - National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute (CSIR-NEERI).
•The device has the capacity to purify the air in an area of the 500-
meter square. It is energy efficient and has a low maintenance cost.
•The device works on two principles :
• Wind generation for dilution of air pollutants: It comprises a fan
that sucks in air and removes dust and particulate matter.
• Active Pollutant removal: The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
are oxidized into less harmful carbon dioxide using activated carbon
coated with titanium dioxide.
Engineered carbon removal / Direct air capture: Using Giants fans
to pull carbon dioxide from air and trap it.
Criticism: Useless-Startup-tamasha. Plant more trees, it will remove
more Co2 than wasting Electricity to run the fans.
✍✍ Mains Question
Q. (GSM3-2020)- What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
initiated by the Government of India?

Water Pollution
Water Pollution 182

Definition 182
Sources of water pollution 182
Effects of Water Pollution 186
Legal measures to control water pollution: 191
✍✍ Mains Question 195
Water Pollution
Definition
● Water pollution is defined as the addition or presence of undesirable substances in water.

● It is one of the most serious environmental problems caused mainly by various industrial, agricultural
and domestic activities.
Sources of water pollution
● Water pollution sources can be either point sources or nonpoint sources.

● Point sources: Pollutants are discharged directly from the source to the water. e.g. a drain pipe carrying
industrial effluents into a water body.
● Non-point sources: Pollutants come from diffuse sources or from a larger area. e.g. runoff from
agricultural fields, grazing lands, construction sites etc.
● Agricultural sources:
1. Agricultural runoff has fertilizers and pesticides that contain many nutrients.
2. These chemicals can get leached and seep into the groundwater polluting it.
3. Further these nutrients can cause eutrophication in the water bodies.
4. Aquatic organisms take and incorporate these nutrients into the food chain. (bioaccumulation)
5. At higher trophic levels, the concentration of these pollutants magnify (Biomagnification).
● Domestic and industrial waste:
1. Domestic sewage contains human and animal excreta, food residues, detergents and other wastes.

2. Untreated sewage and industrial effluents contain toxic inorganic and organic pollutants.
● Sewage Water
• Sewage water includes discharges from houses and other establishments.
• The sewage contains human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, detergents, etc.
• Domestic and hospital sewage contain many undesirable pathogenic microorganisms.
● Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water decreases the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
• Water having DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be considered as contaminated.
• Water having DO content below. 4.0 mg/L is considered to be highly polluted.

• A number of factors like surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms and
decomposition of organic matter are the factors which determine the amount of DO present in water.
• The higher amounts of waste increase the rates of decomposition and O2 consumption thereby
decreases the DO content of water.
● Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
• BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes present
in water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter of water.
• The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water.
● Industrial Wastes

• Discharge of wastewater from industries like petroleum, paper manufacturing, metal extraction and
processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., that often contain toxic substances, notably, heavy metals
(defined as elements with density > 5 g/cm3 such as mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, arsenic) and a variety
of organic compounds.
● Marine and coastal pollution
● Oceans and coastal waters receive a large percentage of their waste and pollutants – including plastic
debris, nutrients, oil, heavy metals and radioactive waste – from land-based sources.
● The rest comes from the shipping industry, fisheries and other sea-based sources.
● Agricultural sources
• Agricultural runoff contains dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates, ammonia and other nutrients,
and toxic metal ions and organic compounds.
• Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
• Excess fertilizers may reach the groundwater by leaching or may be mixed with surface water.
• Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc. They contain a wide range of chemicals
such as chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs. E.g. DDT→ Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Endosulfan

etc.),
● Thermal and Radiation Pollution
• Power plants – thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use a lot of water for cooling purposes,
and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans.
• Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C above the
ambient water temperature. This is thermal pollution.
• Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in the water. • Nuclear accidents near water
bodies or during natural calamities like tsunami and earthquakes pose the risk of radiation leakage
(radiation exposure) into water bodies. E.g. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
• Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid cancer.
● Aquatic organisms in the hot tropical water bodies live dangerously close to their upper limit of
temperature, particularly during the warm summer months.
● A slight increase in temperature affects aquatic organisms in following ways:
1. Affects feeding in fishes
2. Affects their growth

3. Decreases their swimming efficiency
4. Decreases their resistance to diseases and parasites
5. Also reduces the biological diversity of aquatic ecosystem
● Underground water pollution
• In India at many places, the groundwater is threatened with contamination due to seepage from industrial
and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and agricultural runoff.
• Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals and nutrients like nitrates and phosphates are common
in many parts of India.
⦁ Nitrates
• Dissolved nitrates commonly contaminate groundwater.
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with hemoglobin to form non-functional methaemoglobin
and impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome.
⦁ Trace metals
• Include lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium and nickel.
• These metals can be toxic and carcinogenic.
⦁ Arsenic
• Seepage of industrial and mine discharges, fly ash ponds of thermal power plants can lead to arsenic
in groundwater.
• In India and Bangladesh (Ganges Delta)
• Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhea and also lung and skin
cancer.
⦁ Fluoride
• Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuromuscular disorders, gastrointestinal problems, teeth
deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis).
• Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome.
• Fluorosis is a common problem in several states of the country due to the intake of high fluoride content
water.
⦁ Mercury

• Pollution of water bodies by mercury causes Minamata (neurological syndrome) disease in humans.
Mercury compounds in wastewater are converted by bacterial action into extremely toxic methylmercury
mental derangement.
• Lead causes lead poisoning (Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs
and tissues).
⇒ Aug,2020- A joint report ‘The Toxic Truth: Children’s Exposure to Lead Pollution Undermines a
Generation of Potential’ by United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Pure Earth, a non-profit
organization notes that lead is a potent neurotoxin that causes irreparable harm to children’s brains.
• The compounds of lead cause anemia, headache, loss of muscle power and bluish line around the
gum.
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful
disease of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
? Match the Column:
Compound Disease
a) Arsenic 1. Itai Itai
b) Fluoride 2. methemoglobinemia
c) Cadmium 3. Black foot
d) Nitrate 4. Knock knee
Which one is the correct pair:

(1) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4 (2) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1 (3) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2 (4) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
Effects of Water Pollution
⚾on the Environment

• Presence of large amounts of nutrients in water results in algal bloom (excessive growth of planktonic
algae. This leads to the aging of lakes.
• A few toxic substances, often present in industrial wastewaters, can undergo biological magnification
(Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain. This phenomenon is well-known for mercury and DDT.

• High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of eggshells and
their premature breaking, eventually causing a decline in bird populations.
⚾on Aquatic Ecosystem
• Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content, thereby eliminating sensitive organisms like
plankton, molluscs and fish etc.
• However, a few tolerant species like Tubifex (annelid worm) and some insect larvae may survive in highly
polluted water with low DO content. Such species are recognized as indicator species for polluted water.
• Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (organic chemicals consisting of carbon, hydrogen and
chlorine atoms ) and heavy metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
• Hot waters discharged from industries, when added to water bodies, lowers its DO content.
• Riparian buffers: A riparian buffer is a vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually forested,
which helps shade and partially protect a stream from the impact of adjacent land uses.
• Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents before releasing it into water bodies. Hot water
should be cooled before release from the power plants.
• Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided. Organic farming and efficient use of animal
residues as fertilizers can replace chemical fertilizers.
• Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed, invasive species) can purify water by taking some toxic materials
and a number of heavy metals from water.

• Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of oil zapper, microorganisms.
• It has been suggested that we should plant eucalyptus trees all along sewage ponds. These trees absorb
all surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapor into the atmosphere.
Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade the
environmental contaminants into less toxic forms.
Microorganisms can be specifically designed for bioremediation using genetic engineering techniques. In
situ bioremediation In situ — It involves treatment of the contaminated material at the site.
Bioventing: supply of air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of
indigenous bacteria.
Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring
bacteria.
Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the degradation
process. Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has developed a mixture of bacteria called ‘Oilzapper and
Oilivorous-S’ which degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated sites, leaving behind no harmful residues..
Oilzapper is essentially a cocktail of five different bacterial strains.

Ex situ bioremediation
Ex situ — involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
Landfarming: contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate
their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
Bioreactors: it involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
through an engineered containment system.
Composting: Composting is nature's process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a rich soil
known as compost.
Phytoremediation
• Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remove contaminants from soil and water.
• Natural phytoremediation is carried out by mangroves, estuarine vegetation and other wetland vegetation.
Flocculation: Aluminum sulfate (alum) is the most common coagulant used for water purification. Other
chemicals, such as ferric sulfate or sodium aluminate, may also be used.

Chlorine is used because it is a very effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be maintained
to guard against possible biological contamination in the water distribution system. The addition of chlorine
or chlorine compounds to drinking water is called chlorination.
Fluoridation Water fluoridation is the treatment of community water supplies for the purpose of adjusting
the concentration of the free fluoride ion to the optimum level sufficient to reduce dental caries. Fluoride
is generally present in all natural water. Its concentration up to a certain level is not harmful. Beyond that
level, the bones start disintegrating. This disease is called fluorosis. We have fluoride problems in many
parts of our country. The Bureau of Indian Standards prescribes 1.0 mg/l as desirable and 1.5 mg/l as a
maximum permissible limit for drinking water.
Defluoridation at domestic level can be carried out by mixing water for treatment with an adequate amount
of aluminum sulfate (alum) solution, lime or sodium carbonate and bleaching powder depending upon its
alkalinity (concentration of bicarbonates and carbonates in water) and fluoride contents.
Legal measures to control water pollution:
The Water Act (1974), the are the main acts to tackle water pollution.
Water Cess Act (1977 and ● The Water Cess Act deals with revenue-generation.
1988), and the Environment
● Pollution control boards at the central and state levels are
(Protection) Act or EPA
(1986) empowered to prevent, control, and abate water pollution, and to
advise governments on matters pertaining to such pollution.
● CPCB coordinates the activities of the state boards and also
prepares a list of polluting industries in India.
● The acts mainly deal with industrial units and do not cover the
regulation of water pollution originating from the household and

agriculture sectors.
The Water (Prevention and ● The Act targets prevention and control of water pollution
Control of Pollution) Act, ● It provides for the establishment of Boards for the prevention and
1974
control of water pollution (CPCB and SPCBs)
● It prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond
a given standard, and lays down penalties for non-compliance.
● CPCB and SPCBs lay down standards and implement them for
the prevention and control of water pollution.
The Water (Prevention and provides for levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by
Control of Pollution) Cess persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial
Act, 1977 activities.
Atal Mission for ● AMRUT aims to transform 500 cities and towns into efficient
Rejuvenation and Urban urban living spaces.
Transformation (AMRUT)
● It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 80% budgetary support
from the Center.
● Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India
● Thrust Areas of AMRUT:
(i) Water Supply,
(ii) Sewerage facilities and septage management,
(iii) Storm Water drains to reduce flooding,
(iv) Pedestrian, non-motorized and public transport facilities,
parking spaces etc
Smart cities mission ● City rejuvenation mission for 100 chosen cities.
● Aims to provide core infrastructure in the city: housing, water
and electricity supply, sanitation and solid waste management,
efficient urban mobility and public transport, robust IT
connectivity and digitalization, etc.
● Holistic approach for all round development of the city.
● Three pronged strategy: city improvement (retrofitting), city

renewal (redevelopment) and city extension (green-field
development).
National River Conservation ● Boss? Ministry of Jal Shakti

Plan (NRCP) ● Centrally sponsored plan launched in 1995.
● Presently covers 38 rivers in 178 towns spread over 20 States.
● Interception and diversion of sewage and setting up of Sewage
Treatment Plants are the main strategies under the National River
Conservation Plan (NRCP).
● River conservation activities such as creation of civic
infrastructure for sewage management and disposal are also being
implemented under other central schemes.
Ganga Action Plan (GAP) ● The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was launched by the Government
in 1985, for pollution abatement activities in identified polluted
stretches of river Ganga. But it did not succeed in cleaning Ganga.
National Mission for clean ● It was then established as a society and as an implementation arm of
Ganga 2011 National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA).
● NRGBA was constituted under the provisions of
theEnvironment (Protection) Act (EPA),1986.
● But, it was dissolved in 2016 and replaced with the National
Council for Rejuvenation, Protection and Management of River
Ganga (referred as National Ganga Council). The National Ganga
Council is chaired by the Prime Minister.
● The EPA Act, 1986 envisages a five tier structure at national,
state and district level to take measures for prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution in river Ganga and to ensure
continuous adequate flow of water so as to rejuvenate the river
Ganga.

Namami Gange Programme •Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation
Mission, approved as a ‘Flagship Programme’ by the Union
Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of
effective abatement of pollution and conservation and rejuvenation
of National River Ganga.
•It is being operated under the Department of Water
Resources,River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation,
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
•The program is being implemented by the National Mission for
Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state counterpart organizations i.e.,
State Program ManagementGroups (SPMGs).
• NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council
(set in 2016; which replaced the National Ganga River Basin
Authority (NRGBA).
•It has a Rs. 20,000-crore, centrally-funded, non-lapsable corpus
and consists of nearly 288 projects.
● Main pillars of the programme are
○ Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
○ River-Surface Cleaning
○ Afforestation
○ Industrial Effluent Monitoring
○ River-Front Development
○ Biodiversity Conservation
○ PublicAwareness
○ Ganga Gram
● Marking a major shift in implementation, the Government is
focusing on involving people living on the banks of the river to
attain sustainable results.
● The government is also involving the States and grassroots level
institutions such as Urban Local Bodies and Panchayati Raj

Institutions.
? Which of the following statement is not correct about AMRUT mission;

1. aims to transform 500 cities and towns into efficient urban living spaces.
2. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT),launched on 2017,
3. It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 80% budgetary support from the Center
The options are as follows:
(A] 1 & 2 only (B] 2 only (C] 1 & 3 only (D] 1,2 & 3
✍✍ Mains Question
Q. (GSM3-2015)- The Namami Gange and National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and
causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga
better than incremental inputs?

Other Pollutions
Soil Pollution ....................................................................................................................197
Causes and Sources of Soil Pollution ..............................................................................197
Effects of Soil pollution ..................................................................................................198
✍Way forward ..............................................................................................................199
Noise Pollution..................................................................................................................199
What is the noise level?..................................................................................................200
Ambient Noise Level Monitoring ...................................................................................200
Control of Noise pollution ..............................................................................................200
Permissible noise level in India ......................................................................................200
Laws .............................................................................................................................201
Radioactive Pollution ........................................................................................................201
Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations................................................................202
Impact on birds .............................................................................................................203
Prevention and control of radiation pollution .................................................................203
What is e-waste? ...............................................................................................................203
E-Waste -The magnitude of the problem ........................................................................203
Environmental and health impact of E-waste .................................................................206
Guiyu-China: Case Study .............................................................................................208
International Conventions .............................................................................................208
Programmes .................................................................................................................209
Issues and Challenges ....................................................................................................210
Best Practice .................................................................................................................211
✍Way Forward .............................................................................................................211
Management of E-waste ................................................................................................212
E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules, 2018 ...........................................................213

Soil Pollution
Causes and Sources of Soil Pollution
⦁ Plastic bags
• They accumulate in soil and prevent germination of seeds. They stay in the soil for centuries
without decomposing (non-biodegradable).
• Burning of plastic in garbage dumps releases highly toxic and poisonous gases like carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxins and other poisonous chlorinated compounds.
• Toxic solid residue left after burning remains in the soil. The harmful gases enter soils through
chemical cycles.
⦁ Industrial sources
• They include fly ash, metallic residues, mercury, lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cyanides,
chromates, acids, alkalies, organic substances, nuclear wastes
• A large number of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the soil.
⦁ Pesticides and fertilizers
• Chlorohydrocarbons (CHCs) like DDT, endosulfan, heptachlor accumulate in soil and cause
bio magnification. Some of these pesticides like DDT and endosulfan are banned by most of the
countries.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces the population of soil-borne organisms and the
crumb structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and increases salt content of the soil.
⦁ Other pollutants
• Many air pollutants (acid rain) and water pollutants ultimately become part of the soil, and the
soil also receives some toxic chemicals during weathering of certain rocks.
• Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power plants find their way into the water and
then into the soil.
● Sources of soil pollution:
1. Seepage of polluted water.
2. Dumping of Solid waste management. into the soil or improper solid waste
3. Fly ash, iron and steel slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed of on land.
4. Fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals from farmlands.
5. Land filling by municipal waste and leachates from mismanaged landfills.

6. Acid rain and dry deposition of pollutants on the land surface.
7. Pharmaceuticals from use of antibiotics in livestock
8. Unsafe storage of hazardous chemicals and nuclear waste.
● The primary pollutants of concern in land and soil include heavy metals such as lead, mercury,
arsenic, cadmium and chromium, persistent organic pollutants and other pesticides, and
pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics used for livestock management.
● These degrade soil biodiversity and functioning, and can reduce agricultural productivity, thus
negatively impacting livelihoods, disease control and food security.
● They can also cause a variety of non-communicable diseases, and even death in humans and
wildlife.
● Sources of heavy metal pollution include a variety of industrial, household and agricultural
activities, such as
○ mining and smelting operations
○ preparation of nuclear fuels and electroplating (chromium, cadmium)
○ coal and other fuel burning
○ chemical production
○ leather tanning
○ informal recycling of lead-acid batteries and electronic waste
○ poor incineration of hospital waste
○ mismanagement of household and industrial waste
Effects of Soil pollution
1. Reduction in soil nutrients, nitrogen fixation and consequent drop in crop yield
2. Salinization and soil erosion
3. Groundwater contamination and bio magnification
4. Loss of vegetation and biodiversity
5. Health problems as pollutants enter the food chain- developmental impairment and no
communicable diseases, antimicrobial resistance.

✍Way forward
● Adopt agro ecological practices and integrated pest management and establish guidelines for the
reduction and efficient use of fertilizers and environmentally friendly pesticides in agriculture.
● Reduce point-source pollutants, such as heavy metals from industry, and diffuse pollutants
including pesticides and inefficiently used fertilizers in agriculture.
● Reduce the use of antimicrobials, including antibiotics in the livestock sector, to avoid
unintended releases into the environment and food chain, and increase public awareness and
international collaboration on research and product development.
● Invest in building the knowledge
● Remediate contaminated sites.
● Invest in long-term environmental monitoring following industrial closures.
● Avoid indiscriminate disposal of solid waste.
● Ban plastic bags and promote bags of degradable materials like paper and cloth.
● Treat sewage properly before using it as fertilizers and as landfills.
● Segregate domestic, agricultural and other waste before vermicomposting.
● Treat industrial wastes prior to disposal.
● Collect biomedical waste separately and incinerate in proper incinerators.
● Follow the Four R’s Refuse, Reuse, Recycle and Reduce
Noise Pollution
• Noise by definition is “sound without value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”.
• Noise level is measured in terms of decibels (dB). An increase of about 10 dB is approximately
double the increase in loudness.
• W.H.O. (World Health Organization) has prescribed optimum noise levels as 45 dB by day and
35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.
• Noise pollution leads to irritation, increased blood pressure, loss of temper, mental depression
and annoyance, a decrease in work efficiency, loss of hearing which may be first temporary but
can become permanent if the noise stress continues.
• A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.

What is the noise level?
• Any unwanted sound that causes annoyance, irritation and pain to the human ear is termed noise.
It is measured in A-weighted decibels (dB (A)) that indicate the loudness of the sound. • Noise
level refers to the decibel levels of noise produced by any appliance or machine. In general, the
human ear can tolerate noise levels up to 85 dB. Anything beyond that can affect their productivity
and quality of life.
Ambient Noise Level Monitoring
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 define ambient noise levels for various
areas.
• The Government of India in Mar 2011 launched a Real-time Ambient Noise Monitoring
Network.
• Silence Zone is an area comprising not less than 100 meters around hospitals, educational
institutions, courts, religious places or any other area declared as such by a competent authority.
Control of Noise pollution
● Better designing and proper maintenance of vehicles.

● Noise reduction using noise attenuation walls, well maintained roads and smooth surfacing of
roads.
● Air traffic noise can be reduced by enforcing noise regulations for take-off and landing of
aircrafts at the airport.
● Industrial noises can be reduced by sound proofing equipment like generators and areas
producing a lot of noise.
● Ban on use of Power tools, very Lou
Permissible noise level in India
• The CPCB has laid down the permissible noise levels in India for different areas. Noise pollution
rules have defined the acceptable level of noise in different zones for both daytime and night time.
• In industrial areas, the permissible limit is 75 dB for daytime and 70 dB at night.

• In commercial areas, it is 65 dB and 55 dB, while in residential areas it is 55 dB and 45 dB during
daytime and night respectively.
• Additionally, state governments have declared ‘silent zones’ which includes areas that lie within
100 meters of the premises of schools, colleges, hospitals and courts. The permissible noise limit
in this zone is 50 dB during the day and 40 dB during the night.
Laws
• Earlier, noise pollution and its sources were addressed under the Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• They are now, however, regulated separately under the Noise Pollution (Regulation and
Control) Rules, 2000.
• Additionally, noise standards for motor vehicles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, diesel generators
and certain types of construction equipment are prescribed under the Environment (Protection)
Rules, 1986.
• Noise emanating from industry is regulated by State Pollution Control Boards / Pollution Control
Committees (SPCBs / PCCs) for states / Union territories under the Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1981.
● A Real time Ambient Noise Monitoring Network was launched in 2011.
d music and land movers, public functions using loudspeakers etc at night.
● Use of firecrackers, horns, alarms, refrigeration units etc is to be restricted.
● A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.
Radioactive Pollution
• Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the natural radiation levels in the
environment that pose a serious threat to humans and other life forms. They include cosmic
rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth's crust such as
radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14
• Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of protons (alpha-particles),
electrons (beta-particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to the
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These cause radioactive pollution.

• Non-ionizing radiations affect only those components which absorb them and have low
penetrability.
• Ionizing radiations have high penetration power and cause breakage of macromolecules
Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations
• Radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation
sickness) and (b) genetic damage.
• Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction.
• Effects of somatic radiation damage include loss of hair, fibrosis of the lungs, a reduction of
white blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer
and death.
• Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction.
• This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in
abnormalities.
• Genetic damages are passed onto the next generation.

• Inspired by these safety measures three disasters in the nuclear power plants are noteworthy –
Three Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 and
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011.
Impact on birds
• The surface area of a bird is relatively larger than their body weight in comparison to the human
body, so they absorb more radiation.
• Also, the fluid contained in the body of the bird is less due to small body weight, so it gets heated
up very fast.
• The magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds' navigation skills; hence when birds are exposed
to EMR they become disorientated and begin to fly in all directions.
Prevention and control of radiation pollution

● Proper site selection, design, construction, commissioning, and operation of nuclear reactors
ensuring full safety should be made.
● X-rays for diagnostic purposes and radiotherapy should be done with appropriate protection
measures.
● Radioactive wastes contain highly hazardous radioactive elements like radium, thorium and
plutonium, therefore they should be stored and disposed off safely.
● Appropriate preventive steps should be taken to protect from occupational exposure
What is e-waste?
• Electronic waste, or e-waste, is a term for electronic products that have become unwanted,
obsolete, and have reached the end of their useful life.
• It refers to all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been
discarded by its owner as waste without the intent of re-use.
E-Waste -The magnitude of the problem
• The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic
waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 per cent in just five years, according to the UN’s
Global E-waste Monitor 2020, The new report also predicts global e-waste - discarded products
with a battery or plug - will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years.

• Only 17.4 percent of 2019’s e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver,
copper, platinum and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US $57
billion -- a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly dumped
or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse. According to the report, Asia
generated the greatest volume of e-waste in 2019 — some 24.9 Mt, followed by the Americas
(13.1 Mt) and Europe (12 Mt), while Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 Mt and 0.7 Mt respectively.
• India generates about 3 million tones (MT) of e-waste annually and ranks third among e-waste
producing countries, after China and the United States. Reports state that it might rise to 5 million
tonnes by 2021.
• Maharashtra is the biggest contributor to e-waste generation followed by Tamil Nadu and Uttar
Pradesh.
• The government has reported that the recycling rate of 10% in 2017-18 has risen to 20% in 2018-
19.

Environmental and health impact of E-waste
• Impact on Human Health:

• Pollutants, their sources and effects on human health;

•Environmental Impact
➡Air
• E-waste when dismantled and shredded, releases dust or large particles into the immediate
environment and affects the respiratory health of workers.
• Further, unregulated burning of e-waste releases toxins which are potent and damaging to both
humans (neurological disease and impact on immune system) and animal health.
➡Water
• Water is contaminated by e-waste in landfills that are not properly designed to contain e waste
and due to improper recycling and subsequent disposal of e-waste.
• Heavy metals from e-waste cause toxification of surface water.
• Groundwater is polluted by e-waste as heavy metals and other persistent chemicals leach from
landfills and illegal dump sites into ground water tables.
➡Soil:

• Soil is contaminated by e-waste through direct contact with contaminants from e-waste or the
byproducts of e-waste recycling and disposal and indirectly through irrigation through
contaminated water.
• Contaminated soils have adverse impact on microbes and plants and the pollutants pass to higher
animals and humans along the food chain.
Guiyu-China: Case Study
• Guiyu in China is a major hub for the disposal of

e-waste and is widely considered to be the largest
e-waste disposal site in the world.
• Guiyu receives shipments of e-waste, both from
domestic sources and from other countries
According to U.N. report "E-Waste in China,"
Guiyu suffered an "environmental calamity" as a
result of the wide-scale e-waste disposal industry in
the area.
• Unregulated and improper management of e-waste in the region has caused tremendous damage
to the environment and pose a great threat to human health in the region.
International Conventions
• 1. Basel Convention on the Control of the Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Waste,

1992 (entered into force)
• Originally the Basel Convention did not mention e-waste but later it addressed the issues of e
waste in 2006.
• The convention seeks to ensure environmentally sound management
• Prevention of illegal traffic to developing countries
• Building capacity to better manage e-waste.
• It aimed at creating innovative solutions for the environmentally sound management of electronic
wastes.
• 2. Rotterdam Convention, 2004

• The Convention seeks to promote exchange of information (through Prior Informed Consent)
among Parties over a range of potentially hazardous chemicals (including pesticides and industrial
chemicals) that may be exported or imported.
Programmes
• 1. Awareness Program on Environmental Hazards of Electronic Waste

• The project initiated by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology aims to provide
training,
• Tools and films aimed at creating awareness and reducing the impact of e waste on the
environment and health.
• 2. Creation of Management Structure for Hazardous Substances
• The programme seeks to raise awareness among people about the 2016 Rules and its
implementation.
• 3. Swachh Digital Bharat
• The programme seeks to create awareness among the public about the hazards of e-waste
recycling by the unorganized sector,
• To educate them about alternate methods of disposing of their e-waste.
• The general public is encouraged to participate in the programme, by giving their e-waste to
authorized recyclers only.
• 4. Greene
• It is a dedicated website which seeks to spread awareness about e-waste through social media E-
Waste Disposal and Recycling Practices in India
• Unorganized sector/ Informal:
• Around 90% of the recycling of E-Waste in India is done by the non formal/unorganized sector.
• Non-formal units of e-waste recyclers are distributed all over India.
• Informal units generally follow the steps such as collection of the e-waste from the rag pickers,
disassembly of the products for their usable parts, components, modules, which are having resale
value.
• The rest of the material is chemically treated to recover precious metals and non-recoverable
materials are disposed in landfills
• Organized /Formal:

• Organized recycling units are very few in India. Unlike the informal sector, the organized sector
uses environmentally sound methods to recycle e-
waste
Issues and Challenges
• 1. Lack of formal infrastructure:

• There is a huge gap between the present recycling
and collection facilities and the quantum of E-waste
that is being generated.
• There is no proper collection and take back
mechanism.
• 2. Imports:
• Cross-border flow of waste equipment into India
is a major issue.
• India has been the destination of the hazardous and industrial wastes like mercury, electronic and
plastic wastes from the United States, asbestos from Canada, defective steel and tin plates from
the E.U., Australia and the U.S, zinc ash, residues, lead waste and scrap, used batteries etc. from
European nations.
• Loopholes in legislations, porous ports and lack of checking facilities are major reasons for
uncontrolled e-waste imports
• 3. Issues with informal sector:
• Child Labour: According to ASSOCHAM report more than 4.5 lakh child labourers are
observed to be engaged in various E-waste activities and that too without adequate protection and
safeguards.
• Occupational Health Hazard: Unscientific method of recycling and lack of proper safety gear
pose serious health hazards to those employed in the informal sector.
• 4. Gaps in Legislation:
• E-waste rules are also violated on a regular basis and the informal sector remains unregulated.
• Further, the responsibility of producers is not confined to waste collection, but also to ensure that
the waste reaches the authorised recycler.

• There is no mechanism to ensure that the waste collected by producers has gone to unauthorised
recyclers.
• 5. Lack of incentives:
• There is a lack of incentive schemes to encourage people to adopt a formal path of recycling.
• The GST imposed a huge 12% tax on electronic recyclers which has further proven to be deterrent
to formal recycling
• 6. Poor awareness and sensitization:
• There is limited awareness regarding disposal, after determining the end of useful life. Further,
the lack of awareness leads to poor segregation of waste.
• 7. Environmental concerns:
• Informal recycling and dumping of e-waste in landfills or burning of e-waste pose a severe danger
to the environment and has far-reaching on animal and human health
Best Practice
• ‘Take-back’ and Planet ke Rakhwale campaign- Nokia:

• Nokia began its e-waste management campaign in 2009.
• Nokia set up drop boxes across the country to take back used phones, chargers and accessories,
irrespective of the brand, at Nokia Care Centres.
• The campaign was a great success and the total quantity of mobile phones and accessories
collected from this campaign from 2009 to 2015 was 160 tonnes.
• In the second phase (2009), Nokia launched “Planet KeRakhwale” take-back and recycling
campaign which extended to 28 cities across India.
• Green Warriors -Telangana:
• “Green Warriors in Telangana have been a part of the recycling/refurbishing chain, and have
contributed towards the successful implementation of measures to control e-pollution.
• Their efforts have also been recognized by the Telangana government in its Telangana e-waste
management policy, 2017
✍Way Forward
• 1. There is a need to strengthen the domestic legal framework to address the issue of unregulated
imports of e-waste

• 2. Steps should be taken to formalize the informal sector by integrating it with the formal sector.
• Government should introduce vocational training programs to rightly skill the current
unorganized sector employees to ensure their smoother transition to working with organized
sector.
• 3. Governments must encourage research into the development of better environmentally
sustainable e-waste recycling techniques
• 4. There is an urgent need for a detailed assessment of the E-waste including characteristics,
existing disposal practices, environmental impacts.
• 5. There is a need for more recycling facilities and development of infrastructure to handle e
waste effectively.
• The government should encourage Public-Private Partnership for establishment of e-waste
collection, exchange and recycling centres.
• 6. There is a need for an effective take-back program providing incentives to producers.
• 7. Mass awareness programmes should be initiated to encourage consumers to reuse/ recycle
electronic products and also educate them about the environmental and health hazards of e-waste.
Management of E-waste
• Producers:
• The government has implemented the E-waste (Management) Rules (2016) which enforces the
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
• Under EPR principle the producers have been made responsible to collect a certain percentage
of E-waste generated from their goods once they have reached their “end-of-life”.
• State Governments:
• They have been entrusted with the responsibility for maintaining industrial space for e waste
dismantling and recycling facilities.
• They are also expected to establish measures for protecting the health and safety of workers
engaged in the dismantling and recycling facilities for e-waste.
•Recycling of E-waste:
• Most of India’s e-waste is recycled by the informal sector and under hazardous conditions.
• A report by the Union Environment Ministry in 2018 found that many of India’s e-waste recyclers
didn't have the capacity to handle a large quantity of waste.

• India’s first e-waste clinic for segregating, processing and disposal of waste from household and
commercial units will soon be set-up in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules, 2018

• E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 were amended by the Environment ministry. Amended Rules
● It introduced the provision of registration of Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) with
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
● E-Waste collection targets have been mentioned in the rules .
● It also introduced the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) targets for producers.
● The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) may conduct random sampling of electrical and
electronic equipment placed in the market.
● Financial penalties can be levied by the State Pollution Control Board with the prior approval of
the CPCB.
● Penalties can be levied on the manufacturer, producer, importer, transporter, refurbisher,
dismantler and recycler.

Climate Change and Ozone Depletion
Concept of Climate Change ......................................................................................................... 214
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 214
Climate change .......................................................................................................................... 214
Causes of climate change .......................................................................................................... 215
The natural causes of climate change are.................................................................. 216
Anthropogenic causes .............................................................................................. 217
Greenhouse effect ................................................................................................ 217
Sudden Stratospheric Warming .............................................................................................. 232
Ozone depletion ......................................................................................................................... 233
Causes of ozone depletion ........................................................................................ 234
How is ozone destroyed? .......................................................................................... 234
Initiative to reduce Ozone depletion→ Treaties ........................................................ 235
Concept of Climate Change
Introduction
➢ The balance between incoming energy from the sun and outgoing energy from Earth
ultimately drives our climate.
➢ This energy balance is governed by the first law of thermodynamics, also known as
the law of conservation of energy.
➢ This law states that energy can be transferred from one system to another in many
forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
➢ Therefore, any energy “lost” during one process will equal the same amount of
energy “gained” during another.
Climate change
● Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place.

● It could be a change in any of the following factors;
○ Temperature
(Batch-Jan,22) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Environment Compiled Handout Page No→ 214

○ Pressure
○ Humidity
○ Rainfall
○ Wind Climate change
➢ The Earth's climate has changed throughout history.
➢ Just in the last 650,000 years there have been seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat,
with the abrupt end of the last ice age about 7,000 years ago.
➢ It marked the beginning of the modern climate era— and of human civilization.
➢ Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit
that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.
Causes of climate change
➢ There is an energy balance in the atmosphere which maintains the climate on Earth.
➢ When averaged over the course of a year, the amount of incoming solar radiation
received from the sun has balanced the amount of outgoing energy emitted from Earth.
This equilibrium is called Earth's energy or radiation balance.
➢ When this energy balance is disrupted, it causes a change in the climate.
➢ Any factor that causes a change to Earth’s energy balance is known as a radiative
forcing or a forcing.
➢ A positive forcing, such as that produced by increasing concentrations of greenhouse
gasses, tends to warm the Earth’s surface.
➢ A negative forcing, such as that produced by airborne particles that reflect solar energy,
tends to cool the Earth’s surface.

● Forcings may also be either
○ natural- or
○ human-caused (also known as anthropogenic)

The natural causes of climate change are
● Continental drift and plate tectonics

● Sunspot and solar cycle
● Volcanoes
● Forest fires
● Earth’s tilt
● Comets and Meteorites
Continental drift and plate tectonics
● The continents had a different arrangement hundreds of million years ago.
● Landmass or more specifically plates have been in continuous movement and have been
gradually drifting apart due to plate tectonics.
● This drift also had an impact on the climate.
● Drift changed the position and physical features of the landmass, the position of water bodies,
the flow of ocean currents and winds, which in turn affected the global climate.
● The drift process is still continued today as seen in the Himalayas rising by about 1 cm every
year.
Sunspot and solar cycle
➢ Sunspots are storms on the sun’s surface that cause intense magnetic activity, solar
flares and hot gassy ejections from the sun’s corona.
➢ It affects atmospheric phenomena on Earth, such as cloud cover.
➢ But these changes in the solar energy output are considered very small to explain
major changes in our climate in a short duration of recent decades.
Volcanoes
● Volcanic eruption causes outburst of gases and dust particles which block the incoming rays
of the Sun.
● The blockage of insolation causes cooling of the weather.
● The optical properties of SO2 and sulfate aerosols, which strongly absorb or scatter solar
radiation, create a global layer of sulfuric acid haze.
● The eruption of Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) in 1991 decreased global temperatures
decreased by about 0.5 °C for up to three years

● Although volcanic activity may last only a few days yet the large volumes of gases and ash
can influence the climatic pattern over several years.
Forest fires
● Wildfires, which are intensified by global warming, also exacerbate global warming.
● Forest fires produce a lot of smoke which carries soot particles that increase the greenhouse
effect in the atmosphere.
● Black carbon, a component of soot, absorbs heat in the atmosphere and hastens snow melt
when it lands on snow.
● While forests and healthy soil normally absorb carbon dioxide, fires cause the release of
carbon dioxide from vegetation and soil into the atmosphere, trapping ever more heat.
Comets and meteorites
● Meteorites striking Earth also affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and
atmospheric circulation.
● An impact from a body the size of meteorites would have released huge quantities of
vaporised material into the atmosphere, blocking out the Sun and causing an initial "impact
winter".
● In addition, chemical reactions taking place in the atmosphere between pollutants would
result in the formation of globally distributed acid rains.
● Luckily such impacts only occur rarely, perhaps every few million or tens of millions of
years.
● The most important anthropogenic cause for climate change is attributed to the global
warming trend observed since the mid-20th century.
● According to most climate scientists the chief cause of the current global warming trend is
the increase in the "greenhouse effect".
Anthropogenic causes
Greenhouse effect
● Earth is sometimes called the “Goldilocks” planet – it’s not too hot, not too cold, and the
conditions are just right to allow life, including us, to flourish.
● Part of what makes Earth so amenable is the naturally-arising greenhouse effect, which keeps
the planet at a friendly 15 °C (59 °F) on average.
● A greenhouse effect is the effect produced by a greenhouse.
● A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof.

● Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers in cold areas.
● A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter.

● In the daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside.
● At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because
the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.
● The greenhouse effect is produced the same way on Earth as a whole.
● Earth acts like the building and the gasses in the atmosphere acts like the glass in the
greenhouse.
● The gasses in the atmosphere trap the heat of the Sun’s rays within them to keep the Earth
warm.
● These heat trapping gasses in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gasses.
How does the greenhouse effect work?
● The sun's high temperature causes it to emit solar radiation of mostly shorter wavelengths.
● Therefore, incoming solar energy from the sun primarily consists of shorter wavelengths of
energy, mostly in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
● The sun's visible wavelengths of radiation pass easily through the atmosphere and reach
Earth.
● Approximately 51% of this sunlight is absorbed at Earth's surface by the land, water, and
vegetation.
● Some of this energy is emitted back from the Earth's surface in the form of infrared radiation.
● Because Earth is colder than the sun, it emits radiation at much longer wavelengths (in the
infrared part of the spectrum).

● Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb
the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface.
● These gasses then emit the infrared radiation in all directions, both outward toward space
and downward toward Earth.
● This process creates a second source of radiation to warm the surface– visible radiation from
the sun and infrared radiation from the atmosphere – which causes Earth to be warmer than it
otherwise would be.
● This process is known as the natural greenhouse effect and keeps Earth's average global
temperature at approximately 15°C (59°F).
● Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s average surface temperature would be only about −18
°C and the earth
would have been a frozen, barren planet.
Why do greenhouse gasses absorb heat?
● Greenhouse gasses are more complex than other gas molecules in the atmosphere.
● They have a structure which enables them to trap heat.
● There are several different types of greenhouse gasses.
● The major ones are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gas
molecules all are made of three or more atoms.
● The atoms are held together loosely enough that they vibrate when they absorb heat.
● Eventually, the vibrating molecules release the radiation, which will likely be absorbed by
another greenhouse gas molecule.
● This process keeps heat near the Earth’s surface.
● Most of the gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen and oxygen – both of which are molecules
made of two atoms.
● The atoms in these molecules are bound together tightly and unable to vibrate, so they cannot
absorb heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect.

• If greenhouse gasses are not checked, by the turn of the century the temperature may rise
by 5°C.
Carbon ● Primary GHG.

dioxide ● It is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions and
through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil
fuels.
● It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the
earth’s surface. It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect
● Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by more than a third since
the Industrial Revolution began.
● It is still increasing gradually due to industrialisation and urbanization.
● This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.
Ozone • Ozone is another important greenhouse gas. But it is in very small proportions at the
surface.
• Most of it is confined to the stratosphere where it absorbs the harmful UV radiation.
• At ground level, pollutants like NO2 react with volatile organic compounds in the
presence of sunlight to produce ozone (tropospheric ozone).

Water vapor • Water vapor is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude.
• Water vapor also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume,
while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per
cent of the air.
• One unique feature about this greenhouse gas is that it absorbs both incoming (a part
of incoming) and outgoing solar radiation.
Methane • Methane is the most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide.
• It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes and biological matter.
• The emission of this gas can be restricted by using animal wastes and biological
matter to produce gobar gas (methane).
● A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities.
● Natural sources include wetlands, digestion of livestock, oceans, volcanoes and
wildfires.
● Human activities include decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and
especially rice cultivation, manure management associated with domestic livestock,
natural gas industry, etc.
● It is 20 times more potent as a GHG than CO2 but has a short lifespan.
⇒ Recent studies from the Global Carbon Project (GCP) have shown that methane in
the Earth’s atmosphere has risen enormously.
Nitrous • N2O or Nitrous Oxide is a greenhouse gas.

Oxide (N2O) • NO and NO2 (nitric oxide or nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions cause
global cooling.
● Source: Nitrogen fixation, fertilizers in agriculture, fossil fuel combustion,
wastewater management, and industrial processes.
● It is even more potent than methane as a GHG (300 times than CO2).
Carbon • Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas (it is less dense than air).
Monoxide • Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon
dioxide.

Fluorinated ● Source: Industrial processes such as aluminum and semiconductor manufacturing,
gases substitute for ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances) in products like refrigerators, air-
conditioners, foams and aerosol cans.
● Four types: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
● They have very high GWP (Global Warming Potential).
⦁ Fluorinated gases
⦁ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much higher potential
to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2 .
Hydrofluoro • Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire
carbons retardants.
• These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes.
● Perfluorocarbons produced in aluminum and semiconductor industries have even
longer atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs.
● Sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800, making it the most potent greenhouse gas
designated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Perfluorocar • Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by-product in aluminum production

bons and the manufacturing of semiconductors.
• Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high global warming
potential.
Sulfur • Sulfur hexafluoride is also a greenhouse gas.

hexafluoride • Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor
manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.
• Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission equipment, including circuit
breakers.
Black • Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol (though not a gas) that contributes to
Carbon or warming of the atmosphere. Black carbon, commonly known as soot.
Soot • Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete combustion.

• Black carbon warms the earth by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by reducing
albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight) when deposited on snow and ice.
• BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly.
• In addition, it darkens snow packs and glaciers through deposition and leads to
melting of ice and snow.
• Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall.
• Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
• Thus, the effects of BC on atmospheric warming and glacier retreat disappear within
months of reducing emissions.
Brown • Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic aerosol.

Carbon • Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be a major source of
brown carbon
• Brown carbon is generally referred for greenhouse gasses and black carbon for
particles resulting from impure combustion, such as soot and dust.
● If the concentration of greenhouse gases increases, then more infrared radiation will
be absorbed and emitted back toward Earth's surface, creating an enhanced or
amplified greenhouse effect.
● Balance to the energy budget is thus restored when Earth’s average global
temperature increases.
● There are huge disparities between the world’s top 15 CO2 emissions-generating
countries.
● China creates almost double the emissions of second-placed US, which is in turn
responsible for more than twice the level of third-placed India.
● Collectively, the top 15 generate 72% of CO2 emissions.
● The rest of the world’s 180 countries produce nearly 28% of the global total– close
to the amount China produces on its own.

GHG Protocol
• GHG Protocol is developing standards, tools and online training that helps countries, cities
and companies track progress towards their climate goals.
• GHG Protocol establishes frameworks to measure and manage greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from private and public sector operations, value chains and mitigation actions.
• The GHG Protocol arose when the World Resources Institute (WRI) ( NGO US BASED) and
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) GENEVA recognized the
need for an international standard for corporate GHG accounting and reporting in the late
1990s.
● GWP is a parameter to measure the amount of heat a GHG traps in the atmosphere.
● In other words, it is a tool to compare the global warming effects of different GHGs.
● Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb
over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
● The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years.

● GWPs provide a common unit of measure, which allows analysts to add up emissions
estimates of different gasses (e.g., to compile a national GHG inventory).
● It allows policymakers to compare emissions reduction opportunities across sectors and
gases.
● The larger the GWP, the more a given GHG warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that
time period (usually 100 years).
The larger the GWP ,the more warming the gas causes. For ex- methane’s 100 year GWP-is
21 which means that methane will cause 21 times as much as an equivalent mass of carbon
dioxide over a 100 year time period.

● The effects of climate change can be studied under the following heads,
○ Rise in Temperature
○ Melting ice
○ Rise in sea levels
○ Extreme climates
○ Ocean acidification
○ Extreme drought and wildfires
○ Agriculture
○ Ecosystems and societies
1. Rise in Temperature
● Since the Industrial Revolution, the surface temperature over land has increased more rapidly
than that of the oceans.
● This is due to the higher heat capacity of oceans as compared to the land.
● The polar regions have warmed more than the tropical regions. This is happening because,
as the brighter ice (with higher albedo and reflectivity) melts, the darker water (with a lower
albedo) can absorb more heat and intensify the warming.
Temperature of the Lower Atmosphere
● Measurements from satellites and weather balloons show that the lowest layer of the
atmosphere— the layer where we live, airplanes fly, and weather occurs— is warming.
● Greenhouse gasses are building up in this layer, trapping heat radiated from Earth's surface
and raising the planet's temperature.
Air Temperature over Ocean
● Thermometers on ships and floating buoys show that air near the ocean's surface is getting
warmer, increasing its ability to evaporate water.
● In turn, we see an increase in heavy precipitation events and flooding on land.
Air Temperature over Land
● Satellites and weather stations on land show that average air temperature at the surface is
going up.
● Consequently, we see an increase in the number of heat wave events and the area affected by
drought.
Sea Surface Temperature
● Satellite sensors and thermometers on ships and buoys show that the temperature of water at
the ocean's surface is rising.

● Warm surface waters can damage coral reefs, reducing opportunities for fishing and tourism,
and leave coasts vulnerable to storm surges and erosion.
● Scientists project global mean temperature to increase by approximately 1°C for the lowest
emissions scenario and 4°C for the highest emissions scenario by 2100.
● This projected global mean temperature change for the 21st century will depend on which
scenario actually occurs.
● The low emissions scenario assumes that humans will aggressively reduce emissions so that
the increase by 2100 is only 2°C higher than pre-industrial levels.
● This 2°C seems to be a critical number for many scientists, including the IPCC.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):
● Warming by 1.5-2 degree celsius would not be the same everywhere on the planet.
● The strongest warming is happening in the Arctic during its cool seasons, and in Earth’s mid-
latitude regions during the warm season.
● . ● Most land regions will see more hot days, especially in the tropics.
● At 1.5 degrees Celsius warming, about 14 percent of Earth’s population will be exposed to
severe heat waves at least once every five years, while at 2 degrees warming that number jumps
to 37 percent.
● Extreme heat waves will become widespread at 1.5 degrees Celsius warming.
● At Earth’s mid-latitudes, the hottest days will be up to 3 degrees Celsius hotter at 1.5 degrees
Celsius warming and up to 4 degrees Celsius warmer at 2 degrees Celsius warming.
● At 2 degrees Celsius warming, the deadly heat waves India and Pakistan saw in 2015 may
occur annually.
● Arctic land regions will see cold extremes warm by as much as 5.5 degrees Celsius at 1.5
degrees Celsius warming or less, while at warming of 1.5 to 2 degrees Celsius, cold extremes
will be up to 8 degrees Celsius warmer.
● Cold spells will also be shorter.
● In the absence of policies, global warming is expected to reach 4.1°C – 4.8°C above pre-
industrial levels by the end of the century.
● Limiting warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100 means that the emissions of
greenhouse gases need to be reduced rapidly in the coming years and decades, and brought to
zero around the mid century.
2. Melting ice
● Ice and snow still cover 10% of Earth’s landmasses and 7% of the oceans.

● Places on Earth where it is so cold that water is in its solid form as snow or ice are known as
the cryosphere.
● The cryosphere includes ice and snow (precipitation made of ice crystals) in the form of
frozen ground, such as
○ Permafrost
○ Ice sheets, glaciers
○ Sea ice
● The Antarctic ice sheet contains 90% of the freshwater on Earth.
● If all of this ice on Antarctica melted, global sea level would rise at least 61 meters (200 feet).
● In the last 26 years, Greenland's melting ice has added 0.4 inches (11 millimeters) to sea level
rise.
3. Extreme climates
Heat waves
● A heat wave is generally a period of several days to weeks of abnormally hot weather that
may or may not be accompanied by high humidity.
● The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive
days of temperatures 5°C (9°F) above the average maximum temperature.
● With an increasing number of hotter days, there have been a greater number of heat waves.
Storm events
● Cyclonic storm events can be some of the most powerful storm events on the planet.
● Scientists say that there will be more tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones with
increasing global warming trends.
Water cycle changes - Precipitation and drought
● Earth’s water cycle changes in response to natural variability, but scientists are becoming
more certain that the human impact of increasing greenhouse gas emissions will cause more
changes to the water cycle.
● Evaporation rates will increase with a warmer climate, causing an increase in the amount of
moisture in the lower atmosphere.
● With higher water vapor concentrations, there is an increased frequency of intense
precipitation events, primarily over land areas.
● In addition, there will be greater chances of the precipitation falling as rain than snow due to
the warmer temperatures.
Flooding
● Flooding is defined as an overflow of water onto normally dry land.

● As extreme rain events increase, flooding events are also expected to increase. A flooding
event can be caused by human-related factors.
● However, the majority of floods are related to weather events. There are four main types of
these weather related flooding events:
○ Flash floods,
○ Urban flooding
○ River flooding, and
○ Coastal flooding
● A flash flood is a short-term event, happening within just a few hours,caused by heavy
precipitation as well as rapid snowmelt, or the failure of dams or levees.
● Urban flooding, caused by short-term heavy precipitation, occurs as a result of the large areas
of impervious surfaces (such as roads, pavement, parking lots, and buildings).
● River flooding occurs when a river fills with water (drained from the surrounding watershed)
and exceeds the channel capacity and overflows the banks to inundate adjacent low lying areas.
● Finally, storm surges that accompany hurricanes and other coastal storms push large seawater
domes toward the shore causing coastal flooding.
4. Ocean acidification
● Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has
increased by about 30 percent.
● This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
hence more being absorbed into the oceans.
● The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by
about 2 billion tons per year.
Coral reefs
● Climate change is the greatest global threat to coral reef ecosystems.
● As temperatures rise, mass coral bleaching events and infectious disease outbreaks are
becoming more frequent. The Biological Impacts
● Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees.
● Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean,
as they require CO2 to live just like plants on land.
● It may impact food security as more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the
ocean as their primary source of protein.
5. Extreme Drought and Wildfires
● Drought is defined as a prolonged period of time with abnormally low precipitation.

● Due to global warming, not all areas on the planet will have increases in precipitation.
● As warmer temperatures and drought conditions increase, there is also greater likelihood for
more wildfires.
● Droughts are complex events that can be associated with significantly reduced precipitation,
dry soils that fail to sustain crops, and reduced levels in reservoirs and other bodies of water
that imperil drinking supplies.
● Global warming is said to increase the drought conditions on many areas of land.
2019 Amazon rainforest fires
● Forest fires do happen in the Amazon during the dry season between June And October.
● They can be caused by naturally occurring events, like lightning strikes, but this year most
are thought to have been started by farmers and loggers clearing land for crops or grazing.
● This matters because the Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world and a vital carbon
store that slows down the pace of global warming.
● Deforestation releases this trapped carbon into the atmosphere. It can also trigger change in
rainfall patterns leading to drought conditions.
6. Agriculture Impact on Crops
● At least three main channels through which climate change would impact farm incomes – an
increase in average temperatures, a decline in average rainfall and an increase in the number of
dry-days.
● Higher temperature- > Increased moisture stress and drought -> crop damage and lesser
production
● Longer growing season + high temp -> more demand for water-> more drought
● More GHG emission-> more CO2 in the atmosphere-> better plant water-use efficiency and
rates of photosynthesis=> better crop yield but weeds grow faster.
● Sea-level rise + coastal flooding due to cyclones=> coastal land erosion + sea water
intrusion= > salinisation + contamination of fresh water for drinking and irrigation.
● More floods, droughts and heat waves => crop failure + famine + water crisis.
● IPCC AR3 predicted that the poorest countries in tropical regions would be hit the hardest
with threats to their food security.
● Malnutrition and diseases would be the biggest killer in these regions.
7. Ecosystem and Societies
● Climate change => high temperature and extreme conditions=> species unable to migrate to
better climates would perish.

● Lesser crop productivity + increasing population => demand for food => demand for more
cultivable land => deforestation => loss of biodiversity.
● Ocean acidification + ocean warming + sea level rise + changes in thermohaline
circulation=> loss of planktons, shell-forming species like corals, fishes etc => marine
ecosystem disturbed.
● Rise in temperature + anthropogenic activities like deforestation, tourism, degradation of
mountain slopes=> degradation of mountain biodiversity.
● Melting of Himalayan glaciers + change in the cycle of freezing and thawing of snow =>
change in river water volume and flow + glacial lake outbursts => flooding like Kedarnath.
● Flooding and submergence in downstream areas => loss of vegetation and wild animals +
water-borne diseases.
● Climate change=> desertification=> expansion of desert area + change in climatic
characteristics of deserts.
● Ocean acidification=> threat to coral reefs in coastal areas and Indian islands
● Sea level rise + ocean warming=> reduction in delta and coastal land=> threat to mangroves
and threatened species like sea turtles along Odisha beach.
Impact on Humans
● Humans are an integral part of the Biosphere.
● Any disturbance in biodiversity and climate will affect human activities and requirements
directly (All discussed changes so far would directly affect Human)
● Global warming can lead to aggravated pollution which will in turn lead to more diseases
and epidemics.
● Flooding and waterlogging will increase water borne diseases.
● Drought and desertification implies reduced water availability and land resources.
● Decline in crop production due to climate change => population-food mismatch => hunger
and malnutrition=> death of mainly poor people in tropical countries.
● Heat waves + flooding and droughts=> loss of life and property.
● GHG emission=> ozone layer depletion=> UV rays exposure=> weaker immune system,
skin cancer etc.
● Note- Climate change is discriminatory in nature i.e. its impacts are more forcefully felt up
on poor and deprived sections than rich and those having and controlling resources. It can be
linked to right based issues as well.

Sudden Stratospheric Warming
● Record warm temperatures occurred above Antarctica in a phenomenon called “sudden

stratospheric warming”.
● In sudden stratospheric warming, the stratosphere high above the pole began rapidly heating.
● Every winter, westerly winds, often up to 200 km/hrs, develop in the stratosphere high above
the south pole and circle the polar region.
● The winds develop as a result of the difference in temperature over the pole (where there is
no sunlight) and the southern ocean (where the sun still shines).
● As the sun shifts southward during spring, the polar region starts to warm. This warming
causes the stratospheric vortex and associated westerly winds to gradually weaken over the
period of a few months.
● However, in some years this breakdown can happen faster than usual.
● Waves of air from the lower atmosphere (from large weather systems or flow over
mountains) warm the stratosphere above the south pole.
● This weakens or “mixes” the high-speed westerly winds.
● Very rarely, if the waves are strong enough they can rapidly break down the polar vortex,
actually reversing the direction of the winds so they become easterly.
● Apart from warming the Antarctic region, the most notable effect of the phenomenon will be
a shift of the Southern Ocean westerly winds towards the Equator.
● Tasmania Newzealand’s south island, and patagonia directly in the path of the strongest
westerlies results in more strominess and rainfall, and colder temperatures.
● Subtropical Australia, which largely sits north of the main belt of westerlies, receives reduced
rainfall, clearer skies and warmer temperatures.
● The weather system causing the rapid rise of stratospheric temperatures also lead to
weakening of the Antarctica polar vortex, a slowly-spinning pool of stratospheric air trapped

by aring of fierce westerly winds- the polar night jet- that emerges in the upper stratosphere
during winter at the South pole.
● The breakdown of the polar vortex helped the ozone hole in two ways. The early season
warmth minimized further formation and persistence of polar stratospheric clouds. Because
these clouds enable the chemistry that produces ozone-destroying substances, fewer clouds
meant less ozone destruction. The weak polar vortex also allowed more ozone-rich air from
lower latitudes of the southern hemisphere to mix into the polar stratosphere and partially patch
the hole that had begun to form. The lingering warmth prevented it from reforming.
● This is the third time in the last 40 years that weather systems have caused warm temperatures
that limit ozone depletion. Similar weather patterns in the Antarctic stratosphere in september
1988 and 2002 also produced alyptically small ozone holes.
Ozone depletion
● In the mid-1970s, scientists became aware that the ozone layer was threatened by the
accumulation of gases containing halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the atmosphere
● Then, in the mid-1980s, scientists discovered a ‘hole’ in the ozone layer above Antarctica-
the region of Earth’s atmosphere with severe depletion.

Causes of ozone depletion
● Man-made chemicals containing halogens were determined to be the main cause of ozone
loss.
● These chemicals are collectively known as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).

● The most important are chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) which at one time were widely used in
air conditioners, refrigerators and aerosol cans.
● Other chemicals, such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons and methyl bromide
also deplete the ozone layer.
● Most of our computers, electronics and parts of our appliances were cleaned with ozone-
depleting solvents.
How is ozone destroyed?
● When a CFC molecule reaches the stratosphere, it eventually absorbs UV radiation causing
it to decompose and release its chlorine atoms.
● One chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.
● Too many of these chlorine and bromine reactions disrupt the delicate chemical balance that
maintains the ozone layer, causing ozone to be destroyed faster than it is created.
Q. The formation of ozone holes in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What
could be the reason for the formation of this hole?
(a)Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

(b)Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric clouds and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons
(c)Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds and inflow of methane and
chlorofluorocarbons
(d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming
Initiative to reduce Ozone depletion→ Treaties
Vienna ● The vienna convention for the protection of the ozone layer was adopted in 1985 and
Convention
entered into force in 1988.
● Nations that signed the convention- called the parties-agreed to research and monitor
the effects of human activities on the ozone layer and to take concrete action against
activities that are likely to have adverse effects on the ozone layer.
● The convention did not require countries to take specific actions to control ozone-
depleting substances.
● The specific actions are spelled out by the Montreal protocol.
Montreal ● The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer (a protocol to the
Protocol
Vienna Convention for the protection of the ozone layer)
● It is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out ODS
(ozone depleting substances)
● It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 26 January 1989.
● The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties making them the first
universally ratified treaties (legally binding) in United Nations history.
● September 16 is observed as World Ozone Day. It is the day that marks the signing
of the Montreal Protocol.
● The parties are aided by the ozone secretariat, which is based at the headquarters of
the UN Environment Programme(UNEP) at Nairobi.
⇒ Multilateral Fund-
● It provides financial and technical assistance to developing member countries whose

yearly per capita consumption and production of ODSs< 0.3 kg.
● The activities of the Fund are implemented by four bodies:
1. UNEP
2. UNDP

3. UNIDO
4. World Bank
● Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities.
● Developed NAtion 2000-CFC phase out Methyl Chloroform 2005.
● Developing Nation 2010-CFC
2010-HCFC
● The substances controlled by the treaty are listed in-
● Annex A-CFCs, Halons
● Annex B- other fully halogenated CFCS, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform
● Annex C- HCFCs
● Annex E- Methyl Bromide
● Annex F- HCFCs
● Amendments have been made to the Montreal protocol in
1. London-1990
2. Copenhagen- 1992
3. Montreal-1997
4. Beijing-1999
5. Kigali-2016 (meeting of the parties-28)
Kigali ● The Kigali amendment is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol on substances that
Amendment
deplete the ozone layer.
● It was adopted in Kigali, Rwanda in 2016 and entered into force in 2019.
● It is legally binding.
● The amendment adds powerful greenhouse gases hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to the
list of substances controlled under the protocol and which are to be phased down.
● HFC phase down is expected to avoid up to 0.5 degree celsius of global temperature
rise by 2100, while continuing to protect the ozone layer.
● The agreement upholds the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
capabilities (CBDR & RC).
● Under the amendment, Montreal protocol parties are required to gradually reduce
HFC use by 80-85% by the late 2040s.
●it has divided the signatory parties into three groups-

1. The first group consists of rich and developed economies like the USA,UK &
EU countries who will start to phase down HFCs by 2019 and reduce it to 15%
of 2012 levels by 2036.
2. The second group consists of emerging economies like China, Brazil as well as
some African countries who will phase down by 2024 and reduce it to 20% of
2021 levels by 2045.
3. The third group consists of developing economies and some of the hottest
climate countries like India, Pakistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia who will start phasing
down HFCS by 2028 and reduce it to 15% of 2024-26 levels till 2047.
● India’s commitment under Kigali agreement
1. Baseline year: 2024,2025,2026
2. Feeze: 2028
3. 1st step: 2032:10%
4. 2nd step: 2037:20%
5. 3rd step: 2042:30%
6. 4th step: 2047: 85%
● India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes 3% of HFCs as compared to the
other countries like the USA (37%) and China (25%).
Q. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phasing out of the
use of ozone-depleting substances?
(a) Bretton Woods Conference (b) Montreal Protocol
(c) Kyoto Protocol (d) Nagoya Protocol

Climate Change Organisation/Summits
Climate Change Summits .....................................................................................................239
International Mechanism to Combat climate change→ Timeline ........................................239
UNFCCC ......................................................................................................................240
CoP 1, Berlin.................................................................................................................242
CoP 3, Kyoto Protocol ...................................................................................................242
CoP 13, Bali Meet..........................................................................................................246
CoP 15, Copenhagen summit, 2009 ................................................................................247
CoP 16, Cancun Summit................................................................................................247
CoP 18, Doha summit ....................................................................................................248
CoP 19, Warsaw summit ...............................................................................................249
CoP 21, Paris meet ........................................................................................................249
CoP 22, Marrakech (Morocco) Climate Change Conference 2016 ...................................252
CoP 23, 2017- Bonn .......................................................................................................253
CoP 24, Katowice (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2018 .........................................254
CoP 25, 2019- Madrid....................................................................................................254
CoP26, 2021: Glasgow: Achievement & Setbacks: ..........................................................254
Initiative By World Bank...............................................................................................258
Initiative By EU ............................................................................................................259
Initiative By Arctic Council ...........................................................................................259
Initiative By Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) ...................................................260
Climate Change Reports EMISSIONS GAP REPORT 2020 ...........................................260
Climate Change Reports ADAPTATION GAP REPORT, 2020 ......................................260
Climate Change Reports CLIMATE CHANGE PERFORMANCE INDEX (CCPI).........260
Climate Change Reports STATE OF THE GLOBAL CLIMATE REPORT ...................261
Climate Change Reports Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region ............261

Climate Change Summits
International Mechanism to combat climate change→ Timeline
Date Keywords
1972 Stockholm Convention→ UNEP (United Nation Environment Programme) →HQ-Nairobi,

Kenya
⇒ with the help of 1919- International Labor Organization(Geneva);
⇒ 1945- Food & Agricultural Organization(Rome); World Health Organization (HQ-Geneva)
1988 IPCC→ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(UNEP+WMO(1956)) → Assessment

report on climate change
1992 Earth Summit→ Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

⇒ Key Point: Sustainable Development; Desertification; Agenda 21; Climate Change[United
Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change=HQ- New York]; biological diversity
1995 CoP-1(Conference of Party-1) → on Climate change→ Berlin
1997 CoP-3→ Kyoto protocol→ in Japan
2001 CoP-7→ Marrakech→ roadmap for Kyoto protocol
2002 CoP-8→ Delhi, India
2005 CoP-11/CMP-1→ Montreal,Canada→2008-12=reduce to 5.2% CO2 emission
2007 CoP-13/CMP-3→ Bali Action Plan→ Technology Transfer; road map for REDD
2009 CoP-15/CMP-3→ Copenhagen, Denmark→ “REDD+ program” (Reduction of Emission on

Deforestation and Forest Degradation)
2010 CoP-16/CMP-6→ Cancun, Mexico→ “Green Climate Fund”; committee for technology
execution
2012 CoP-18/CMP-8→ add NF3 and new target 2013-20
2013 CoP-19/CMP-9→ Warsaw, Poland→ GCF; Green technology, “National Determinant

Contribution” Was coined
2014 CoP-20/CMP-10→ Lima
2015 CoP-21/CMP-11→ Paris agreement→ “NDC”,

⇒ “Enhance Transparency Framework” was established, which starts from 2024,
⇒ “Climate Neutral Now”- launched by UNFCCC→ momentum on climate change initiative
through measuring climate footprint,

2016 CoP-22/CMP-12/CMA-1→ Marrakech→ roadmap for Paris climate agreement
Framework agreement in Marrakech
⇒International Solar Alliance(ISA)→ 122 countries=Sunshine countries(between tropic of
cancer and Capricorn) →HQ-Gurugram, Haryana
2017 CoP23/CMP-13/CMA-1→ Bonn, Germany→ “Talonoma dialogue”
2019 CoP-25/CMP-15/CMA-2→ Madrid, Spain→ Longest meet
2021 CoP-26/CMP-16/CMA-3→ Glasgow, UK
2022 CoP-27 Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt (To Be Held This Year)
UNFCCC
● In 1990, the IPCC released its First Assessment Report.

● It mentioned 'emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses'.
● this led to calls by the IPCC and the second World Climate Conference for a global treaty.
● In 1992, the text of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted
at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.
● The UNFCCC opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in 1992,
bringing the world together to curb greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.
● The UNFCCC has two sister Conventions also agreed in Rio,
○ The UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
○ The Convention to Combat Desertification.
● The UNFCCC entered into force in 1994.
● Countries that signed the treaty are known as 'Parties'.
● With 196 Parties, the UNFCCC has near-universal membership.
● Parties meet annually at the Conference of the Parties (COP) to negotiate multilateral responses
to climate change.
● The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate
system."
● They are called Annex I countries and belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD). They include 12 countries with "economies in transition" from Central

and Eastern Europe. Including the Russian Federation, the Baltic States, and several Central and
Eastern European States.
● Annex I countries were expected by the year 2000 to reduce emissions to 1990 levels.
● Annex II parties: OECD members of Annex

I countries but not the EIT parties
● Non-annex parties: Developing countries
with non-binding targets
● LDCs- 49 countries with limited capacities.
⦁ What is the commitment period – Kyoto
Protocol?
• Under the Kyoto Protocol, there are two
commitment periods: 1. 2008 – 2012 and 2. 2013 – 2020.
• The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol.
• Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for developed countries to reduce their
GHG emissions.

• Nations that miss their Kyoto target in 2012 will incur a penalty of an additional third added to
whatever cut they agree under a new treaty in Copenhagen.
• During the first commitment period (2008-12), more than 35 countries had binding targets.
• Canada withdrew in 2012 after the first commitment period.
• Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on
new targets in the second commitment period.
• Thus, the second commitment period is a failure.
• Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would
obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions.
CoP 1, Berlin
● In 1995, the first COP (COP1) was held in Berlin.

● The Parties agreed that commitments in the Convention were 'inadequate' for meeting
Convention objectives.
● The Berlin Mandate established a process to negotiate strengthened commitments for developed
countries, thus laying the groundwork for the Kyoto Protocol.
CoP 3, Kyoto Protocol
● The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997 and entered into force in
February 2005.
● The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh,
Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords."
● It was the world's first greenhouse gas emissions reduction treaty.
● Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Kyoto Protocol It applies to the
six greenhouse gasses listed in AnnexA:
● Carbon dioxide (CO2),
● Methane (CH4),
● Nitrous oxide (N2O),
● Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
● Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
● Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

● Nitrogen trifluoride: New mandatory Kyoto Protocol greenhouse, 2nd commitment period
2013-2020
● During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community
committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels on the basis
of the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibility’.
● The US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada denounced it in 2012. The Kyoto
Protocol has been ratified by all the other Annex I Parties.
● All States that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol are represented at the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP).
● The CMP oversees the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and takes decisions to promote its
effective implementation.
● The CMP meets annually during the same period as the COP.
● Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to the Protocol are able to participate in the CMP
as observers, but without the right to take decisions.
⇒ Kyoto Mechanisms
● Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures.
● However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three
market-based mechanisms.
● The Kyoto mechanisms are:
1. International Emissions Trading
2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
3. Joint implementation (JI)
⦁ Carbon credit – Kyoto Protocol
• A carbon credit (often called a carbon offset) is a tradable certificate or permit.
• One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon credits are a part of attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of GHGs. Carbon
credits or carbon offsets can be acquired through afforestation, renewable energy, methane capture,
buying from an exchange (carbon credits trading) etc..
• Carbon trading is the name given to the exchange of emission permits.
• This exchange may take place within the economy or may take the form of an international
transaction.

• Under the Carbon Credits Trading mechanism countries that emit more carbon than the quota
allotted to them buy carbon credits from those that emit less.
• In Carbon trading, one credit gives the country or a company the right to emit one tonne of CO2.
• A developing nation such as India, turns out to be a seller of such credits, which eventually
provides them with monetary gains.
• Carbon credits are traded at various exchanges across the world.
• Multi-Commodity Exchange of India (MCX) launched futures trading in carbon credits in
2009.
Trading units in the carbon market:

• A removal unit (RMU) by reforestation.
• An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project.
• A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism project
activity.
• Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a country by investing some amount of money
in such projects, known as carbon projects, which will emit a lesser amount of greenhouse gas in
the atmosphere.
• For example, suppose a thermal plant of 800 megawatt capacity emits 400 carbon-equivalent in
the atmosphere. Now a country builds up an 800 megawatt wind energy plant which does not

generate any amount of emission as an alternative to the thermal plant. Then by investing in this
project the country will earn 400 carbon-equivalent.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
● Annex B countries can meet their targets by implementing an emission-reduction project in Non-
Annex (developing) countries.
● Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to
one tonne of CO2 , which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
● Farmers can also buy Certified Emission Reduction (CER) units from CDM emission reduction
projects in developing countries.
● It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a
standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs.
• In simple terms: Developed countries emit more and lose carbon credits. They provide financial
assistance to developing and least developed countries to create clean energy (solar, wind energy
etc.) and gain some carbon credits thereby meeting their Kyoto Quota (Kyoto units) emissions
without violations.
• Suppose a developed country has a Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon Credits, it can emit 100 tonnes
of CO2 .
• Due to negligence it emits 110 tonnes of CO2 , i.e. 10 carbon credits are lost (Kyoto Quota
violation).
• Now the country has to make up for its lost carbon credits to avoid a penalty.
• So, it invests some money (equal to 10 carbon credits) in developing and LDCs to build clean
energy infrastructure like solar plants, wind farms etc. and will make up for its 10 lost carbon
credits and avoid penalty.
● A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar
panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.
● The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving
industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation
targets.
● Most of the CDM projects have been undertaken in China and India.
● These projects are in various favourable areas such as agriculture, waste handling and disposal,
afforestation and reforestation.

Joint implementation (JI)
● JI allows one Annex I party to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission reduction
or emission removal project in another Annex I Party.
● These units, each equivalent to one tonne of C02 , can be counted towards meeting the former's
Kyoto target.
● Most JI projects are taken in Annex B countries (EIT)
○ Annex B Parties: Parties with first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets
○ Annex II parties are subset of Annex I (i.e. Annex I minus EITs)
● Win-win situation for both:
○ A flexible and cost-efficient method for meeting commitments for the implementing country ○
Foreign investment and technology transfer for the host country.
CoP 13, Bali Meet
● Also the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP 3 or CMP 3).
● Objectives:
○ Stimulate the world to work for GHG reduction
○ Discuss an action plan on what happens after the Kyoto period expires in 2012. Bali Meet Bali
Roadmap
● Bali roadmap= a two year process to finalize a binding agreement in Copenhagen in 2009.
● The Bali Road Map includes:
1. Bali Action Plan (BAP)
2. Decisions on technology transfer and on reducing emissions from deforestation.
Bali Action Plan : Pillars of BAP:
● A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a long-term global goal for emission
reductions.
● Enhanced national/international action on mitigation of climate change.
● Enhanced action on adaptation.
● Enhanced action on technology development and transfer to support action on mitigation and
adaptation.
● Enhanced action on the provision of financial resources and investment to support action on
mitigation and adaptation and technology cooperation.

CoP 15, Copenhagen summit, 2009
● COP-15/MOP-5 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Copenhagen summit, 2009 Copenhagen Accord.

● Recognized that deep cuts in global emissions are required as per IPCC AR4.
● Developed countries to strengthen their existing Kyoto targets.
● Developing countries to take Nationally Appropriate MitigationActions (NAMA).
● Recognized the crucial role of reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation.
● Need to establish a mechanism (including REDD-plus) to enable the mobilization of financial
resources from developed countries to help achieve the above mentioned goal.
● Agreed a "goal" for the world to raise $100 billion per year by 2020 to help developing countries
cut carbon emissions (mitigation).
● Mention of Green Climate Fund.
CoP 16, Cancun Summit
● COP 16/CMP6
● The Green Climate Fund, the Technology Mechanism and the Cancun Adaptation Framework
are established. Cancun Summit A Green Climate Fund (GCF)
● GCF helps developing countries limit or reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adapt
to climate change.
● It aims to deliver equal amounts of funding to mitigation and adaptation, while being guided by
the UNFCCC’s principles and provisions.
● The Fund is governed by the GCF Board composed equally of developed and developing
countries, representing the United Nations Regional Groups.
● It makes decisions based only on the consensus agreement of all board members.
● It mobilizes resources from developed and developing countries.
Technology Mechanism
● Within the UN Climate Change process, countries have confirmed the importance of enhancing
technology development and transfer to developing countries.
● The Technology Mechanism consists of two bodies:
○ The Technology Executive Committee and
○ The Climate Technology Center and Network
1. Technology Executive Committee

● The Technology Executive Committee is the Technology Mechanism’s policy body.
● It analyses issues and provides policy recommendations that support country efforts to enhance
climate technology development and transfer.
● The committee consists of 20 technology experts representing both developed and developing
countries.
● It meets several times a year and holds climate technology events that support efforts to address
key technology policy issues.
2. Climate Technology Centre and Network
● The Climate Technology Centre and Network is the implementation body of the Technology
Mechanism.
● It accelerates the development and transfer of technologies through three services:
1. Providing technical assistance at the request of developing countries on technology issues
2. Creating access to information and knowledge on climate technologies
3. Fostering collaboration among climate technology stakeholders via its network of regional and
sectoral experts
CoP 18, Doha summit
● Kyoto extended for 8 years (2013-2020).

● National Adaptation Plans, funding and other support for least developed countries (LDCs)
● But still-
○ No money transfer to GCF,
○ No compensation to vulnerable countries under “loss and damage”,
○ No agreement to cut down GHG emission from agriculture (14% of global emissions)
Doha summit (COP-18)
● In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted. The amendment includes:
○ New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments
in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
○ A revised list of greenhouse gasses (GHG) to be reported on by Partiesin the second commitment
period; and

● During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least
18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020. However, the
composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
CoP 19, Warsaw summit
● The conference led to an agreement that all states would start cutting emissions as soon as
possible, but preferably by the first quarter of 2015.
• The term Intended Nationally Determined Contributions was coined in Warsaw upon a proposal
from Singapore. Countries agreed to publicly outline what actions they intend to take under a
global agreement well before the Paris Summit 2015.
• These country commitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
(INDCs).
• Adopted REDD+ to deal with ecological damage from deforestation. Warsaw summit (COP-19)
Further the Warsaw Mechanism was proposed, which would provide expertise, and possibly aid,
to developing nations to cope with loss and damage from such natural extremities as heatwaves,
droughts and floods and threats such as rising sea levels and desertification.
⦁ India’s INDC objectives
• Announced in October 2015 (Lima summit urged every country to announce its INDCs by Nov
2015)
• Reduce emission intensity by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
CoP 21, Paris meet
● The Paris Agreement central aim is to

○ Strengthen the global response to the
threat of climate change by keeping a
global temperature rise this century well
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-
industrial levels and
○ To pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5 degrees
Celsius.
● additionally, the agreement aims to
strengthen the ability of countries to deal
with the impacts of climate change.
• It entered into force in November 2016 after (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least
55% of global emissions) had been met. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international
treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015
and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2,
preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
• The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during
the second half of the 21st century.
• In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also "pursue efforts to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5 °C.”
• The 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to some
scientists.
• The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate
finance by 2020 and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until
2025.
● To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, a new technology framework and
an enhanced capacity building framework will be put in place, thus supporting action by
developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives.
● Parties also agreed to a long-term goal for adaptation– to increase the ability to adapt to the
adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions
development, in a manner that does not threaten food production.

● Additionally, they agreed to work towards making finance flows consistent with a pathway
towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
● With the Paris Agreement, countries established an enhanced transparency framework (ETF).
Under the ETF, starting in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress
in climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received. It also
provides for international procedures for the review of the submitted reports.
● Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the
achievement of these long-term goals.
● The Paris Agreement requests each country to outline and communicate their post-2020 climate
actions, known as their NDCs.
● A five year review mechanism was put in place to check progress on INDCs every five years.
● Principles of CBDR.
● India’s INDC:
○ Reduction in the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.
(China- 60-65% )
○ Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030
○ Global Solar Alliance of all countries between tropics
● It came into force on 4th November 2016.
⦁ Climate Neutral Now

• The UNFCCC secretariat launched its Climate Neutral Now initiative in 2015.
• The following year, the secretariat launched a new pillar under its Momentum for Change initiative focused
on Climate Neutral Now.
• Climate Neutral Now is aiming at encouraging and supporting all levels of society to take climate action to
achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century, as enshrined in the Paris Agreement.
• Climate neutrality is a three step process, which requires individuals, companies and governments to:
1. Measure their climate footprint;
2. Reduce their emissions as much as possible;
3. Offset what they cannot reduce with UN certified emission reductions

● All States that are Parties to the Paris Agreement are represented at the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
● The CMA oversees the implementation of the Paris Agreement and takes decisions to promote
its effective implementation.
● The CMA meets annually during the same period as theCOP.
● Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to the Paris Agreement are able to participate in
the CMA as observers, but without the right to take decisions.
● The functions of the CMA relating to the Paris Agreement are similar to those carried out by the
COP for the Convention.
Q. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the
following statements is/are correct?
1.The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in
2017.
2.The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global
temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2 °C or even 1.5 °C above pre-industrial
levels.
3.Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and
committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with
climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
CoP 22, Marrakech (Morocco) Climate Change Conference 2016

• CMA1 ➔ the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement.
• The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combating climate
change and to "[demonstrate] to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is
underway".
• COP22 was called “Action COP” or “Agriculture COP”.
• Adaptation of African Agriculture (AAA) was launched at COP 22.
• AAA is promoted by FAO along with various governments, especially African countries.

International Solar Alliance
• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance was initiated by India.
• It was initiated at the India Africa Summit, and a meeting of member countries ahead of the
Paris Summit.
• The framework agreement opened for signatures in Marrakech in 2016, and 122 countries have
joined.
• Most of the 122 countries are sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• ISA is now extended to all members of UN and is now a treaty-based intergovernmental
organization.
• Countries that do not fall within the Tropics can join the alliance with the exception of voting
rights.
• The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation of solar energy to
reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
Q. Consider the following statements:

(1)The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change
Conference in 2015.
(2)The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) neither 1 nor 2
CoP 23, 2017- Bonn
● The 2017 UN Climate Change Conference took place in Bonn, Germany, the seat of the Climate
Change Secretariat.
● Bonn also made history by being the first COP to be presided over by a small island developing
state: by the Presidency of Fiji.
● Delegates launched the 'Talanoa Dialogue' to help set the stage for revising upwards of national
climate action plans needed to put the world on track to meet pre-2020 ambition and the long term
goals of the Paris Agreement.
⇒ Talanoa dialogue
● The Talanoa Dialogue was launched at COP23 in Bonn.
● Talanoa is a traditional word used in Fiji and across the Pacific to reflect a process of inclusive,
participatory and transparent dialogue.

● The process of Talanoa involves the sharing of ideas, skills and experience through storytelling.
CoP 24, Katowice (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2018
• The conference agreed on rules to implement the Paris Agreement, which will come into force
in 2020, that is to say the rulebook on how governments will measure, and report on their
emissions-cutting efforts.
CoP 25, 2019- Madrid
● The UN Climate Change Conference COP 25 (2 – 13 December 2019)took place under the
Presidency of the Government of Chile in Madrid, Spain.
● It was the longest meet in the UNFCCC’s history.
CoP26, 2021: Glasgow: Achievement & Setbacks:
⇒ New Global and Country Targets: The Glasgow Summit has urged countries to consider
strengthening their 2030 targets by COP27 to be held in Egypt in 2022.
The summit targeted global warming not to exceed +1.5°C and got about 140 countries to
announce target dates for bringing emissions down to net zero.
The achievement is significant as in the Paris Agreement, the developing countries did not agree
to reduce emissions but just the “emissions-intensity" of GDP.
India has also joined the consensus and announced its net-zero target of 2070.
This is a step ahead of India’s past position where it never accepted the need to reduce emissions.
⇒ Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda:
A potentially important development that merged out of COP26 (but outside the COP process) is
the Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda endorsed by 42 countries (including India).
This is a cooperative effort to accelerate the development and deployment of clean technologies
and sustainable solutions in areas such as clean power, road transport, steel, and hydrogen.
⇒ Phasing-Down Coal Consumption:
Coal is the dirtiest of fossil fuels and an early phasing out of coal is clearly desirable. European
countries have pushed hard for its phaphase-outowever, developing countries have resisted this.
A middle path, as suggested by India, was referred to at the COP26 calling for a “phase-down" of
coal-based power.

⇒ Best Case Scenario: An early assessment by Climate Action Tracker (CAT), an independent
organization, suggests that the targets declared, if fully achieved, could limit global warming to
around +1.8°C.
⇒ Setbacks of the Meeting:
Voluntary Targets: The targets set at the meeting are voluntary with no mechanism for
enforcement or penalties for non-compliance. Many targets are conditional on the availability of
adequate financial support.
Lack of Specific Details and Actions: Many countries have not provided details on specific
actions to be taken which would determine the actual trajectory to net zero which creates
uncertainty about what will be achieved.
Failure in Securing Climate Finance: The summit’s mild admonition only urges the developed
country parties to scale up their provision of climate finance. It failed to firmly secure funding
commitments from developed nations.
Unequal Distribution of Carbon Budget: The world’s top three largest emitters (China, USA,
Europe) which account for about 30% of the world’s population, would take up 78% of the carbon
budget.
China intends to hit peak emissions only by 2030, before going down to net zero in 2060; it would
take up 54% of the global carbon budget against a global population share of only 18.7%.
The US, with 4.2% of the total population, would take up 14.2% of the budget and Europe, with
6.8%, would take up 9.5%.
This problem reflects the fact that focusing on net-zero dates does not ensure a fair apportioning
of the available carbon space if the initial position in terms of emissions varies so greatly.
⇒ Way Forward
Suggestions for Largest Emitters: China, instead of increasing emissions up to 2030, as currently
declared, may need to keep them at their current level for a few years and then go down to net
zero by 2050. The US should achieve a sharper reduction in emissions by 2030, and also
advance its net-zero date to 2040. Europe as a whole should follow the German/Swedish example
and aim at net-zero by 2045. With this recalibration, the carbon emissions of this group would
fall to 32% of the carbon budget, much closer to their population share.
Suggestions for India: India’s 2070 target would take up 18.1% of the carbon space, which is a
little higher than our population share of 17.7%. It should be willing to consider a modification

in its trajectory as part of an agreed global package, in which other countries also take
appropriate action.
Coal-Based Power and India: India has made no commitments regarding phasing-down of
coal-based power; however, its renewable energy goals 2030 are likely to reduce the share of the
same from current 72% to about 50% by 2030. Also, the government shall consider ordering
against establishment of any new coal-based plants apart from those currently under
construction. What more is needed is a policy of accelerated retirement of older, inefficient and
polluting plants, provided suitable financing can be obtained.
Encouraging Electric Vehicles (EVs): India’s net-zero by 2070 also requires phasing out petrol
and diesel in transport and shifting to Electric Vehicles (EVs) that use electricity from
renewables. In order to make the country’s entire fleet emissions-free by 2050, the government
may consider announcing against the sale of fossil fuel-based vehicles after 2035. This would
give the automotive sector about 15 years to restructure its production.
Need of Policy Changes: Expanding renewable capacity requires policy action aimed at resolving
problems such as stabilizing intermittent supply from renewables, building transmission
infrastructure, creating efficient electricity markets and fixing the financial weakness of
India’s discoms. These actions are not specified in the Nationally Determined Contributions
but will have to be built into the domestic policy agenda in the years ahead.
⇒ Conclusion
The COP26 of Glasgow is a promising start on emissions reduction, however, on the part of global
largest emitters, much more is expected to be done.
In India’s context, it needs to work out a detailed plan of action with reference to phasing-down
coal-based power generation and encouraging electric vehicles.

Q. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
Proper design and effective implementation of UN-REDD+ Programme can significantly
contribute to 1. protection of biodiversity

2. resilience of forest ecosystems
3. poverty reduction
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Initiative By World Bank
Forest Carbon • It is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and

Partnership
Indigenous Peoples focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and
Facility
forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation, the sustainable
management of forests, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks in
developing countries (activities commonly referred to as REDD+).
• The World Bank assumes the functions of trustee and secretariat.
• The World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank and the United
Nations Development Programme are Delivery Partners under the
Readiness Fund and responsible for providing REDD+ readiness support.
⦁ Objectives
• To assist countries in their REDD+ efforts by providing them with
financial and technical assistance.
• To pilot a performance-based payment system for REDD+ activities.
• To test ways to sustain or enhance livelihoods of local communities and
to conserve biodiversity
BioCarbon Fund • The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL)
Initiative
is a multilateral fund, supported by donor governments and managed by
the World Bank.
• It seeks to promote reduced greenhouse gas emissions from the land
sector, from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries
(REDD+), and from sustainable agriculture, as well as smarter land-use
planning, policies and practices.
Q. “BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes” is managed by the

(a) Asian Development Bank
(b) International Monetary Fund
(c) United Nations Environment Programme
(d) World Bank
Q. With reference to "Forest Carbon Partnership Facility", which of the following statements
is/are correct?
1. It is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society and indigenous peoples.
2. It provides financial aid to universities, individual scientists and institutions involved in
scientific forestry research to develop eco-friendly and climate adaptation technologies for
sustainable forest management.
3. It assists the countries in their "REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation +)" efforts by
providing them with financial and technical assistance.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Initiative By EU
• (GCCA+) is a European Union initiative.

• It helps vulnerable countries on the front line of climate change.
• GCCA+ initiatives help mainly Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed
Countries (LDCs) increase their resilience to climate change.
• It also supports these groups of countries in implementing their commitments resulting from the
2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change (CoP21).
Initiative By Arctic Council
• The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and

interaction among the Arctic states, Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants
on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of sustainable development and environmental
protection in the Arctic.
• The Arctic Council consists of the eight Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark
(including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and
the United States.

Initiative By Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)
• 2012: a few nations, along with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), came
together to form the Climate & Clean Air Coalition.
• It is a partnership of governments, public and private sector, scientific institutions, civil society
organizations, etc. committed to protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived
climate pollutants.
⦁ Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs)
• SLCPs have a relatively short lifetime in the atmosphere – a few days to a few decades.
• Though short-lived, their potential to warm the atmosphere can be many times greater than CO2
.
• SLCPs are responsible for up to 45% of current global warming, only next to CO2 .
• SLCPs include black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and hydro fluorocarbons.
Climate Change Reports EMISSIONS GAP REPORT 2020
 Published by UNEP.
 GHG emissions continued to increase (4% per year since 2010 on average and rapid
increase of 2.6% in 2019 due to forest fires) and reached a record high of 59.1 GtCO2e in
2019.
 Top four emitters - China, US, EU+UK and India (contributed 55% of the total GHG
emissions in the last decade)
 Side Notes: Making Peace with Nature: report published by the UNEP highlighted Triple
Emergency: climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution.
Climate Change Reports ADAPTATION GAP REPORT, 2020
 Published by UNEP
 72% of countries have adopted at least one national-level adaptation planning instrument.
 Annual cost of adaptation to the effects of climate change for developing countries is
estimated to at least quadruple by 2050 ($500 billion).
Climate Change Reports CLIMATE CHANGE PERFORMANCE INDEX (CCPI)
 Published by German watch, New Climate Institute and the Climate Action Network.

 Published annually since 2005.
 In 2017, the methodology of the CCPI was revised to fully incorporate the 2015 Paris
Agreement with the goal to limit global warming to well below 2°C or even to 1.5°C.
 CCPI, 2021 evaluates and compares the climate protection performance of 57 countries
and of the European Union (EU), which are together responsible for more than 90% of
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
 First three ranks of the overall ranking remained empty,
 India ranked 10th in the latest edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI).
Climate Change Reports STATE OF THE GLOBAL CLIMATE REPORT
 Released by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (Headquarters: Geneva,

Switzerland; Member-193, India member)
 Report use Global Climate Indicators (GCI) to describe the changing climate & providing
a broad view of the climate at a global scale.
 2020 is very likely to be one of the three warmest years on record globally. Average global
temperature in 2020 is set to be about 1.2 °C above the pre-industrial (1850-1900) level.
Climate Change Reports Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region
 Released By Ministry of Earth Sciences’ (MoES)

 It is a first ever attempt to document and assess climate change in different parts of India.

Climate Change Organization India
India and Climate change ................................................................................................................. 262
Indian initiatives to combat climate change .................................................................................... 262
India’s post-2020 climate goals ................................................................................................... 263
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) .................................................................... 263
1. National Solar Mission ........................................................................................................... 264
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency ................................................................... 265
3. National Water Mission ......................................................................................................... 267
4. National Mission for a Green India ......................................................................................... 263
5. National Mission on Seabuckthorn ......................................................................................... 264
6. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat ................................................................................ 265
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture .......................................................................... 265
8. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) ...................................... 268
9. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC) .............................. 269
10. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change ..................................................................... 270
11. Climate Change Action Programme...................................................................................... 270
12. FAME Scheme for E-mobility............................................................................................... 271
13. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) ................................... 271
14. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas)............................ 272
15. UJALA scheme .................................................................................................................... 272
16. Swachh Bharat Mission ........................................................................................................ 272
17. National Clean Air Programme ............................................................................................ 273
India and Climate change
Indian initiatives to combat climate change
• India is a party to the UNFCCC, Paris agreement and Kyoto Protocol.

• The MoEF&CC is the nodal ministry for international climate change negotiations under UNFCCC.
• The climate change division of the ministry looks after the issues related to climate change negotiations
under UNFCCC.

India’s post-2020 climate goals
• For post-2020, in response to the decisions of the conference to the parties, India submitted its Nationally
Determined Contribution to the UNFCCC in October 2015, outlining the climate actions intended to be
taken under the Paris agreement.
• The period of implementation for India’s NDC is 2021-2030.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
• In order to achieve a sustainable development path that simultaneously advances economic and
environmental objectives, India formulated a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008.
• It provides mitigation and adaptation
measures to tackle the impacts of
climate change.
• NAPCC is guided by the following
principles;
● Protecting the poor and vulnerable
sections of society through an inclusive
and sustainable development strategy,
sensitive to climate change.
● Achieving national growth objectives
through a qualitative change in
direction that enhances ecological
sustainability, leading to further
mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions.
● Deploying appropriate technologies
for both adaptation and mitigation of
greenhouse gasses emissions extensively as well as at an accelerated pace.
● Engineering new and innovative forms of market, regulatory and voluntary mechanisms to promote
sustainable development.
● Affecting implementation of programmes through unique linkages, including with civil society and local
government institutions and through public-private-partnership.

● Welcoming international cooperation for research, development, sharing and transfer of technologies
enabled by additional funding and a global IPR regime that facilitates technology transfer to developing
countries under the UNFCCC.
The NAPCC includes eight national missions:
1) National Solar Mission (started in 2010 to promote the use of solar power)
2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (approved in 2009)
3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (approved in 2011)
4) National Water Mission
5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (approved in 2014)
6) National Mission for A Green India (approved in 2014)
7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (approved in 2010)
8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)
9) National Bio-Energy Mission (approved in 2017)
⇒ Implementation-
● Ministries with lead responsibility for each of the missions are directed to develop objectives,
implementation strategies, timelines, and monitoring and evaluation criteria, which are submitted to the
Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change.
● The Council is also responsible for periodically reviewing and reporting on each mission’s progress. Out
of these eight national missions on climate change, the Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of
Science & Technology was entrusted with the responsibility of coordinating two of the missions. These are
1. National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and
2. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC).
1. National Solar Mission
- The objective of the National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader in solar energy,
by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible.
- The Mission targets are;
- ● To create an enabling policy framework for the deployment of 20,000 MW of solar power by
2022. The cumulative target has been revised to 1,00,000 MW by 2022.
- ● The target will principally comprise 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and Medium
Scale Grid Connected Solar Power Projects.

- ● To create favorable conditions for solar manufacturing capability, particularly solar thermal for
indigenous production and market leadership. Solar Power Parks and Ultra Mega Solar PowerParks
- ● The Scheme for ‘Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects’ was rolled
out in 2014 with an aggregate capacity of 20,000MW.
- ● Further, the capacity of the Solar Park Scheme was enhanced from 20,000 MW to 40,000 MW
in 2017 to set up at least 50 solar parks by 2021-22.
- ● Solar Park is a large area of land developed with all necessary infrastructures and clearances for
setting up of solar projects.
- ● Approximately 4 to 5 acres per MW of land is required for setting up of solar parks.
- ● The capacity of the solar parks is generally 500 MW and above. However, smaller parks (up to
20 MW) are also considered in States/UTs where there is shortage of non-agricultural land.
- ⦁ Net Metering
- • Net Metering is billing mechanism for grid connected Home Rooftop Solar Installation where
- ✓ The electricity generated by the solar panels is fed into the utility grid
- ✓ Household draws electricity from the utility grid
- • The household pays only for the difference between the energy units it consumes from the grid
and the energy units fed into the grid. This is measured by a bi-directional meter called Net Meter.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
● NMEEE aims to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by creating a conducive regulatory and
policy regime and has envisaged fostering innovative and sustainable business models to the energy
efficiency sector.
● The Mission has been implemented since 2011.
● Ministry of Power NMEEE consist of four initiatives to enhance energy efficiency in energy intensive
industries which are as follows:
⦁ Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)- ( दशान, उपल धध और ापार) योना:
⦁ Assigning energy reduction targets to large energy intensive industries and distributing Energy Saving
Certificates (ESCerts) on achievement of the targets. These ESCerts can then be traded. Consumers who
are not able to meet their energy savings targets will buy the ESCerts.
⦁ Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)-

⦁ Promoting adoption of energy efficient equipment and appliances through innovative business models.
Programs that were developed under this scheme include:
• Domestic Efficient Lighting Program: Unnat Jeevan by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA) program to
promote the use of more efficient LED lighting for households.
• Super-Efficient Equipment Program (SEEP): Under this program, the manufacturers are incentivized
by the government to elevate the efficiency standards of the equipment. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency
(BEE) launched the program in the XII five year plan with a focus on ceiling fans, considering its wide use
and impact on domestic energy consumption.
Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)- Facilitating Financial Institutions to invest in Energy
Efficiency Projects and Programmes. ऊर् ◌ा◌ा द ता िष पोि◌ण ि◌◌ा◌ंच Increasing the confidence of
financial institutions and investors to support energy efficiency initiatives.
• The EEFP initiative is intended towards catalysing the finances for the energy efficiency sector by
addressing the barriers and challenges in market development and project implementation.
• It provides a platform for financial institutions, investors and project developers to increase their
confidence in supporting energy conservation and efficiency projects.
⦁ Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEED)-
⦁ Promoting energy efficiency initiatives by hedging against investment risks.
• BEE institutionalized two types of funds in order to protect the confidence of banks and investors in
energy efficiency projects and to avoid the stalling of projects due to lack of funds.
1. Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency (PRGFEE): The fund guarantees a risk cover
for banks and investors for up to 50% loan amount or INR 10 crore per project, whichever is less.
2. Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE): This fund is intended towards promoting
equity financing (stock, share) in the energy efficiency sector and thus reducing the impact of non-
availability of debt financing (bond, loan) to small size companies and projects. The equity support is
equivalent to INR 2 crore or 15% of total equity whichever is less. Implementation agencies
● BEE- Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
● EESL- Energy Efficiency Services Limited
⦁ Bureau of Energy Efficiency
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is a statutory agency under the Ministry of Power.
• It was created in March 2002 under the provisions of the nation's 2001 Energy Conservation Act.
• BEE’s function is to develop programs which will increase the conservation and efficient use of energy.

]
• It is mandatory for certain appliances in India to have BEE ratings.
⦁ Standards & Labeling Program (BEE star label)
• The Objectives of Standards & Labeling Program is to provide the consumer an informed choice about
energy saving.
Mandatory Appliances
1. Room Air Conditioners 6. Direct Cool Refrigerator
2. Frost Free Refrigerators 7. Color TV
3. Tubular Fluorescent Lamp 8. Electric Geysers
4. Distribution Transformer 9. Inverter Air conditioners
5. Room Air Conditioner (Cassettes, Floor 10. LED Lamps
Standing Tower, Ceiling, Corner AC)
Voluntary Appliances
1. Induction Motors 8. Office equipment's (Printer, Copier,
2. Agricultural Pump Sets Scanner, MFD’s).
3. Ceiling Fans 9. Diesel Engine Driven Monoset Pumps for
4. Domestic Liquefied Petroleum Gas(LPG) Agricultural Purposes
Stoves 10. Solid State Inverter
5. Washing Machine 11. Diesel Generator
6. Computer (Notebook /Laptops) 12. Chillers
7. Ballast (Electronic/Magnetic) 13. Microwave Ovens
3. National Water Mission
● The main objective of the National Water Mission is (NWM) “conservation of water, minimizing
wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through
integrated water resources development and management”.
● The five identified goals of the Mission are:
(a)Comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change
on water resource;
(b)Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation;
(c) Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas;

(d) Increasing water use efficiency by 20 per cent, and
(e) Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.
NWM Web Portal
● An independent Web Portal of NWM was launched.
● The portal aims at providing all the information relating to water resources, organisations and
their activities on different aspects of water resources at one point.
Assessment of Impact of Climate Change on water resources: NWM has identified eight river
basins (Mahanadi, Mahi, Luni, Tapi, Sutlej, Sabarmati, Subarnarekha and western flowing rivers
from Tadri to Kanyakumari) for study of impact of climate change in association with research
institutes like IITs, NITs, IISc and NIH under the R&D scheme of the Ministry.
The Mission, in line with National Water Policy, aims to
• increase water use efficiency by 20%.
• ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling.
• ensure that the water requirements of coastal cities are met through modern desalination
technologies.
• ensure basin level management strategies by working with states to deal with variability in
rainfall. The Mission aims to achieve its objectives through:
• Increasing efficiency through regulatory mechanisms (differential entitlements and pricing).
• Enhanced storage both above and below ground, rainwater harvesting.
• Incentivising water-neutral or water-positive technologies, and adoption of large scale irrigation
programmes which rely on sprinklers, drip irrigation and ridge and furrow irrigation.
4. National Mission for a Green India
● The Green India Mission puts the “greening” in the context of climate adaptation and mitigation,
aiming to enhance ecosystem services and provisioning services while addressing the livelihood
issues of people living in and around forests.
● GIM thus envisages a unique strategy for holistic treatment of selected areas aiming at overall
improvement/restoration of forests and enhancing alternate and forest based livelihood
opportunities of forest dependent communities, including tribal and other poor people along with
building capacities of the communities.
The objectives of the Green India Mission at national level are:

a)Increased forest/tree cover on 5m ha of forest/non forest lands and improved quality of forest
cover on another 5m ha (a total of 10 m ha).
b)Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services and carbon
sequestration as a result of treatment of 10 m ha.
c)Increased forest based livelihood income of about 3 million households living in and around the
forests.
d) Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tones in the year 2020.
Q. Which of the following best describes the aim of the ‘Green India Mission’ of the Government
ofIndia?
1. Incorporating environmental benefits and costs into the Union and State Budgets thereby
implementing the ‘green accounting’.
2. Launching the second green revolution to enhance agricultural output so as to ensure food
security to one and all in the future
Restoring and enhancing forest cover and responding to climate change by a combination
of adaptation and mitigation measures
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
5. National Mission on Seabuckthorn
• The initiative is a part of the Sub-Mission on Cold Desert Ecosystems under the Green India
Mission.
• Seabuckthorn, popularly known as Leh berries, is also called the “Wonder plant” and “Ladakh
gold”.
• The MoEF and DRDO have launched the initiative for Sea Buckthorn cultivation in the cold
deserts.
• It has multi-purpose medicinal and nutritional properties.
• Plan the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• It is tolerant to extreme temperatures and has an extensive root system, making it ideal for
controlling soil erosion and preventing desertification.

6. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
The mission seeks to promote

● Improvements in energy efficiency in buildings through extension of the energy conservation
building code - which addresses the design of new and large commercial buildings to optimize
their energy demand.
● Better urban planning and modal shift to public transport - make long term transport plans to
facilitate the growth of medium and small cities in such a way that ensures efficient and convenient
public transport;
● Improved management of solid and liquid waste, e.g. recycling of material and urban waste
management– with special focus on development of technology for producing power from waste;
● Improved ability of habitats to adapt to climate change by improving resilience of infrastructure,
community based disaster management, and measures for improving advance warning systems for
extreme weather events; and
● Conservation through appropriate changes in legal and regulatory framework.
Mission Targets
The key deliverables of the Mission includes:
● Development of sustainable habitat standards that lead to robust development strategies while
simultaneously addressing climate change related concerns;
● Preparation of city development plans that comprehensively address adaptation and mitigation
concerns;
● Preparation of comprehensive mobility plans that enable cities to undertake long-term, energy
efficient and cost effective transport planning; and
● Capacity building for undertaking activities relevant to the Mission. -implemented through the
4 flagship missions/ programmes of the Ministry of Urban Development, which are-.
a) Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
b) Swachh Bharat Mission
c) Smart Cities Mission
d) Urban Transport Programme
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
● The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been made operational from the

year 2014-15.
● It aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient
by
○ promoting location specific integrated/composite farming systems;
○ Soil and moisture conservation measures;
○ comprehensive soil health management;
○ Efficient water management practices and mainstreaming rainfed technologies. National
Mission for SustainableAgriculture NMSA has the following four (4) major programme
components or activities:
1. Rainfed Area Development(RAD)
2. On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
3. Soil Health Management (SHM)
4. Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN)
•NMSA has been formulated for enhancing agricultural productivity especially in rainfed areas.
•60% of the country’s net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.
•The focus areas are integrated farming, water use efficiency, soil health and resource
conservation. Stated dimensions of NMSA:
1) Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures
2) Water Use Efficiency
3) Pest Management
4) Improved Farm Practices
5) Nutrient Management
6) Agricultural insurance
7) Credit support
8) Markets
9) Access to Information
10) Livelihood diversification
1. Rainfed Area Development (RAD)
● RAD adopts an area based approach for development and conservation of natural resources
along with farming systems.

● This component has been formulated in a ‘watershed plus framework’, i.e., to explore potential
utilization of natural resource base/assets available/created through watershed development and
soil conservation activities
● This component introduces appropriate farming systems by integrating multiple components of
agriculture such as crops, horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry with agro based income
generating activities and value addition.
● Besides, soil test/ soil health card based nutrient management practices, farmland development,
resource conservation and crop selection conducive to local agro climatic.
conditions are also promoted under this component.
2. On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
● On Farm Water Management (OFWM) was implemented as one of the components of NMSA
during 2014-15.
● It has the objective of enhancing water use efficiency by promoting technological interventions
like drip & sprinkler technologies, efficient water application & distribution system, secondary
storage etc.
● Thereafter, these activities have been subsumed under the ‘Per Drop More Crop (PDMC)’
component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) during 2015-16.
● The PMKSY-PDMC mainly focuses on water use efficiency at farm level through precision/
Micro Irrigation (Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation).
● It promotes precision irrigation and better on farm water management practices to optimize the
use of available water resources.
● The component also supports micro level water storage or water conservation /management
activities to supplement source creation.
3. Soil Health Management (SHM)
● SHM aims at promoting location as well as crop specific sustainable soil health management
including
○ Residue management,
○ Organic farming practices by way of creating and linking soil fertility maps with macro-micro
nutrient management,
○ Appropriate land use based on land capability, ○ Judicious application of fertilizers and ○
Minimizing the soil erosion/degradation.

4. Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN)
● CCSAMMN provides creation and bidirectional (land/farmers to research/scientific
establishments and vice versa) dissemination of climate change related information and
knowledge.
● This is done by piloting climate change adaptation/mitigation research/model projects in the
domain of climate smart sustainable management practices and integrated farming systems
suitable to local agro- climatic conditions.
5. Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)
● The Sub-Mission on Agroforestry was launched in 2016-17 to encourage tree plantation on farm
land “Har Medh Par Ped”, along with the cropping system.
● The scheme is being implemented in the States which have liberalized transit regulations for
selected tree species.
● The implementation of the sub-mission will result in providing additional income opportunities
for farmers, increase in tree cover through will lead to higher carbon sequestration and compliment
the national initiatives on climate change adaptation and mitigation and trees grown on farm land
will help in enriching soil organic matter.
It has the following objectives;-
● To encourage and expand tree plantation in complementary and integrated manner with crops
and livestock to improve productivity, employment opportunities, income generation and
livelihoods of rural households, especially the small farmers.
● To ensure availability of quality planting material like seeds, seedlings, clones, hybrids,
improved varieties, etc.
● To popularise various Agroforestry practices/models suitable to different agro ecological regions
and land use conditions.
● To create a database, information and knowledge support in the area of agroforestry.
● To provide extension and capacity building support to the agroforestry sector.
8. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE)
The mission attempts to address some important issues concerning

a) Himalayan Glaciers and the associated hydrological consequences,

b) Biodiversity conservation and protection,
c) Wildlife conservation and protection,
d) Traditional knowledge societies and their livelihood and
e) Planning for sustaining of the Himalayan Ecosystem
● The Mission needs to deliver better understanding of the coupling between the Himalayan
ecosystem and the climate factors and provide inputs for Himalayan Sustainable development
while also addressing the protection of a fragile ecosystem.
● This will require the joint effort of climatologists, glaciologists and other experts.
● Exchange of information with the South Asian countries and countries sharing the Himalayan
ecology is also required.
● There is a need to establish an observational and monitoring network for the Himalayan
environment to assess freshwater resources and health of the ecosystem.
Objectives of the mission
● Building human and institutional capacities in the different existing/new Institutions in the
Himalayan region.
● Identification of national knowledge institutions and development of a self sustaining knowledge
network.
● Development and adoption of new methods for assessing the health of the Himalayan ecosystem
including those of glaciers and creating a database of the same.
● Assessment and quantification of the changes in the Himalayan ecosystem attributable to climate
change as a result of global emissions and human activities in the region and model for future
projections.
9. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)
● It aims at networking existing knowledge institutions, capacity building & improving

understanding of key climate processes and climate risks.
● It strives to build a dynamic and vibrant knowledge system that effectively tackles climate
change challenges, while not compromising on the nation’s growth goals. Objectives of the
mission
● Formation of knowledge networks among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in
research and development relating to climate science and facilitate data sharing and exchange

through a suitable policy framework and institutional support.
● Establishment of global technology watch groups with institutional capacities to carry out
research on risk minimized technology selection for developmental choices.
● Development of national capacity for modeling the regional impact of climate change on
different ecological zones within the country for different seasons and living standards.
● Establishing research networks and encouraging research in the areas of climate change impacts
on important socio-economic sectors like agriculture, health, natural ecosystem, biodiversity,
coastal zones, etc.
● Providing an improved understanding and awareness of the key climate processes and the
resultant climate risks and associated consequences.
● Building alliances and partnerships through global collaboration in research & technology
development on climate change under International and bilateral S&T cooperation arrangements.
10. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
● It was launched in 2015 with an initial outlay of Rs. 350 crore to meet the cost of adaptation to
climate change for the State and Union Territories of India that are particularly vulnerable to the
adverse effects of climate change.
● The overall aim of the fund is to support concrete adaptation activities which are not covered
under ongoing activities through the schemes of State and National Government that reduce the
adverse effects of climate change facing community, sector and states.
● The Scheme will be continuing beyond the 12th Five Year Plan till 31st March, 2020.
● The Fund is meant to assist National and State level activities to meet the cost of adaptation
measures in areas that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate Change.
● The Scheme has been taken as Central Sector Scheme with National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD) as the National Implementing Entity (NIE).
● Till date 30 projects have been approved.
11. Climate Change Action Programme
● It is a central scheme which was approved by the Cabinet in January 2014 for a duration of five
years.
● Its objective is to create and strengthen the scientific and analytical capacity for assessment of

climate change in the country, putting in place appropriate institutional framework for scientific
and policy initiatives and implementation of climate change related actions in the context of
● Some of the components of the CCAP scheme include
○ National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme (NCAP),
○ Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO), and
○ Coordinated Studies on Climate Change for the NorthEast Region (CSCCNER).
12. FAME Scheme for E-mobility
● The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 is a National Mission document
providing the vision and the roadmap for the faster adoption of electric vehicles and their
manufacturing in the country.
● As part of the NEMMP 2020, the Department of Heavy Industry formulated a Scheme viz. Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India) Scheme in
the year 2015 to promote manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle technology and to ensure
sustainable growth of the same.
13. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

The Mission will focus on the following ThrustAreas:
1. Water Supply
2. Sewerage and septage management
3. Storm Water Drainage to reduce flooding
4. Non-motorized Urban Transport
5. Green space/parks Five hundred cities have been selected underAMRUT.
The purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is to
● Ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water and a sewerage
connection.
● Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open spaces
(e.g. parks) and
● Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non motorized

transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
14. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas)
● It was launched in 2016.

● Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) aims to safeguard the health of women & children by
providing them with a clean cooking fuel– LPG, so that they don’t have to compromise their health
in smoky kitchens or wander in unsafe areas collecting firewood.
● Under this scheme, 5 Cr LPG connections will be provided to BPL families with a support of
Rs.1600 per connection in the next 3 years.
● Ensuring women’s empowerment, especially in rural India, the connections will be issued in the
name of women of the households.
● Rs. 8000 Cr. has been allocated towards the implementation of the scheme. Identification of the
BPL families will be done through Socio Economic Caste Census Data.
● PMUY resulted in an additional employment of around 1 Lakh and provided business
opportunities of at least Rs. 10,000 Cr. for 3 Years to the Indian Industry.
● Launch of this scheme also provided a great boost to the ‘Make in India’ campaign as all the
manufacturers of cylinders, gas stoves, regulators, and gas hoses are domestic.
15. UJALA scheme
● National LED programme was unveiled on January 5, 2015.

● It was launched with a target of replacing 77 crore incandescent lamps with LED bulbs.
● The LED based Domestic Efficient Lighting Programme (DELP) was relaunched as UJALA,
Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All, in2016.
● This programme will help in mitigating climate change by reducing the CO2 emission by 24
metric tonnes annually.
● Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL), a government company under the administrative
control of the Ministry of Power, Government of India, has been designated as the implementing
agency for this programme.
16. Swachh Bharat Mission
● It was launched in 2014 to accelerate the efforts to achieve universal sanitation coverage and to

put focus on sanitation.
● It has two Sub-Missions,
○ the Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin) and
○ the Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban).
Objectives
● To bring about an improvement in the general quality of life in the rural areas, by promoting
cleanliness, hygiene and eliminating open defecation.
● To accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas to achieve the vision of Swachh Bharat by 2nd
October 2019.
● To motivate communities to adopt sustainable sanitation practices and facilities through
awareness creation and health education.
● To encourage cost effective and appropriate technologies for ecologically safe and sustainable
sanitation.
● To develop, wherever required, community managed sanitation systems focusing on scientific
Solid & Liquid Waste Management systems for overall cleanliness in the rural areas.
● To create a significant positive impact on gender and promote social inclusion by improving
sanitation especially in marginalized communities.
17. National Clean Air Programme
● It was launched by the Ministry of Environment and Forests recently.

● It provides a framework for the Centre and the states to combat air pollution.
● NCAP has a goal to meet the prescribed annual average ambient air quality standards at all
locations in the country in a stipulated time frame.
● It has been launched to cut down particulate matter by 20-30% in at least 102 cities by 2024.

Hazardous Waste - CBD
Hazardous Waste - Convention ...................................................................................................................................... 275
Conventions On Pollutants .......................................................................................................................................... 275
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants .................................................275
The 12 Initial POPs Under The Stockholm Convention .............................................................................. 276
International Programme on Chemical Safety ................................................................................................. 277
Basel Convention...........................................................................................................278
Rotterdam Convention ..................................................................................................279
Minamata Convention ...................................................................................................280
London Dumping Convention ........................................................................................282
Marpol convention ........................................................................................................283
Convention on Biodiversity(CBD) ........................................................................................................................... 284
Objective and goal .........................................................................................................284
Convention on Biodiversity→ Protocol...........................................................................285
Conventions On Pollutants
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

● The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a global treaty that requires its
parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.
● It was adopted in 2001 and entered into force in 2004.
● There are 184 parties to the Convention
● Notable non-ratifying states include the United States, Israel, Malaysia, and Italy.
What are POPs?
● Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic chemical substances, that is, they are carbon-
based. They possess a particular combination of physical and chemical properties such that, once
released into the environment, they:
○ Remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time (many years);
○ Become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes involving
(Batch-Jan,22) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Environment Compiled Handout Page No→275

soil, water and, most notably, air;
○ Accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found at higher
concentrations at higher levels in the food chain; and
○ Are toxic to both humans and wildlife.
● In addition, POPs concentrate in living organisms through another process called
bioaccumulation. Effect of POPs
● Specific effects of POPs can include cancer, allergies and hypersensitivity, damage to the central
and peripheral nervous systems, reproductive disorders, and disruption of the immune system.
● Some POPs are also considered to be endocrine disruptors, which, by altering the hormonal
system, can damage the reproductive and immune systems of exposed individuals as well as their
offspring; they can also have developmental and carcinogenic effects.
● Annexes A and B to the Convention describe specific exemptions, as well as acceptable
purposes, that are available with respect to the relevant POPs.
A: Elimination
B: Restriction
● Annex A: Parties must take measures to eliminate the production and use of the chemicals listed
under Annex A. Specific exemptions for use or production are listed in the Annex and apply only
to Parties that register for them.
● Annex B: Parties must take measures to restrict the production and use of the chemicals listed
under Annex B in light of any applicable acceptable purposes and/or specific exemptions listed in
the Annex.
● Annex C: Parties must take measures to reduce the unintentional release of chemicals listed
under Annex C with the goal of continuous minimization and, where feasible, ultimate elimination.
The 12 Initial POPs Under The Stockholm Convention

● Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as causing adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem and these can be placed in 3 categories:
○ Pesticides: Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex,
toxaphene;
○ Industrial chemicals: Hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); and
○ By-products: Hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated

dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF), and PCBs. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
● Annex A (Elimination):Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene,
Mirex, Toxaphene, PCB.
● Annex B (Restriction): DDT
● Annex C (Unintentional production): Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans,
Hexachlorobenzene, PCB.
The new POPs
Since its fourth meeting in 2009, The COP has decided to amend Annexes A, B and C to the
Convention by adding the following chemicals:
Annex A: Alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, Beta hexachlorocyclohexane, Chlordecone,
Decabromodiphenyl ether (commercial mixture, c-decaBDE), Hexabromobiphenyl,
Hexabromocyclododecane, Hexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether
(commercial octabromodiphenyl ether), Lindane, Pentachlorophenol and its salts and esters, Short-
chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), Technical endosulfan and its related isomers,
Tetrabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether (commercial pentabromodiphenyl
ether).
● Annex B: Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, its salts, and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride
● Annex A and C: Hexachlorobutadiene, Pentachlorobenzene, Polychlorinated naphthalenes
In 2019, the following have been added
Annex A: Dicofol, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), its salts and PFOA-related compounds.
International Programme on Chemical Safety

The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) was formed in 1980 and is a
collaboration between three United Nations bodies, the World Health Organization, the
International Labour Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, to establish
a scientific basis for safe use of chemicals and to strengthen national capabilities and capacities
for chemical safety. The IPCS identifies the following as "chemicals of major public health
concern"
•Air pollution
•Arsenic
•Asbestos

•Benzene
•Cadmium
•Dioxin and dioxin-like substances
•Inadequate or excess Fluoride
•Lead
•Mercury
•Highly hazardous pesticides
Basel Convention
● The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland.
● It is the most comprehensive global environmental treaty on hazardous and other wastes.
● It has 187 member countries (Parties). Haiti and the United States have signed the convention
but not ratified it
Objective
● The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the
environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes.
Aims and Provisions
The provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims:
1. The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound
management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;
2. The restriction of trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived
to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and
3. A regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.
What is Waste under the Basel Convention?
● Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are
required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law.
● Annex I of the Convention, as further clarified in Annexes VIII and IX,lists those wastes that
are classified as hazardous and subject to the control procedures under the Convention.
● Annex II of the Convention identifies those wastes that require special consideration (known as
"other wastes', and which primarily refer to household wastes).

Examples of wastes regulated by the Basel Convention
● Biomedical and healthcare wastes
● Used oils
● Used lead acid batteries
● Persistent Organic Pollutant wastes (POPs wastes), chemicals and pesticides that persist (or
many years in the environment).
● They are transported great distances from their point of release, bioaccumulate (thus threatening
humans and animals at the top of the food chain), and cause a range of health effects.
● Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), compounds used in industry as heat exchange fluids, in
electric transformers and capacitors, and as additives in paint, carbonless copy paper, sealants and
plastics.
● Thousands of chemical wastes generated by industries and other consumers. Other Issues
Handled By The Basel convention
● Electronic and electrical waste (e-waste) such as mobile phones and computers
● Ships destined for dismantling
● Mercury and asbestos wastes
● Illegal dumping of hazardous wastes
Rotterdam Convention
● The text of the Rotterdam Convention was adopted on 10 September 1998 in Rotterdam, the
Netherlands. The Convention entered into force on 24 February 2004.
● The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) procedure.
● It built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 and ceased on 24
February 2006.
The objectives of the Convention are:
● To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade
of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential
harm;
● To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating
information exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a national decision-making

process on their import and export and by disseminating these decisions to Parties.
Annex III chemicals
● The chemicals listed in Annex III include pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been
banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by two or more Parties and which
the Conference of the Parties has decided to subject to the PIC procedure.
● There are a total of 52 chemicals listed in Annex III, 35 pesticides (including 3 severely
hazardous pesticide formulations), 16 industrial chemicals, and 1 chemical in both the pesticide
and the industrial chemical categories.
The Mechanism
To achieve its objectives the Convention includes two key provisions, namely the Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) Procedure and Information Exchange.
1. The Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure– The PIC procedure is a mechanism for
formally obtaining and disseminating the decisions of importing Parties as to whether they wish
to receive future shipments of those chemicals listed in Annex III of the Convention and for
ensuring compliance with these decisions by exporting Parties.
2. Information Exchange- The Convention facilitates information exchange among Parties for a
very broad range of potentially hazardous chemicals.
● Once a chemical is included in Annex III, a "decision guidance document" (DGD) containing
information concerning the chemical and the regulatory decisions to ban or severely restrict the
chemical for health or environmental reasons, is circulated to all Parties.
Minamata Convention
● The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the
environment from the adverse effects of mercury.
● It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in 2013 adopted and signed later that year on 10 October
2013 at a diplomatic conference held in Kumamoto, Japan and entered into force in 2017
● The Convention draws attention to a global and ubiquitous metal that, while naturally occurring,
has broad uses in everyday objects and is released to the atmosphere, soil and water from a variety
of sources.
● Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key factor
in shaping the obligations under the Convention. Minamata Convention

● The Minamata Convention follows and builds on the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm
conventions.
● The Minamata Convention is a 21st-century response to the catastrophic pollution in Minamata,
Japan, where industrial releases of methylmercury caused the epidemic known as the Minamata
disease in the 1950s and onwards.
Objectives And Main Obligations
● The objective of the Minamata Convention is to protect human health and the environment from
anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
● It contains, in support of this objective, provisions that relate to the entire life cycle of mercury,
including controls and reductions across a range of products, processes and industries where
mercury is used, released or emitted.
● The treaty also addresses the direct mining of mercury, its export and import, its safe storage
and its disposal once as waste.
● Identifying populations at risk, boosting medical care and better training of health-care
professionals in identifying and treating mercury-related effects will also contribute to
implementing the Convention.
● The Convention is made of 35 Articles and 5 Annexes, which can be divided into four main
categories:
1. Operational Provisions– Describing the obligations for Parties to reduce anthropogenic
emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds to the environment, with
controls on all their life cycle stages:
● Controls on mercury supply sources and trade
● Phase-out and phase-down of mercury use in products and processes
● Controls on artisanal and small scale gold mining where mercury is used
● Controls on air emissions and releases to land and water
● Storage, waste and contaminated sites
2. Support to Parties– With articles relating to:
● A financial mechanism, which includes the Global EnvironmentFacility Trust Fund and a
specific international Programme to support capacity-building and technical assistance.
● The provision of capacity building, technical assistance and technology transfer.
● The establishment of an Implementation and Compliance Committee.

3. Information And Awareness RaisingArticles, covering:
● Health aspects
● Information exchange
● Public information, awareness and education
● Research, development and monitoring
● Implementation plans
4. Administrative Matters:
● Reporting
● Effectiveness evaluation
● Conference of the Parties
● Secretariat, hosted by UNEP
● Procedures such as the settlement of disputes, amendments to the Convention, the adoption and
amendment of annexes, the right to vote, signature, ratification (or acceptance, approval or
accession), entry into force, reservations, withdrawal, depositary, authentic texts. India and
Minamata convention
● India approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury in 2018 thus
depositing the instrument of ratification enabling India to become a Party of the Convention.
London Dumping Convention

● The "Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
1972", the "London Convention" for short, is one of the first global conventions to protect the
marine environment from human activities.
● It has been in force since 1975.
● Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all
practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.
● Currently, 87 States are Parties to this Convention.
● The purpose of the London Convention is to control all sources of marine pollution and prevent
pollution of the sea through regulation of dumping into the sea of waste materials.
● A so-called "black- and grey-list" approach is applied for wastes, which can be considered for
disposal at sea according to the hazard they present to the environment.
● For the blacklist items dumping is prohibited.

● Dumping of the grey-listed materials requires a special permit from a designated national
authority under strict control and provided certain conditions are met.
● All other materials or substances can be dumped after a general permit has been issued.
● It does not cover discharges from land-based sources such as pipes and outfalls, and wastes
generated incidental to normal operation of vessels.
● This is a non-legally binding convention.
● The efforts of the Parties are supported by a permanent secretariat hosted by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO). London, United Kingdom.
Marpol convention
● The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the main
international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from
operational or accidental causes.
● The MARPOL Convention was adopted in 1973 at InternationalMaritime Organization (IMO).
● The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in 1976- 1977.
Marpol convention
● As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol
absorbed the parent Convention.
● The combined instrument entered into force in 1983.
● MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.
● The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships-
both accidental pollution and that from routine operations- and currently includes six technical
Annexes.
● Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges are included in most Annexes.
● India acceded to the convention in 2011. The six annexes are
1. Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil- Covers prevention of pollution
by oil from operational measures as well as from accidental discharges.
2. Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk-
Details the discharge criteria and measures for the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances
carried in bulk.
3. Annex III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form-

Contains general requirements for the issuing of detailed standards on packing, marking, labeling,
documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications.
4. Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships- Contains requirements to control
pollution of the sea by sewage.
5. Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships- Deals with different types of garbage
and specifies the distances from land and the manner in which they may be disposed of.
6. Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships- Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen
oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone depleting
substances.
Convention on Biodiversity(CBD)
● Also known informally as the Biodiversity Convention.

● Legally binding and multilateral treaty.
● Key documents regarding sustainable development.
● Was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio,1992.
● entered into effect in 1993.
● All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
● The meeting of the parties to the convention is known as the Conference of Parties(COP), with
the first one(COP1) held in Nassau, Bahamas in 1994 and the most recent one (COP14) held in
Sharm-El-Sheik, Egypt.
● It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena protocol and Nagoya protocol.
Objective and goal
● Conservation on biosafety.
● Sustainable use of components of biodiversity.
● Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of commercial or other utilization of
genetic resources.
● In 2010, the strategic plan for biodiversity and the strategic plan for the Cartagena protocol on
biosafety were adopted, setting out targets and objectives to be achieved by the year 2020.

● In 2012, the meeting of the parties to the Cartagena protocol adopted the framework and the
action plan for capacity-building for the effective implementation of the Cartagena protocol
on biodiversity, to support parties in their efforts to give effect to the strategic plan on biosafety
and to support the implementation of the protocol.
Convention on BioDiversity→ Protocol
Cartagena ● The first extraordinary meeting of the conference of the party took place in 1999
Protocol in Cartagena, Colombia. A couple of meetings on the adoption of Cartagena
protocol on Biosafety held in 2000, effective from the year 2003.
● Biosafety is the prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity, focusing both
on ecology and human health.
● Objective: To contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of
the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting
from modern biotechnology.
● The protocol applies to the Transboundary movement, transit handling and use of
all LMOs that may have adverse effects on conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity, taking also into account risk to human health.
● LMOs→ any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic
material obtained from the use of modern biotechnology. (Living Organism⇒ any
biological entity capable of transferring or replicating genetic material, including
strerial organism, virus and viroids).
● Common LMOs include Agriculture Corps that have been genetically modified
for greater productivity or for resistance to pests or disease.
● LMOs intended for direct use of food or feed, or for processing (LMO-FEP) are
agricultural commodities from GM crops.
Procedures Under Cartagena Protocol
● The "Advance Informed Agreement" (AIA) procedure to ensure that importing
countries assess and are prepared in advance to handle the risks that may be
associated with the LMOs before agreeing to its import.

● Parties to the Protocol must ensure that LMOs are handled, packaged and
transported under conditions of safety.
● The shipment of LMOs subject to transboundary movement must be accompanied
by appropriate documentation specifying, among other things, identity of LMOs and
contact point for further information.
Strategic Plan For The Cartagena Protocol On Biosafety For The Period 2011-
2020
● The Strategic Plan comprises a vision, a mission statement and five strategic
objectives.
● For each strategic objective, a number of operational objectives, expected outcomes
and indicators are outlined. The focal areas underlying the five strategic objectives
are as follows:
1. Facilitating the establishment and further development of systems for the
implementation of the Protocol;
2. Capacity-building;
3. Compliance and review;
4. Information sharing; and 5. Outreach and cooperation.
Nagoya ● Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Equitable Sharing of
Protocol Benefits Arising from theirUtilization Fair and
● Also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS).
● Supplementary agreement to CBD adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. It entered
into force in 2014.
● Its aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
● It sets out obligations for its contracting parties to take measures in relation to
access to genetic resources, benefit-sharing and compliance.
Significance of Nagoya protocol
● The Nagoya Protocol will create greater legal certainty and transparency for both
providers and users of genetic resources by:

○ Establishing more predictable conditions for access to genetic resources.
○ Helping to ensure benefit-sharing when genetic resources leave the country
providing the genetic resources
● By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya Protocol creates incentives to
conserve and sustainably use genetic resources, and therefore enhances the
contribution of biodiversity to development and human well-being.
● It also provides for the sharing of benefits arising from the use of traditional
knowledge associated with genetic resources, as well as benefits arising from the use
of genetic resources in accordance with domestic legislation. Benefit sharing must be
based on mutually agreed terms.
● In addition, Parties to the Protocol must ensure that their nationals comply with the
domestic legislation and regulatory requirements of provider countries related to
access and benefit-sharing of traditional knowledge associated with genetic
resources.
● The compliance of the countries are also reviewed in light of developments in other
relevant international organizations, including the World Intellectual Property
Organization.
Aichi Targets
● Adopted in COP-10 of CBD held in Nagoya, Japan in 2010
● 20 ambitious yet achievable targets divided into 5 sections (A toE)
● Strategic goals to be achieved by 2020.
● Eliminate or phase out incentives/subsidies which are harmful to Strategic goal A:
Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity
across government and society biodiversity.
● Make people aware about the values of biodiversity to conserve and use it
sustainably.
● Integrate biodiversity values into development and poverty reduction plans.
● Help all stakeholders make plans for Sustainable production and consumption.
Strategic goal B: Reduce the direct pressure on biodiversity and promote sustainable
use

● Reduce the rate of natural habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation to half.
● Reduce overfishing and ensure sustainable harvesting of aquatic resources.
● Sustainable management of Agriculture, aquaculture and forestry.
● Reduce pollution including excess nutrients.
● Regulate the introduction and establishment of invasive alien species.
● Minimise the impact of coral reefs from climate change and ocean acidification.
Strategic Goal C: Safeguard ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
● Conserve terrestrial and inland water and coastal and marine areas.
● Prevent extinction of known threatened species.
● Maintain genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated
animals and formulate strategy for minimizing genetic erosion.
Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem
services
● Safeguard ecosystems that provide essential services.
● Enhance ecosystem resilience for climate change mitigation.
● Operationalise the nagoya protocol on genetic resources, consistent with national
legislations.
Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building
● Parties to develop National biodiversity strategy and action plans.
● Integrate the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous and local
communities.
● Improve and share knowledge, science base and technology related to biodiversity.
● Financial resources mobilization for implementation of strategic goals.
⦁ International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
(PGRFA)
• Popularly known as the International Seed Treaty.
• International agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• Aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and
sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture

(PGRFA), as well as the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use. It was
signed in 2001 in Madrid, and entered into force on 29 June 2004.
•India is a signatory to the treaty.
Objective: Farmers’ Contribution: To recognize the contribution of farmers to the
diversity of crops, Access and Benefit Sharing: Establish a global system to provide
farmers, plant breeders and scientists with access to plant genetic materials,
Sustainability: To conserve and sustainably use plant genetic resources for food and
agriculture, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in
harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
⦁ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
• It is an international initiative to draw attention to the global economic benefits of
biodiversity.
• In 2007, environment ministers from the G8+5 countries meeting in Germany
proposed TEEB to initiate the process of
✓ analyzing the global economic benefit of biological diversity,
✓ the costs of the loss of biodiversity and
✓ the failure to take protective measures versus the costs of effective
conservation.
• In response to TEEB, a global study was initiated in 2017 and was led by Pavan
Sukhdev.
• Pavan Sukhdev is an Indian environmental economist whose field of studies include
green economy and international finance.
⦁? Consider the following pairs :
Terms sometimes seen in the news Their origin
1. Annex—I Countries Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions Nagoya Protocol
3. Clean Development Mechanism Kyoto Protocol

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
BioDiversity Organization
Convention on BioDiversity→ More Organization
CITES ● CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments.
● Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival.
● It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of
members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
● The text of the Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of
representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., the United States of
America in 1973. Therefore, it is also called the Washington convention.
● CITES entered into force in 1975.
● CITES is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
● CITES is an international agreement to which States and regional
economic integration organizations adhere voluntarily.
● States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention ('joined' CITES)
are known as Parties.
● Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties– in other words they
have to implement the Convention– it does not take the place of national
laws.
● Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has
to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented
at the national level.
● It has 183 parties presently. CITES Species

● Roughly 5,800 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are
protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade.
● They are listed in the three CITES Appendices.
● The species are grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened
they are by international trade.
● They include some whole groups, such as primates, cetaceans (whales,
dolphins and porpoises), sea turtles, parrots, corals, cacti and orchids.
The CITES Appendices Appendices I, II and III to the Convention are lists
of species afforded different levels or types of protection from over-
exploitation.
Appendix I
● Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered among CITES-
listed animals and plants.
● They are threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international
trade in specimens of these species except when the purpose of the import
is not commercial, for instance for scientific research.
● In these exceptional cases, trade may take place provided it is authorized
by the granting of both an import permit and an export permit (or re-export
certificate).
Appendix II
● It lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but
that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.
● It also includes so-called "look-alike species", i.e. species whose
specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation
reasons.
● International trade in specimens of Appendix-II species may be
authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate.
Projects and Initiatives
1. International Consortium On Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC)
● ICCWC is the collaborative effort of five inter-governmental

organizations.
● They are working to bring coordinated support to the national wildlife
law enforcement agencies and to the sub-regional and regional networks
that, on a daily basis, act in defense of natural resources.
● This powerful alliance was formally established in 2010 in St.
Petersburg,
Russia The ICCWC partners are
1. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Secretariat,
2. INTERPOL,
3. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,
4. The World Bank and
5. The World Customs Organization
● ICCWC’s mission is to strengthen criminal justice systems and provide
coordinated support at national, regional and international level to combat
wildlife and forest crime.
2. CITES Tree Species Programme
● The CITES Tree Species Programme seeks to foster economically,
socially and environmentally sustainable development.
● It helps maximizing CITES contributions to the UN Sustainable
Development Goals, notably Goal 15 as it relates to sustainably managing
forests and halting biodiversity loss.
● The Programme aims to improve and strengthen forest governance to
ensure benefit from long-term species conservation and contribute to rural
development in often remote areas, sustainable economic growth at
country level and long-term poverty alleviation.
3. Monitoring The Illegal Killing Of Elephants (MIKE)
● The overall aim of MIKE is to provide information needed for elephant
range States and the Parties to CITES to make appropriate management
and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the

range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations.
● MIKE aims to help range States improve their ability to monitor elephant
populations, detect changes in levels of illegal killing, and use this
information to provide more effective law enforcement and strengthen any
regulatory measures required to support such enforcement.
CMS ● Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) of Wild

Animals (also known as CMS or Bonn Convention).
● It is an environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations
Environment Programme.
● The text was negotiated in 1979 in Bonn and the Convention entered
into force in 1983.
● It provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of
migratory animals and their habitats.
● There are 130 Parties to the Convention – 129 countries plus the
European Union. The Republic of the Maldives is the latest Party to
join the Convention.
● CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass,
the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally
coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range.
● CMS is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of
migratory species, their habitats and migration routes.
● Thus, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other
international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in
the corporate sector.
Appendix I
● Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of
the Convention.
Appendix II
● Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from
international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention.

India with CMS
● India hosts several migratory species which cross transboundary for their
biological needs.
● India has been a signatory to the CMS since 1983.
Global Environment • The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in
Facility partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations
(CSOs), and the private sector to address global environmental issues while
supporting national sustainable development initiatives. Washington,
District of Columbia, United States of America
• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the
1992 Rio Earth Summit
• An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides
grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international
waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants.
⦁ The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following
conventions:
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Minamata Convention on Mercury
• The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation
of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition.
⦁ The GEF works with 18 agencies. Notable ones among them are: 1)
United Nations Development Programme 2) United Nations
Environment 3) World Bank 4) Food and Agriculture Organization 5)
Asian Development Bank 6) International Fund for Agricultural
Development 7) World Wildlife Fund - US 8) Conservation

International 9) International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
⦁ Areas of work
• Biodiversity, Climate change, International waters, Land degradation,
Sustainable forest management / REDD+ and Ozone depletion
TRAFFIC • TRAFFIC: The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC).

• TRAFFIC is a NGO working globally on trade in wild animals and plants
in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
• TRAFFIC is a joint programme of the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) and IUCN.
• Traffic is complementary to CITES.
• The programme was founded in 1976, with headquarters now located in
Cambridge, United Kingdom.
• TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is
not a threat to the conservation of nature.
• It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and
drivers to provide the leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals and
plants.
Conservation ● Conservation International is a nonprofit environmental organisation

International established in 1987.
● Conservation International works to spotlight and secure the critical
benefits that nature provides to humanity.
● The concept of biodiversity hotspots was initiated by Conservation
International.
● The foundation of CI's work is "science, partnership and field
demonstration." location-Arlington, Virginia, United States
WWF ● The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-

governmental organization founded in 1961.
● Works in the field of wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human
impact on the environment.
● It is the world's largest conservation organization with over five million
supporters worldwide.
● Currently, their work is organized around these six areas: food, climate,
freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.
● The Living Planet Report and Living Planet Index are published every
two years by WWF.
HQ- Gland, Vaud, Switzerland
International ● ITTO is an intergovernmental organization promoting the sustainable

Tropical Timber management and conservation of tropical forests and the expansion and
Organization diversification of international trade in tropical timber from sustainably
managed and legally harvested forests.
● ITTO’s membership represents about 90% of the global tropical timber
trade and more than 80% of the world’s tropical forests.
HQ- Yokohama, Japan ,1986
● Develops internationally agreed policy guidelines and norms to
encourage sustainable forest management (SFM) and sustainable
tropical timber industries and trade.
● Assists tropical member countries to adapt such guidelines and norms to
local circumstances and to implement them in the field through projects
and other activities.
● Collects, analyzes and disseminates data on the production and trade of
tropical timber.
● Promotes sustainable tropical timber supply chains.
● Helps develop capacity in tropical forestry.
Birdlife International ● Global partnership of conservation organisations (NGOs) that strives to

conserve birds, their habitats, and global biodiversity.

● It is the world's largest partnership of conservation organisations, with
121 partner organisations.
● The group’s headquarters are located in Cambridge, UK.
● It works for preventing extinction of bird species, identifying and
safeguarding important sites for birds, maintaining and restoring key bird
habitats, and empowering conservationists worldwide.
● It is the official listing authority for birds for the IUCN’s Red List of
threatened species.
● Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)- Published by Birdlife
International.
IPBES ● IPBES- The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
● IPBES is an independent intergovernmental body established by States
to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem
services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term
human well-being and sustainable development.(BIODIV→
SUSTAINABLE GROWTH→ HUMAN DEV)
● 2012.
● IPBES currently has over 134 member States. IPBES Bonn, Germany
In 2010 a resolution by the 65th session of the United Nations General
Assembly urged the United Nations Environment Programme to convene
a plenary meeting to establish the IPBES
● It is not a United Nations body.
What does IPBES do? The work of IPBES can be broadly grouped into
four complementary areas:
● Assessments: On specific themes (e.g. “Pollinators, Pollination and
Food Production”); methodological issues (e.g. “Scenarios and Modeling);
and at both the regional and global levels (e.g. “Global Assessment of
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services”).
● Policy Support: Identifying policy-relevant tools and methodologies,

facilitating their use, and catalyzing their further development.
● Building Capacity & Knowledge: Identifying and meeting the priority
capacity, knowledge and data needs of member States, experts and
stakeholders.
● Communications & Outreach: Ensuring the widest reach and impact
of the work done.
SAWEN ● South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN) is an inter-

governmental wildlife law enforcement support body of South Asian
countries.
● The South Asian countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
● SAWEN was officially launched in 2011 in Bhutan.
● It promotes regional cooperation to combat wildlife crime in South Asia.
● SAWEN operates its activities from the Secretariat based in Kathmandu,
Nepal.
Biodiversity Finance ● Biodiversity Finance Initiative– BIOFIN, is a new global partnership

Initiative seeking to address the biodiversity finance challenge in a comprehensive
manner– building a sound business case for increased investment in the
management of ecosystems and biodiversity.
● BIOFIN assesses the gap between the ‘available funding’ and the
required funding’ for biodiversity conservation and help in resource
mobilization.
● BIOFIN ⇒ managed by the UNDP Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Programme, in partnership with the European Union and the
Governments of Germany and Switzerland. 2012.
Critical Ecosystem ● Founded in 2000.

Partnership Fund ● CEPF provides grants for nongovernmental and private sector
(CEPF) organizations to help protect biodiversity hotspots, Earth’s most

biologically rich yet threatened areas.
• Arlington, Virginia, USA
- is a joint biodiversity conservation initiative of l'Agence Française de
Développement(FRANCE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY),
Conservation International, European Union, Global Environment
Facility, Government of Japan, and World Bank.
The Nature ● It is a global environmental organization, headquartered in Arlington,

Conservancy (TNC) Virginia, United States. As of 2021 it works via affiliates or branches in
79 countries and territories, as well as across every state in the US.
● Founded in 1951, The Nature Conservancy has over one million
members globally as of 2021, and has protected more than 119,000,000
acres (48,000,000 ha) of land and thousands of miles of rivers worldwide
● The Nature Conservancy's Plant a Billion Trees campaign(VERY
MUCH IMPORTANT CONTENT FOR WAY FORWARD) is an effort to
plant one billion trees across the globe in forests with the greatest nee.
Greenpeace states ● International NGO

● Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture
life in all its diversity "and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues
such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling,
genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues.
● Greenpeace have launched the "Go Beyond Oil" campaign.
● The campaign is focused on slowing, and eventually ending, the world's
consumption of oil.
United Nation Forum ● HQ- New York, USA

on Forest
The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) is a high-level intergovernmental policy
Global objectives on forests - UNFF
• Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest management (SF

and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation;
• Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits, including by impr
• Increase significantly the area of sustainably managed forests, including protected
sustainably managed forests;
⦁? With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
A. It serves as a financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’.
B. It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level
C. It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped
countries with specific aim to protect their environment.
D. Both (a) and (b)
⦁? With reference to an organization known as "BirdLife International", which of the following
statements is/are correct?
1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations.
2. The concept of "biodiversity hotspots" originated from this organization.
3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as "Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas".

Misc. Topic
India Institution & NGOs .................................................................................................................. 310
India Institution & NGOs→ for Survey .......................................................................................... 310
India Institution & NGOs→ for Biodiversity .................................................................................. 313
India Institution & NGOs→ for Wildlife ........................................................................................ 314
Legislative Institutions ................................................................................................................... 319
Other Institution/NGOs/Organization ............................................................................................ 321
Sustainable Development Goals ......................................................................................................... 323
2030 Agenda – Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ................................................................... 323
Millennium Development Goals ..................................................................................................... 326
How are SDGs different from MDGs? ............................................................................................ 327
SDG India Index 2020-21: .............................................................................................................. 327
Environmental Impact Assessment .................................................................................................... 329
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 329
Concept Of EIA ............................................................................................................................. 329
Objectives of EIA .......................................................................................................................... 329
EIA In India .................................................................................................................................. 330
Environmental Clearance .............................................................................................................. 330
Environmental Components of EIA................................................................................................ 330
Air Environment ........................................................................................................................ 330
Noise ......................................................................................................................................... 330
Water Environment ................................................................................................................... 330
Biological Environment .............................................................................................................. 331
Land Environment ..................................................................................................................... 331
Steps In EIA Process...................................................................................................................... 331
Main Participants of EIA ............................................................................................................... 332
EIA notification, 2006 .................................................................................................................... 333
Issues With EIA ............................................................................................................................ 335
Issues with the provisions of draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), 2020 ............................. 336
✍Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 338
Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA) ............................................................... 338

Bio-Fertilizers and Their Use In Agriculture .................................................................................. 338
ALL ACTS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................... 344
General ......................................................................................................................................... 344
Forest and wildlife ......................................................................................................................... 344
Air ................................................................................................................................................ 345
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 ........................................................................................... 345
Salient Features of Wildlife Protection Act .................................................................................. 345
Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 ............................................................................................ 347
Salient Features ......................................................................................................................... 348
Powers of Central Government under EPA ................................................................................. 348
Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989 ................................. 349
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules........................................................................................... 349
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) ........................................................................... 350
Composition of NGRBA ............................................................................................................. 350
Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 .................................................................................................. 350
Biodiversity Act 2000 ..................................................................................................................... 365
Salient features of the biodiversity legislation .............................................................................. 365
Forest Rights Act, 2006 .................................................................................................................. 366
FRA is tool................................................................................................................................. 366
Salient Features ......................................................................................................................... 366
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988)...................... 368
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977 .................................................. 368
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987 ............................ 368
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) ..................................................................................................... 369
International Summits and Organizations

United Nations ● It was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices.
Conference on The ● It was held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972.
Human ● It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues,

Environment and marked a turning point in the development of international environmental
politics.
● The meeting agreed upon a Declaration known as the Stockholm Declaration.
Principles of Stockholm Declaration
1. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned.
2. Natural resources must be safeguarded.
3. The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained.
4. Wildlife must be safeguarded.
5. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted.
6. Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
7. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented.
8. Development is needed to improve the environment.
World Commission ● The UN General Assembly, through a resolution in 1983, welcomed the
on Environment establishment of a special commission.
and Development ● This commission was to make available a report on the environment and the
global problematique to the year 2000 and beyond, including proposed strategies
for sustainable development.
● The commission later adopted the name World Commission on Environment
and Development.
⦁ United Nations • UNEP is an agency of the United Nations.

Environment • It coordinates the UN’s environmental activities.
Programme • It assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies
(UNEP) or UN and practices.
Environment • It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment 1972.
• It has overall responsibility for environmental problems among United Nations
agencies.
• Addressing climate change or combating desertification, are overseen by other
UN organizations, like the UNFCCC and the United Nations Convention to

Combat Desertification.
• UNEP's activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine
and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
• The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
• UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of
the Montreal Protocol.
• It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.
• UNEP has registered several successes, such as the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and
the 2012 Minamata Convention, a treaty to limit toxic mercury.
• UNEP has sponsored the development of solar loan programmes. The solar loan
programme sponsored by UN Environment helped finance solar power systems in
India
Intergovernmental • IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United
Panel on Climate Nations.
Change (IPCC) • It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
• Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP. • The
IPCC produces reports that support the UNFCCC.
• IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of human-
induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and
mitigation.
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research.
• Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute on a voluntary basis.
• The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in two equal parts, between the IPCC
and an American Environmentalist.
⦁ The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:
• Human-induced climate change,

• The impacts of human-induced climate change, Options for adaptation and
mitigation
Brundtland - after the Chairperson of the Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland, appointed by
commission the United Nations Secretary-General in December 1983.
● The mission of the Brundtland Commission is to unite countries to pursue
sustainable development together.
● This commission was officially dissolved in 1987 after the release of the
Brundtland report, ‘Our Common Future’.
● The term ‘sustainable development’ was popularised from this report.
● The report highlighted three fundamental components to sustainable
development: environmental protection, economic growth and social equity.
● The commission was replaced with the centre for our common future in 1988.
United Nations ● UNCED is also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, the Rio Summit,
Conference On the Rio Conference, and the Earth Summit.
Environment And ● It was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14
Development(UNC June 1992.
ED) • 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant
reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.
• As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10)
was held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa.
• In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also
held in Rio and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
Issues discussed and addressed in UNCED
● Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production— particularly the production of
toxic components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including
radioactive chemicals.
● Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked
to global climate change.
● New reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle

emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and
smoke.
● The growing usage and limited supply of water.
Documents agreed upon at the UNCED:
Legally binding agreements Non-binding agreements
CBD: The Convention on Biological Rio declaration: It contains a set of 27

Diversity is a binding treaty requiring principles for sustainable development
nations to take inventories of their throughout the world.
plants and wild animals and protect
their endangered species.
UNFCCC: The United Nations Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a

Framework Convention on Climate comprehensive plan of action to be
Change (UNFCCC), or Global taken globally, nationally and locally
Warming Convention, requires nations by organizations of the United Nations
to reduce their emission of carbon System, Governments, and Major
dioxide, methane, and other Groups in every area in which human
“greenhouse” gases. impacts on the environment. It is
related to sustainable development.
The Statement of Principles on

Forests, aimed at preserving the
world’s rapidly vanishing tropical
rainforests, is a non-binding statement
recommending that nations monitor
and assess the impact of development
on their forest resources and take steps
to limit the damage done to them.
Agenda 21 ● Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to

● It is a product of the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and
Development).
● It is an action agenda for all the stakeholders that can be executed at local,
national, and global levels.
● The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century.
● Its aim is achieving global sustainable development.
● One major objective of agenda 21 is that every local government should draw
its own local agenda 21.
● It has a preamble, four sections and a total of 40 chapters. It also includes a
Statement on Forest Principles.
Barbados ● The Barbados Programme of Action, adopted during the Global Conference on
Programme of the Sustainable Development of SIDS held in Barbados in 1994, defines the
Action (BPOA) priorities, the cross-sectoral areas as well as the actions and strategies to be
undertaken at national, regional and global level to ensure the sustainable
development of Small Island Developing States.
United Nations • The Convention stemmed from a direct recommendation of the Rio
Convention to Conference's Agenda 21 in 1994.
Combat • UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of
Desertification drought through national action programs (NAP).
(UNCCD) • National action programs (NAP) incorporate long-term strategies supported by
international cooperation.
• It is the only internationally legally binding framework set up to address
desertification.
• It was adopted in Paris, France in 1994 and entered into force in 1996.
• It has 196 parties, making it truly global in reach.
• 2006 was declared "International Year of Deserts and Desertification".
• The UN Convention to Combat Desertification has established a Committee on
Science and Technology (CST).

• CST is composed of government representatives competent in the fields of
expertise relevant to combating desertification and mitigating the effects of
drought.
• UNCCD collaborates closely with the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
Rio+5 (1997) • In 1997, the UN General Assembly held a special session to appraise the status
of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
• The Assembly recognized progress as "uneven" and identified key trends,
including increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income, and
continued deterioration of the global environment
Rio+10 (2002) or • Rio+10 (2002) or Earth Summit 2002 or World Summit on Sustainable
Earth Summit 2002 Development.
• Took place in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002.
• Rio+10 affirmed UN commitment to Agenda 21, alongside the Millennium
Development Goals.
• Johannesburg Declaration: committing the nations of the world to sustainable
development.
Rio+20 (2012) • Rio+20 (2012) or United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development.

• Rio+20 was a 20-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 1992 and 10-year follow-
up to the Earth Summit 2002.
• It is also known as Rio 2012 or Earth Summit 2012.
• Hosted by Brazil in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.
• It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21.
• It was the third international conference on sustainable development.
Partnership for • PAGE, launched in 2013, is a direct response to the Rio+20 Declaration, The
Action on Green Future We Want.
Economy (PAGE) • Rio+20 Declaration called upon the UN system and the international community
to aid interested countries in developing, adopting and implementing green

economy policies and strategies.
• PAGE supports nations in reframing economic policies and practices around
sustainability.
• PAGE seeks to assist countries in achieving SDG (2030 Agenda), especially
SDG 8: "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment.”
• PAGE brings together the expertise of five UN agencies – UNEP, ILO, UNIDO,
UNDP and UNITAR.
ILO: International Labor Organization
UNIDO: UN Industrial Development Organization
UNITAR: UN Institute for Training and Research.
⇒ Earth Summit 1992 (Rio de Janeiro) = UN Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED)
⇒ Earth Summit 2002 (Johannesburg) = World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
⇒ Earth Summit 2012 (Rio de Janeiro) = UN Conference on Sustainable Development
(UNCSD)
??? What is the Rio+20 Conference, often mentioned in the news?

(a) It is the United nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World Trade Organization
(c) It is a Conference of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries of the Convention on Biological Diversity
⦁? With reference to ‘Agenda 21’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following statements :
1. It is a global action plan for sustainable development.
2. It originated in the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in 2002.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
⦁?

India Institution & NGOs
India Institution & NGOs→ for Survey
Zoological ● ZSI was established in 1916 to promote the survey, exploration and research of the
Survey Of fauna in the country.
India ● It is headquartered in Kolkata.
● Comes under MoEF&CC.
● The objectives of ZSI are classified as follows:
1. Primary Objectives
● Exploration, Survey, Inventorying and Monitoring of faunal diversity in various
States, Ecosystems and Protected areas of India.
● Periodic review of the Status of Threatened and Endemic species.
● Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
● Bioecological studies on selected important communities/species.
● Preparation of databases for the recorded species of the country.
● Maintenance & Development of National Zoological Collections.
● Training, Capacity Building and Human Resource Development.
● Faunal Identification, Advisory services and Library Services.
● Publication of results including Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
2. Secondary Objectives
● Environmental Impact Studies.
● Maintenance and Development of Museums at Headquarters and Regional Stations.
● Development of ENVIS and CITES Centers.
● Research Fellowship, Associateship and Emeritus Scientist Programmes.
● Collaborative research programmes on Biodiversity with other Organizations.
● GIS and Remote Sensing studies for animal diversity as well as for selected

threatened species.
Botanical ● Estd. in 1890.

Survey of India ● BSI is a premier research institute actively involved in the survey, exploration and
research of the immensely rich floral diversity of our country.
● BSI is headquartered in Kolkata.
● BSI publishes Flora of India series books, states floras, flora of Protected
regions and Red Data Book of Indian Plants.
Primary Objectives:
● Exploration, inventorying and documentation of phytodiversity in general and
protected areas, hotspots and fragile ecosystems in particular; publication of National,
State and District Floras.
● Identification of threatened/red list species & species rich areas needing
conservation; ex-situ conservation of critically threatened species in botanical
gardens.
● Survey and documentation of traditional knowledge associated with plants.
● Develop a National database of Indian plants, including herbarium and live
specimens, botanical paintings/ illustrations, etc
Forest Survey ● Founded in June 1981 and headquartered at Dehradun in Uttarakhand.

of India ● It is a premier national level organization engaged in the assessment of the
country’s forest resources on a regular basis.
● Works under MoEF&CC.
● FSI assesses forest cover of the country every 2 years through digital interpretation
of remote sensing satellite data and publishes the results in a biennial report called
'State of Forest Report' (SFR).
Objectives:
● To assess the forest cover of the country through Remote Sensing technology,
analyze the changes and prepare State of Forest Report biennially.
● To conduct inventory in forests and non forest areas at national level and develop
a database on wood volume and also estimate tree cover.

● To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation, storage and
dissemination of spatial databases on forest resources.
● To conduct training of forestry personnel in application of technologies related to
resources survey, remote sensing, GIS, etc.
Forest Survey report 2019
● Total Forest and Tree Cover rises to 24.56 percent of the total geographical area
of the Country.
● As compared to the assessment of 2017, there is an increase of 5,188 sq. km in
the total forest and tree cover of the country.
● The increase in the forest cover has been observed as 3,976 sq km and that in
tree cover is 1,212 sq. km.
● The top three states showing an increase in forest cover are Karnataka (1,025 sq.
km) followed by Andhra Pradesh (990 sq km) and Kerala (823 sq km).
● Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed
by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
● In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five States
are Mizoram (85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya (76.33%),
Manipur (75.46%) and Nagaland (75.31%).
● The total growing stock of India’s forest and TOF is estimated at 5,915.76 million
cum of which 4,273.47 million cum is inside the forests and 1,642.29 million cum
outside. There is an increase of 93.38 million cum of total growing stock, as
compared to the previous assessment. Out of this increase in growing stock, there is
an increase of 55.08 million cum inside the forests and 38.30 million cum outside the
forest areas.
Forest Survey report 2021
● The total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectares which is
24.62 percent of the geographical area of the country.
● As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the
total forest and tree cover of the country. Out of this, the increase in the forest cover
has been observed as 1,540 sq km and that in tree cover is 721 sq km.

● Top three states showing an increase in forest cover are: Andhra Pradesh (647
sq km) followed by Telangana (632 sq km) and Odisha (537 sq km).
● Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed
by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
● In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five
States are: Mizoram (84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya
(76.00%), Manipur (74.34%) and Nagaland (73.90%).
● Total carbon stock in the country's forest is estimated to be 7,204 million
tonnes and there is an increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of the
country as compared to the last assessment of 2019. The annual increase in the
carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes.
⦁? Which of the following statement is INCORRECT about Forest Survey of India:

1. Its Headquarter at Kolkata
2. It is established before ZSI
3. It published ‘State of Forest Report’
The options are as given:
(a] 1 & 2 only (b] 2 only (c] 3 only (d] 1, 2 & 3
India Institution & NGOs→ for Biodiversity
National ● Statutory autonomous body under MoEF&CC.

Biodiversity ● The NBA has its headquarters in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Authority ● Estd. in 2003 to implement the provisions of Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The
(NBA) Act and the Rules are implemented in India through a decentralized system.
● NBA advises the State Governments in the selection of areas of biodiversity
importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures for the management of such
heritage sites.
● It performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory functions for the Government of
India on issues of:
1. Conservation,

2. Sustainable use of biological resources and
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.
State ● The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) advises the State Governments on the
Biodiversity above mentioned three matters.
Boards (SBBs) ● The SSBs also regulate, by granting of approvals or otherwise upon requests for
commercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilization of any biological resource
by the Indians.
GEAC ● GEAC= Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee

● Works under MoEF&CC.
● It was established as per Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and
Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells
notified in 1989 under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
Functions
● It is responsible for approval of activities involving large-scale use of hazardous
microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from the
environmental angle.
● The Committee is responsible for approval of proposals relating to release of
genetically engineered organisms and products into the environment including
experimental field trials.
● The committee or any persons authorized by it has powers to take punitive action
under the Environment Protection Act.
⇒ Recently The Minister of MoEF announced his intention to change the name of
the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee to Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee .
India Institution & NGOs→ for Wildlife
IBWL/NBWL ● Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) was set up in 1952

● Under WPA, 1972- IBWL was replaced by the National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL).

● NBWL is chaired by the Prime Minister.
● 47 members including Chairman; 19 ex-officio members.
● It advises the Central Government on framing policies and measures for
conservation of wildlife in the country.
● Apex body to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and
around national parks and sanctuaries.
● No alteration of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done
without approval of the NBWL.
Wildlife ● Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was established in 1986 as an autonomous

Institute of India institute of the MoEF&CC.
(WII) ● The Institute has emerged as a premier training and research institution in the
field of wildlife and protected area management in South and Southeast Asia.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
Aims and Objectives
● Build up scientific knowledge on wildlife resources.
● Train personnel at various levels for conservation and management of wildlife.
● Carry out research relevant to management including the development of
techniques appropriate to Indian conditions.
● Provide information and advice on specific wildlife management problems.
● Collaborate with international organizations on wildlife research, management
and training.
● Develop as a regional centre of international importance on wildlife and natural
resource conservation.
Animal Welfare ● Estd. in 1962 under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960;
Board of India ● Animal Welfare Board of India was started under the stewardship of Late Smt.
(AWBI) Rukmini Devi Arundale, well known humanitarian.
● Statutory, advisory body under MoEF&CC.
● The Board consists of 28 Members. The term of office of Members is for a period
of 3 years.

● Frames rules to ensure humane treatment of animals and litigates for stricter laws
against animal torture.
● It also grants recognition to AWOs and provides financial assistance to
recognised Animal Welfare Organisations(AWOs).
Wildlife Crime ● Statutory multi-disciplinary body under MoEF&CC to combat organized

Control Bureau wildlife crime in the country.
● The Bureau has its headquarters in New Delhi and five regional offices at Delhi,
Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Jabalpur.
● WCCB successfully coordinated Operation Thunderbird (INTERPOL’s
operation for wildlife protection).
● It also launched Operation Save Kurma to protect turtles from illegal trade.
● Tasks assigned under Section 38 (Z) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972:
1. To collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities.
2. To disseminate the same to State and other enforcement agencies for immediate
action so as to apprehend the criminals;
3. To establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank;
4. Coordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of
the provisions of the Act;
5. Assist foreign authorities and international organizations concerned to facilitate
coordination and universal action for wildlife crime control;
6. Capacity building of the wildlife crime enforcement agencies for scientific and
professional investigation into wildlife crimes.
7. Assist State Governments to ensure success in prosecutions related to wildlife
crimes; and
8. Advise the Government of India on issues relating to wildlife crimes having
national and international ramifications, relevant policy and laws.
9. It also assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the
consignments of flora & fauna as per the provisions of Wild Life Protection Act,
CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.
⇒ UNEP Award for WCCB (2018)

● Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was awarded with Asia Environment
Enforcement Awards, 2018 by the United Nation Environment Programme in
2018.
● The award was given for excellent work done by the Bureau in combating
transboundary environmental crime.
National Tiger ● Estd. in 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force, constituted
Conservation by the Prime Minister of India.
Authority ● Constituted for reorganised management of Project Tiger and the many Tiger
Reserves in India.
● Statutory status given by 2006 amendment of the Wildlife Protection Act, under
MoEF&CC.
● Chaired by the Union minister of environment, forest and climate change.
● Its main function is to approve the Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by the
State Governments.
● It also regulates any ecologically unsustainable land use such as mining, industry
and other projects within the tiger reserves.
Central Zoo •The CZA is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Authority Climate Change. It was constituted in 1992 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
● Objective: Oversight of India’s zoos and bring them up to international standards.
● Chaired by the Minister of State for Environment, Forests and Climate
Change.
● Functions:
1. Recognition of the Zoos.
2. Evaluation of the Zoos.
3. Providing assistance in conservation breeding programmes for endangered
species in Indian zoos.
4. Central Zoo Authority also regulates the exchange of animals of endangered
category listed under Schedule-I and II of the Wildlife (Protection Act) among

zoos.
5. Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos is also approved by the
Authority before the requisite clearances under EXIM Policy and the CITES
permits are issued by the competent authority.
National ● The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), set up in

Afforestation August 1992, is responsible for promoting afforestation, tree planting, ecological
And Eco- restoration and eco-development activities in the country.
Development ● It gives special attention to the degraded forest areas and lands adjoining the forest
Board areas, national parks, sanctuaries and other protected areas as well as the
ecologically fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis, Western Ghats,
etc.
Role and functions of the NAEB:
● Evolve mechanisms for ecological restoration of degraded forest areas and
adjoining lands.
● Restore the forest cover in the country.
● Restore fuelwood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the degraded forest
and adjoining lands.
● Create general awareness and help foster people's movement for promoting
afforestation and eco-development.
● Coordinate and monitor the Action Plans for afforestation, tree planting,
ecological restoration and eco-development.
NEERI-Council ● The CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-

of Scientific & NEERI) is a research institute created and funded by GoI.
Industrial ● It was established in Nagpur in 1958 with focus on water supply, sewage disposal,
Research communicable diseases and to some extent on industrial pollution and occupational
Nagpur, diseases.
Maharashtra ● NEERI is a pioneer laboratory in the field of environmental science and
engineering and part of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
● Note: It falls under the Ministry of Science and Technology (India) of the

central government.
⦁? Which of the following organizations comes under Ministry of Science & technology:
(a] WCCB (b] NEERI (c] NTCA (d] NBWL (e] GEAC
⦁? Arrange them with CORRECT sequence:

1. BSI
2. GEAC
3. IBWL
4. WII
5. NEERI
Options are as follows
(a] 1→ 2→ 3→ 4→ 5 (b] 1→ 3→ 5→ 4→ 2 (c] 3→ 2→ 5→ 4→ 1 (d] 2→ 1→ 4→ 5→ 3
⦁? The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is constituted under the-
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
⦁? Which of the following is Correct about ‘Asia Environment Enforcement Award’:
1. It was given by UNEP
2. In 2018 WCCB was awarded
3. It was given for the excellent work in combating transboundary environmental crime.
The options are: (a] 1 only (b] 2 only (c] 1 & 2 only (d] 1,2 & 3
Legislative Institutions
NGT ● Statutory body set up under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.
● Principal Bench: Delhi
● Regional benches: Bhopal, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata.
● Members:
○ A full time Chairman
○ At least 10 and maximum 20 Full time Judicial members
○ At least 10 and maximum 20 Full time Expert Members

● Objective: Effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to
1. Environmental protection.
2. Conservation of forests.
3. Compensation/relief for damages caused to people or property due to violation of
environmental laws.
Legal Jurisdiction of NGT
NGT can hear all civil cases related to following Acts:
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Note: NGT has no powers to hear cases related to Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and
Indian Forest Act, 1927.
National ● NGRBA= Set up in 2009, as a financing, planning, implementing, monitoring and

Ganga coordinating authority for the Ganges River.
Council ● It functions under the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation.
● Mission: To safeguard the drainage basin which feeds water into the Ganges by
protecting it from pollution or overuse.
● Chairman: Prime Minister of India
● A new body named "National Council for River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and
Management)" NCRG replaced the existing NGRBA in 2017.
● NMCG is the implementation wing of National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection
and Management of River Ganga (also referred as National Ganga Council).
⦁? How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB)?

1.The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of
the Government.
2.The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts
whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the
country.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Other Institution/NGOs/Organization
BNHS ● The Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883.

● It is one of the largest non-governmental organizations in India engaged in
conservation and biodiversity research.
● It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society.
● BNHS is the partner of BirdLife International in India.
● It has been designated as a 'Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation' by the
Department of Science and Technology.
TERI (The ● TERI is a non profit public interest research and advocacy organization formally
Energy and established in 1974.
Resources ● It works with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the rapid depletion of the earth’s
Institute) finite energy resources which are largely non-renewable.
● TERI has been actively working to develop solutions to global problems in the fields of
energy, environment and current patterns of development, which are largely
unsustainable.
● TERI not only has offices in different parts of the world, but its activities have wide
geographical relevance.
● It organizes the annual World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS), a major
event focusing on sustainable development, the pursuit of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) and assessment of worldwide progress in these critical areas.
● TERI has also established a World Sustainable Development Forum (WSDF), which is

guided by the patronage of a group of select world leaders
Wildlife ● Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is a leading Indian nature conservation organisation
Trust Of committed to the service of nature.
India Noida ● It is a non profit trust/organisation.
● Its mission is ‘to conserve wildlife and its habitat and to work for the welfare of
individual wild animals, in partnership with communities and governments’.
● WTI has been credited for achieving conservation milestones such as Recovering
population of critically endangered species, Translocation of Species, Reducing Human-
Animal Conflict, Rescue and Rehabilitation of Animals including Elephants, Tigers,
Leopards, One-horned Rhino and Bears.
● 12-15 August, WTI celebrated ‘Gaj Mahotsav’.
CSE ● The Center for Science and Environment (CSE) is a public interest research and
advocacy organization based in New Delhi.
● CSE makes efforts to create awareness about problems and propose sustainable
solutions.
● Their tools for creating awareness are periodicals, publications, films, exhibitions and
other products.
● Two of their interesting publications are ‘Down to Earth’ and ‘Gobar Times’
magazine for children
Kalpavriks ● NGO established in 1979.

h (Pune) ● It works on environmental awareness, campaigns, litigation, research, and other
areas.
● It has taken a position on a number of environment-development issues, sometimes by
protest letters to street demonstrations.
● It has continued to participate in mass movements challenging the state and its
policies.

Sustainable Development Goals
2030 Agenda – Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was launched in 2015.

• The UN 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) aim at eradicating poverty in all forms
and “seek to realize the human rights of all and achieve gender equality”.
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals, and their 169 targets, set
by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030 (UNGA resolution “2030 Agenda”).
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2: Zero Hunger
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Goal 4: Quality education
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all
Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
Goal 8: Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation

Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
Goal 15: Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, halt
biodiversity loss
Goal 16: Promote just, peaceful and inclusive societies
Goal 17: Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development
Goal No. & Name Details
Goal 2: Zero hunger ⦁ "End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture".
• This would be accomplished by
✓ doubling agricultural productivity and incomes of small-
scale food producers (women and indigenous peoples),
✓ ensuring sustainable food production systems, and
✓ progressively improving land and soil quality.
• Other targets deal with maintaining genetic diversity of seeds,

increasing access to land, preventing trade restriction and distortions
in world agricultural markets, eliminating wastage and ending
malnutrition.
Goal 6: Clean water and ⦁ "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation sanitation for all."
• Safe drinking water and hygienic toilets.
• Toilets in schools and workplaces.
• Equitable sanitation for addressing the specific needs of women
and girls, disabled, aged persons.

Goal 7: Affordable and ⦁ "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
clean energy energy for all."
• 2030 target: access to affordable and reliable energy while
increasing the share of renewable energy
Goal 11: Sustainable ⦁ "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
cities and communities sustainable."
• 2030 target is to ensure access to safe and affordable housing
Goal 12: Responsible ⦁ "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns."

consumption and • The targets of Goal 12 include:
production ✓ using eco-friendly production methods
✓ reducing the amount of waste.
✓ Increase national recycling rates.
Goal 13: Climate action ⦁ "Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by
regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable
energy."
Goal 14: Life below water ⦁ "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
resources for sustainable development."
• The targets include
✓ preventing and reducing marine pollution and acidification,
✓ protecting marine and coastal ecosystems and regulating
fishing.
• Microplastics come from a variety of sources, including from

larger plastic debris.
• Microbeads, a type of microplastic (tiny pieces of polyethylene),
are very tiny pieces of plastic that are added to health and beauty

products, such as some cleansers and toothpastes.
Goal 15: Life on Land ⦁ “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and
halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss."
• Goal 15 calls for more attention to preventing invasion of
introduced species and more protection of endangered species.
Millennium Development Goals
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) replaced the MDGs in 2016.

• The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals for the year
2015.
• MGDs had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000. at the
United Nations headquarters in New York
• The United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted.
⇒ Millennium Development Goals by 2015
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. To achieve universal primary
education
3. To promote gender equality and
empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and
other diseases
7. To ensure environmental
sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for development

How are SDGs different from MDGs?
● The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets are broader in scope and go further than
the MDGs by addressing the root causes of poverty and the universal need for development that works for
all people.
● The goals cover the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic growth, social inclusion and
environmental protection.
● Building on the success and momentum of the MDGs, the new goals cover more ground, with ambitions
to address inequalities, economic growth, decent jobs, cities and human settlements, industrialization,
oceans, ecosystems, energy, climate change, sustainable consumption and production, peace and justice.
● The new Goals are universal and apply to all countries, whereas the MDGs were intended for action in
developing countries only.
● A core feature of the SDGs is their strong focus on means of implementation—the mobilization of
financial resources—capacity-building and technology, as well as data and institutions.
● The new Goals recognize that tackling climate change is essential for sustainable development and
poverty eradication. SDG 13 aims to promote urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
SDG India Index 2020-21:
By NITI Ayog(estd: 2015, Chairman: PM, Vice chairman: Rajiv Kumar, CEO: Amitabh Kant, ThinkTank,
replace PC),
Parameter: Health, Education, Gender, Economic Growth, Climate Change;
Top performer: 1) Kerala, 2) TamilNadu & Himachal Pradesh;
Worst performer: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam.
Index is developed in India with collaboration of the UN. It tracks performance of States & UTs in 115
indicators aligned with the National Indicator framework by MOSPI.
⇒ Side Note: India’s rank has slipped by two places from last year to 117 on the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) adopted as a part of the 2030 agenda by 193 United Nations member states in
2015. (last year ranking 115)
⇒ Further Self Study about own state ranking through http://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in

Q. Consider the following statements:
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the ‘Club
of Rome’.
2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) neither 1 nor 2
Environmental Impact Assessment
Introduction
● A country’s progress generally depends on economic development through activities such as
manufacturing, trading etc.
● Development projects in the past were undertaken without any consideration to their environmental
consequences.
● EIA enables the decision makers to analyse the effect of developmental activities on the environment, if
any, well before the developmental project is implemented.
Concept Of EIA
● EIA is a tool which helps to evaluate the environmental impacts of proposed developmental projects or
programs.
● It ensures that the mitigation strategies are included in the plan and the project under construction is
environmentally sound and within limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration capacities of the
ecosystem.
Objectives of EIA
● To serve as a primary environmental clearance tool.

● To assess consistently all proposals for potential environmental impacts.
● To suggest the use of scientific practice and strategies for mitigation.
● To address all possible factors such as short term, long term, small scale and large scale impacts.
● To include mechanisms for monitoring, auditing and evaluation.

EIA In India
● EIA was introduced in India in 1978, with respect to river valley projects.
● EIA Notification comes under the provisions of Environment(Protection) Act, 1986.
● EIA is now mandatory for Red category projects, and other such categories as per notification of the
Ministry released in 2016 and these projects get Environmental Clearance (EC) only after the EIA
requirements are fulfilled.
● EIA comes under Notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental projects
1994 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Environmental Clearance
● Environmental clearance or the ‘go ahead’ signal is granted by the Impact Assessment Agency in the
MoEFCC.
● All projects that require clearance from central government can be broadly categorized into the
following:-
(1) Industries
(2) Mining
(3) Thermal power plants
(4) River valley projects
(5) Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone)
(6) Nuclear power projects.
Environmental Components of EIA
Air Environment Noise

• Quality of ambient air. • Levels of noise present and predicted.
• Wind speed, direction, humidity etc. • Strategies for reducing noise pollution.
• Quantity of emission likely from project.
• Impact of the emission on the area. Water Environment
• Pollution control desires/air quality standards. ● Existing ground and surface water resources,
their quality and quantity within the zone.
● Impact of proposed project on water resources.

Biological Environment Land Environment
● Flora and fauna in the impact zone. ● Study of soil characteristics, land use, and
● Potential damage (likely) due to the project, due drainage pattern, and the likely adverse impact of
to effluents, emissions and landscaping. the project.
● Biological stress (prediction). ● Impact on historical monuments and heritage
sites.
Steps In EIA Process
1. Screening.
2. Scoping and consideration of alternatives.
3. Baseline data collection.
4. Impact prediction.
5. Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environmental impact statements.
6. Public hearing.
7. Decision making.
8. Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan.
● Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of development and
if the project needs statutory clearance.
● Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and need for
monitoring. The EIA agency has to follow the published guidelines by the Ministry of Environment and
Forest (MoEF) of the government of India.
● Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of the study area.
● Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and permanent
impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the project by the assessment
agency.
● Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and steps for
preventing, minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of compensation for probable
environmental damage or loss.
● Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living close to the
project site may be informed and consulted.

● Decision making: Impact Assessment (IA) Authority along with the experts consult the project-in-
charge along with the consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment
ManagementPlan).
● Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various phases of
implementation of the project are monitored. ○ Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability
and index also form part of EIA procedures.
Environmental Appraisal Procedure In India
● Once an application has been submitted by a project authority along with all the requisite documents
specified in the EIA Notification, it is scrutinized by the technical staff of the Ministry prior to placing it
before the Environmental Appraisal Committees.
● The Appraisal Committees evaluate the impact of the project based on the data furnished by the project
authorities.
● If necessary, site visits or on-the-spot assessment of various environmental aspects are also undertaken.
● Based on such examination, the Committees make recommendations for approval or rejection of the
project, which are then processed in the Ministry for approval or rejection.
● In case of site specific projects such as Mining, River Valley, Ports and Harbors etc., a two stage
clearance procedure has been adopted whereby the project authorities have to obtain site clearance before
applying for environmental clearance of their projects.
● This is to ensure avoiding areas which are ecologically fragile and environmentally sensitive.
● In case of projects where complete information has been submitted by the project proponents, a decision
is taken within 90 days.
Monitoring
● After considering all the facets of a project, environmental clearance is accorded subject to
implementation of the stipulated environmental safeguards.
● Monitoring of cleared projects is undertaken by the six regional offices of the Ministry functioning at
Shillong, Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, Bangalore, Lucknow and Bhopal.
● The primary objective of such a procedure is to ensure adequacy of the suggested safeguards and also
to undertake mid-course corrections required, if any.
Main Participants of EIA
EIA applies to public and private sections. The six main players are:

1. Those who propose the project.
2. The environmental consultant who prepared EIA on behalf of the project proponent.
3. Pollution Control Board (State or National).
4. Public has the right to express their opinion.
5. The Impact Assessment Agency.
6. Regional center of the MoEFCC.
EIA notification, 2006
The objective of EIA Notification 2006 is to address the limitations in the old EIA Notification (1994).
Salient features:
● More number of projects brought within the purview of the environmental clearance process.
● A revised list of projects and activities has been redrawn that requires prior environmental clearance.
● Doing away with the categorisation of projects requiring EIA based on investment.
● Now the size or capacity of the project determines whether it is cleared by the central or state
government.
● The major difference in the New EIA Notification 2006 from the earlier one (1994) is its attempt to
decentralise power to the State Government.
● Earlier all the projects under schedule 1 went to the Central Government for environmental clearance.
● However, as per the new notification, a significant number of projects will go to the state for clearance
depending on its size/capacity/area.
● The EIA Notification, 2006, broadly divides all projects into two categories— Category A and Category
B —based on potential impacts over an area and on human health and natural and man-made resources.
● All Category A projects (with potentially significant impacts) are required to carry out an EIA and
undertake a public hearing before an EC (Environmental clearance) may be granted by the Union
environment ministry.
● Category A projects include all physical infrastructure whose size and cost is greater than certain
minimum levels as defined in the Schedule.
● Environmental Clearances for these projects are granted at the Central level.
● Physical infrastructure includes projects in the ports, highways, water and sanitation, urban transport,
and solid waste management sectors.
● All new National Highways are classified as Category A.

● In addition, expansion of National Highways greater than 30 KMinvolving land acquisition and passing
through more than one State are categorized as Category A.
● Category B covers projects with lesser size or capacity, and smaller impacts than Category A.
● Category B projects (with potentially less significant impacts) are evaluated and given a clearance by
state level authorities, the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Expert
Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
○ Projects under Category B1 also require an EIA and public consultation, but those falling under B2 are
exempted from requirements of both EIA and public consultation.
● The new notification also talks about ‘Scoping’, which was completely missing earlier. Issues pertaining
to draft EIA Notification 2020
Post-Facto Approval
•The new draft allows for post-facto approval for projects. It means that the clearances for projects can be
awarded even if they have started construction or have been in the running phase without securing
environmental clearances.
•Post facto approval is the derogation of the fundamental principles of environmental jurisprudence and
violation of the “precautionary principle,” which is a principle of environmental sustainability.
Public Consultation Process
•The draft notification provides for a reduction of the time period from 30 days to 20 days for the public
to submit their responses during a public hearing for any application seeking environmental clearance.
•The danger is that if adequate time is not given for the preparation of views, comments and suggestions
to those who would be affected by the project, then such public hearings would not be meaningful.
•Unless a public hearing is meaningful, the whole EIA process would lack transparency and credibility.
Bypassing EIA Process
•Through the draft notification, the central government gets the power to categorize projects as “strategic.”
•Once a project is considered as strategic, the draft notification states that no information related to such
projects shall be placed in the public domain.
•Further, the draft notification states that the new construction projects up to 1,50,000 square meters
(instead of the existing 20,000 square meters) do not need “detailed scrutiny” by the Expert Committee,
nor do they need EIA studies and public consultation.
Compliance Report Issue

•The 2006 notification required that the project proponent submit a report every six months, showing that
they are carrying out their activities as per the terms on which permission has been given.
•However, the new draft requires the promoter to submit a report only once every year. New
Categorisation Of Industries, 2016
● Based on their pollution load.
● MoEFCC has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial sectors based on the Pollution Index
which is a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water pollutants), hazardous wastes
generated and consumption of resources.
● The new category of White industries which is practically non-polluting will not require Environmental
Clearance (EC) and Consent and will help in getting finance from lending institutions.
● The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing value of PI
denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from the industrial sector.
1. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above- Red category
2. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59- Orange category
3. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40- Green category
4. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl. & upto 20- White category
● Screening: In the EIA notification released by the govt. in 2006, there is a lack of clarity in overall
conductance of the Screening process.
● Sometimes the EIA reports are too technical and often prepare lifting content and data from other
sources, thus presenting contradictory, inconsistent and outdated information.
● Moreover, there is no process for punishing the agencies involved in plagiarism and preparing such
dishonest EIA reports.
Issues With EIA
● Sometimes the agencies or project proponents include incomplete surveys, improperly demarcated EIA
study areas and publish unsubstantiated statements.
● Many agencies hire local and incompetent professionals at a cheaper cost which results into poor quality
of EIA reports.
● Generally the local people are unaware of the process of EIA, its significance for them, role of various
players and their own rights and responsibilities.

● They are also unable to comprehend the reports as the reports are seldom published in local languages.
The technical language of the report further makes understanding them difficult.
● Corruption and negligence of officials involved in public hearing committees.
⇒ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has published the draft
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020, which replaces the existing EIA Notification,
2006 brought under the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986.
Issues with the provisions of draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), 2020
• Public Consultation: It proposes to reduce the period of public consultation hearings to a maximum of
40 days, and reduce from 30 to 20 days the time provided for the public to submit their responses during
a public hearing for any application seeking environmental clearance. This can particularly pose a problem
to those affected people who are forest dwellers or otherwise do not have access to information and

technology and those that are not aware of the process itself. Unless a public hearing is meaningful, the
whole EIA process would lack transparency and credibility.
• Wide discretionary powers to government: It also allows the central government to declare some areas
as “economically sensitive areas” without a public hearing or environmental clearance, and several “red”
and “orange”-classified toxic industries could now operate as close as 0-5 km from a Protected Area. o
The government also gets to decide on the “strategic” tag for any projects for which no information on
such projects shall be placed in the public domain. This opens a window for summary clearance for any
project deemed strategic without having to explain why.
• Provisions for post-facto project clearance: Projects that have commenced operations – by way of
construction, installation, excavation, production, etc – without obtaining necessary clearances can be
legalised after payment of a penalty o Post facto clearance is the violation of the fundamental principles
of environmental jurisprudence and is contrary to both the precautionary principle as well as the need for
• Extended period of clearances: The increased validity of the environment clearances for mining
projects (50 years versus 30 years currently) and river valley projects (15 years versus 10 years currently)
raises the risk of irreversible environmental, social and health consequences on account of the project
remaining unnoticed for long.
• Exemptions: The new draft exempts a long list of projects from public consultation and prior clearance.
For example, linear projects such as roads and pipelines in border areas will not require any public hearing.
All inland waterways projects and expansion/widening of national highways including roads that cut
through forests and dredging of major rivers, will be exempt from prior clearance.
• Baseline data: The latest draft EIA notification does away with the need to carry out studies covering
all seasons in a year. This will lead to less reliable data and projections for pollutants affecting air and
water, according to several experts. The end result of the EIA will mask the full environmental impact of
a project.
• Private consultation: The notification allows project proponents to engage private consultants for
preparing the EIA reports propelling a situation where expertise and technicalities would be adopted to
obscure the process and make it difficult to understand – something that should have been open and
comprehensible to the communities for the process to be remotely transparent.

• Compliance Report Issue: The draft notification reduces the frequency of compliance reports required
from project owners from once every six months to once every year. During this period, certain irreversible
environmental, social or health consequences of the project could go unnoticed.
✍Conclusion
Various provisions of Draft EIA aimed at facilitating the government’s doctrine of “ease of doing
business”. Environmental regulation must balance damage to the environment with sustainable
development and possible benefits. Government must incorporate the concerns of all stakeholder before
finalizing the regulation
(Mains Question)
Q. (GSM3-2020)- How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ
from the existing EIA Notification, 2006?
Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA)
• GACSA is promoted by FAO along with various governments.

• Its vision is to improve food security, nutrition and resilience in the face of climate change.
• GACSA works towards three aspirational outcomes:
1. Improve farmers’ agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way;
2. Build farmers’ resilience to extreme weather and changing climate;
3. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture, when possible.
Bio-Fertilizers and Their Use In Agriculture
• For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to use renewable inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, water
etc.) which can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to the environment.
• One of the energy efficient and pollution free methods is to exploit the ability of certain microorganisms
like bacteria, algae and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus, decompose organic
material or oxidize sulfur in the soil. When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth and yield of
crops, improve soil fertility and reduce pollution. They are known as “bio fertilizers''.

Bio fertilizer name Detail
Rhizobium biofertilizer • Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming root nodules in legume plants.
• These nodules act as miniature nitrogen production factories in the fields.
• The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2) than needed by legume plant
and the bacteria.
• The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and fertilizes the soil.
Rhizobium is more efficient than-free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Azotobacter biofertilizer • Azotobacters are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers.
• They grow in the rhizosphere (around the roots) and fix atmospheric
nitrogen non-symbiotically and make it available to the particular cereals.
These bacteria produce growth promoting hormones which helps in

enhancing growth and yield of the plant

Azospirillum • These are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers which live in associative
biofertilizer symbiosis.
• In this type of association bacteria live on the root surface of the host plant
and do not form any nodule with roots of grasses.
• It increases crop yield and its inoculation benefits crops.
• They also benefit the host plants by supplying growth hormones and
vitamins.
• These bacteria are commonly used for the preparation of commercial

inoculants (vaccines, culture medium).
Blue green algae • Blue green algae (BGA or cyanobacteria) like Nostoc and Anabaena are
free living photosynthetic organisms also capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen. In the flooded rice fields blue green algae serves as a nitrogen
biofertilizer

Azolla biofertilizers • Azolla is a water fern inside which grows the nitrogen fixing blue green
algae Anabaena.
• It contains 2-3% nitrogen when wet and also produces organic matter in
the soil.
• The Azolla-Anabaena combination type biofertilizer is used all over the

world.
• The only constraint in Azolla is that it is an aquatic plant and water becomes
a limiting factor in growing it particularly in summer.
A fern is a member of a group of plants that reproduce via spores and have
neither seeds nor flowers.
Phosphorus solubilizing • Phosphorus is an important element required for plant growth.

biofertilizer
• This element is also needed for nodulation by rhizobium.
• Some microorganisms are capable of solubilizing immobilized phosphorus

making it available to plants for absorption.

Mycorrhizal fungi • Mycorrhizal fungi act as biofertilizers and are known to occur naturally on
biofertilizer roots of forest trees and crop plants.
• Mycorrhizal fungi resist disease in plants. The plants also show drought
and salinity resistance. Plants can tolerate adverse soil, pH, high temperature
and heavy metal toxicity.
• In soils low in available nutrients there is an increased absorption of

nutrients by plants infected with Mycorrhiza.
The fungus has the ability to dissolve and absorb phosphorus that plant roots
cannot readily absorb
Compost Tea • Compost Tea is a liquid fertilizer for flowers, vegetables and houseplants.
• Compost tea is an aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) water solution that
has extracted the microbe population from compost (dead and decaying
matter) along with the nutrients.
• In simple terms, it is a concentrated liquid created by a process to increase

the numbers of beneficial organisms as an organic approach to plant/soil
care.
can be sprayed directly onto the leaf surface.

Biochar • Biochar is charcoal that is used as soil amendment (minor improvement).
• It is created using a pyrolysis process (decomposition brought about by

high temperatures), heating biomass in a low oxygen environment.
• Once the pyrolysis reaction has begun, it is self-sustaining, requiring no

outside energy input.
• By-products of the process include syngas (H2 + CO), minor quantities of

methane (CH4 ), organic acids and excess heat.
• Once it is produced, bio char is spread on agricultural fields and

incorporated into the top layer of soil.
• The syngas and excess heat can be used directly or employed to produce a
variety of biofuels.
• It increases crop yields, sometimes substantially if the soil is in poor

condition.
• It helps to prevent fertilizer runoff and leaching, allowing the use of less
fertilizers.
• It retains moisture, helping plants through periods of drought more easily.

• Most importantly, it replenishes exhausted or marginal soils with organic
carbon
• It promotes the growth of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms.
• to retain water for a longer time.

ALL ACTS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT
The environmental legislations in India can be categorized as follows
General
● 1986- The Environment (Protection) Act

● 1989- The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
● 1989- The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Microorganisms/ Genetically
Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules
● 1991- The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment
● 1995- The National Environmental TribunalAct
● 1997- The National Environment Appellate Authority Act
● 1998- The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules
● 2000- The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules
● 2000- The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules
● 2002- The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules
● 2010- National Green Tribunal Act
Forest and wildlife
● 1927- The Indian Forest Act and Amendment,1984

● 1960- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960
● 1972- The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment1991
● 1980- The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981
● 2001- Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001
● 2002- The Biological Diversity Act 3. Water
● 1882- The Easement Act
● 1897- The Indian FisheriesAct
● 1956- The River Boards Act
● 1970- The Merchant Shipping Act
● 1974- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act
● 1977- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) CessAct
● 1978- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules

● 1991- The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
● 2010– Wetland Rules
Air
● 1948– The Factories Act and Amendment in1987

● 1981- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act
● 1982- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Rules
● 1982- The Atomic EnergyAct
● 1987- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act
● 1988- The Motor VehiclesAct
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972
● The Wild Life Act (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted for the protection of plants and animals.
Salient Features of Wildlife Protection Act
• This Act provides for the protection of a listed species of animals, birds, and plants, and also for the
establishment of a network of ecologically-important protected areas in the country.
• It helped India become a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES).
•It provides for the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, etc.
•Its provisions paved the way for the formation of the Central Zoo Authority.
•The Act created six schedules which gave varying degrees of protection to classes of flora and fauna.
•The National Board for Wildlife was constituted as a statutory organization under the provisions of this
Act.
• This is an advisory board that offers advice to the central government on issues of wildlife conservation
in India.
• It is also the apex body to review and approve all matters related to wildlife, projects of national parks,
sanctuaries, etc.
• The chief function of the Board is to promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
• It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
•The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.

•The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
• It is a statutory body of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change with an overall
supervisory and coordination part, performing capacities as given in the Act.
• Its mandate is to strengthen tiger conservation in India.
• It gives statutory authority to Project Tiger which was launched in 1973 and has put the endangered tiger
on a guaranteed path of revival by protecting it from extinction.
● It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection.
● Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection; offences under these are prescribed
the highest penalties.
● Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also protected, but the penalties are much lower.
● Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted.
● The specified endemic plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting.
Schedule I •They cannot be hunted except under threat
•This Schedule covers endangered species. to human life.
•These species need rigorous protection and •Examples: Kohinoor (insect), Assamese
therefore, the harshest penalties for violation Macaque, Bengal Hanuman langur, Large
of the law are under this Schedule. Indian Civet, Indian Fox, Larger Kashmir
•Species under this Schedule are prohibited Flying Squirrel, Kashmir Fox, etc.
to be hunted throughout India, except under Schedule III & IV
threat to human life. •This list is for species that are not
•Absolute protection is accorded to species endangered.
on this list. •This includes protected species but the
•The Trade of these animals is prohibited. penalty for any violation is less compared to
•Examples: tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan the first two schedules.
Brown Bear, BrowAntlered Deer, Blue •Examples: hyena, Himalayan rat, porcupine,
whale, Common Dolphin, Cheetah, Clouded flying fox, Malabar tree toad, etc.
Leopard, hornbills, Indian Gazelle, etc. Schedule V
Schedule II •This schedule contains animals that can be
•Animals under this list are also accorded hunted.
high protection. •Examples: mice, rats, common crow, fruit
•Their trade is prohibited. bats, etc.

Schedule VI •Examples: pitcher plant, blue vanda, red
•This list contains plants that are forbidden vanda, kuth, etc.
from cultivation.
⦁? According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which of the following animals cannot be hunted
by any person except under some provisions provided by law?
1. Gharial
2. Indian wild ass
3. Wild buffalo
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
⦁? If a particular plant species is placed under Schedule VI of The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, what
is the implication?
(a) A license is required to cultivate that plant.
(b) Such a plant cannot be cultivated under any circumstances.
(c) It is a Genetically Modified crop plant.
(d) Such a plant is invasive and harmful to the ecosystem.
⦁? Consider the following statements:
1. Animal Welfare Board of India was established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. The National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body.
3. The National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Environment (Protection) Act of 1986
• In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment Act of 1986.
• The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment of 1972.
• The decisions relate to the protection and improvement of the human environment and the prevention of
hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property.
● “Environment” is defined to include water, air and land and the interrelationships which exist among
water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures, plants, microorganisms and property.

● “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutants, defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious to the environment.
● “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may cause harm to human beings,
other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment.
Salient Features
● Section 3(1) of EPA: Center is empowered to “take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient
for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and
abating environmental pollution”.
● The Central Government can set new national standards for the quality of the environment (ambient
standards) as well as standards for controlling emissions and effluent discharges:
1. To regulate industrial locations,
2. To prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances;
3. To establish safeguards preventing accidents, and
4. To collect and dismantle information regarding environmental pollution.
Powers of Central Government under EPA
1. Coordination of action by state,

2. Planning and execution of nation wide programmes,
3. Laying down environmental quality standards, especially those governing emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants,
4. Placing restriction on the location of industries
5. Handling of hazardous substances,
6. Prevention of environmental accidents,
7. Inspection of polluting units,
8. Research and establishment of laboratories,
9. Dissemination of information.
⦁? The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to
1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the
procedure and manner in which it is sought.
2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989
• Biosafety concerns have led to the development of a regulatory regime in India. Aim of ‘Rules 1989’ is
to protect the environment, nature and health in connection with application of gene technology and micro-
organisms
1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC): The functions are of an advisory nature. It
recommends safety regulations for India in recombinant research, use and applications.
2. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) established under the Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, to monitor the safety related aspects in respect of
ongoing research projects.
3. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC): it is the apex body constituted in the MoEF under
‘Rules 1989', under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
4. The State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC’s) have a major role in monitoring. It also
has powers to inspect, investigate and take punitive action in case or violations of statutory provisions.
5. District Level Committees (DLCs) have a major role in monitoring the safety regulations in
installations engaged in the use of genetically modified organisms/hazardous microorganisms and its
applications in the environment.
6. Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) is established under the institution engaged in GMO
research to oversee such research and to interface with the RCGM in regulating it.
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules
• The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of Environment (Protection) Act.
• These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs, besides regulating production, trade import
and export of ODSs and the product containing ODS.

National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)
• National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) is a financing, planning, implementing, monitoring and
coordinating authority for the Ganges River, functioning under the Ministry of Water Resources.
• The mission of the organization is to safeguard the drainage basin which feeds water into the Ganges by
protecting it from pollution or overuse.
• In 2014, the NGRBA was transferred from the Ministry of Environment and Forests to the Ministry of
Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation.
• It was established by the Central Government of India, in 2009 under Section 3(3) of the Environment
Protection Act, 1986, which also declared Ganges as the ‘National River’ of India.
Composition of NGRBA
• The Prime Minister chairs the authority. • Minister of Power

▪ Members belonging to the government • Minister of Sciences and Technology
sector are as follows: • Chief Ministers of Uttarakhand, Uttar
• Prime Minister of India Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal
•Minister of Environment and Forests (Union • Ministry of Environment and Forests (state
Minister) minister)
• Minister of Finance • Ministry of Environment and Forests,
• Minister of Urban Development secretary
• Minister of Water Resources
Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980
• The First Forest Act was enacted in 1927.

• Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, the Centre
Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in1980.
• Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
• Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required for
diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
• An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Center on these approvals.
• The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely reserved forests, village forests,
protected forests and private forests.

⦁ Reserved forest
• A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as reserved forest and may sell the produce from
these forests.
• Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable
with a fine or imprisonment, or both
⦁ Village forests
• Reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village forests.
⦁ Protected forests
• The state governments are empowered to designate protected forests and may prohibit the felling
of trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce from these forests.
• The preservation of protected forests is enforced through rules, licenses and criminal
prosecutions.
Biodiversity Act 2000
• India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous knowledge relating to them is well
recognized.
• The legislation aims at regulating access to biological resources so as to ensure equitable sharing
of benefits arising from their use.
• The Biological Diversity Bill was introduced in the Parliament in 2000 and was passed in 2002.
Salient features of the biodiversity legislation
• The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge
against their use by foreign individuals and organizations without sharing the benefits arising out
of such use, and to check biopiracy.
• This bill seeks to check biopiracy, protect biological diversity and local growers through a three-
tier structure of central and state boards and local committees.
• The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity
Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local bodies.
• While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and conditions to secure equitable sharing of
benefits
• Before applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in or outside India for an

invention based on research on a biological resource obtained from India, prior approval of NBA
will be required.
• The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by the NBA will be deposited in
the National Biodiversity Fund.
• NBF will be used for conservation and development of areas from where resources has been
accessed, in consultation with the local self-government concerned.
• There is provision for notifying National Heritage Sites important from the standpoint of
biodiversity by State Governments in consultation with local self-government.
Forest Rights Act, 2006
• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,
2006.
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 provides for the restitution of deprived forest rights across India.
• The Act is providing scope of integrating conservation and livelihood rights of the people.
FRA is tool
• To empower and strengthen the local self-governance

• To address the livelihood security of the people
• To address the issues of Conservation and management of the Natural Resources and
conservation governance of India.
⦁ For the first time Forest Rights Act recognizes and secures
• Community Rights in addition to their individual rights
• Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which the
communities have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
• Right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural
diversity
• Rights of displaced communities & Rights over developmental activity.
Salient Features
• Nodal Agency for the implementation is the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA).
• This Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional Forest Dwelling Communities.

• The maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 ha.
• National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included along with Reserve Forest, Protected Forests
for the recognition of Rights.
• The Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest
produce by tribals.
• Minor forest produce includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin.
• As per the Act, the Gram Sabha has been designated as the competent authority for initiating the
process of determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights.
⦁ Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH)
• The Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) have been envisaged in the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
• Critical wildlife habitats (CWHs) are areas inside wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and tiger
reserves – known as ‘protected areas’ – where people’s activities like cattle grazing or collecting
leaves compete with the needs of wildlife.
• MoTA is the nodal authority for FRA.
• The Chief Wildlife Warden of a state will notify a seven-member expert committee, chaired by
a chief conservator of forest in-charge of a national park or sanctuary, for the purpose of
identification of CWH in a national park or sanctuary.
• The Expert Committee will identify areas within national parks and sanctuaries, based on
scientific and objective criteria relevant to the protected area.
• The Expert Committee shall issue a public notice 15 days in advance on the intention to notify
CWH.
• The public notice shall include details of areas required to be kept inviolate, criteria adopted for
CWH identification, implication of the notification, and options of resettlement and rehabilitation
schemes.
• The Expert Committee shall carry out open consultations with all stakeholders, and the
proceedings and objections will be documented appropriately.
• The committee will submit the CWH proposal to the Chief Wildlife Warden.
• The decision on the proposal will be taken by the Standing Committee of the National Board for
Wildlife.
• A MoTA representative would be invited during the deliberation of the proposal by the standing
committee.

• Following the committee’s recommendation, the notification of CWH will be published in the
official gazette.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988)
Some important provisions of this Act are given below:

• The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to establish and enforce
effluent standards for factories.
• A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union Territories and
formulates policies and coordinates activities of different State Boards.
• The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take samples for the purpose
of analysis.
• Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved through criminal
prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
• The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977
• The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet expenses of the Central
and State Pollution Boards.
• The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local authorities and
certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water effluent discharge.
• The Central Government, after deducting the expenses of collection, pays the central and state
boards such sums, as it seems necessary.
• To encourage capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a polluter a 70% rebate of the
applicable cess upon installing effluent treatment equipment.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987
• To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament enacted the nationwide Air Act.
• The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and abate
air pollution in the country. Important provisions of this Act are given below:
• The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974.

• The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards established under the Water
Act, to include air pollution control.
• States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
• Under the Air Act, all industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must
obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
• The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry and automobiles after
consulting the central board and noting its ambient air quality standards.
• The Act grants power to SPCB and to test equipment and to take the sample for the purpose of
analysis from any chimney, fly ash or dust or any other.
• Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved through criminal
prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
• The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial plant.
• Notably, the 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended
the Act to include noise pollution.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
•. The coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and back waters which are influenced
by tidal action were declared "Coastal Regulation Zone '' (CRZ) in 1991.
• India has created institutional mechanisms such as National Coastal Zone Management Authority
(NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and
monitoring of the CRZ Notification.
• These authorities have been delegated powers under Section 5 of the Environmental (Protection)
Act, 1986 to take various measures for protecting and improving the quality of the coastal
environment and preventing, abating and controlling environmental pollution in coastal areas.
⦁ Classification Criteria and Regulatory Norms
• The coastal regulation zone has been classified for the purpose of regulation of the permitted
activities.
⦁ CRZ-I:
• Ecologically sensitive area and the area between High Tide Line (HTL) and Low Tide Line
(LTL).
• No new construction is permitted except for a few specified most essential activities like support

activities for Atomic Energy Plants and Defence requirements, facilities required for disposal of
treated effluents and other port related waterfront activities.
⦁ CRZ-II:
• The area that has been developed up to or close to the shore line which includes the designated
urban areas that are substantially built up.
• Buildings permitted only on the landward side of the existing authorized structures as defined in
the notification.
⦁ CRZ-III:
• The areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either CRZ-I or CRZ-
II which includes mainly the rural area and those not substantially built up within designated urban
areas.
• The area up to 200 meters from HTL is earmarked as "No Development Zone".
• No construction is permitted within this zone except for repairs to the existing authorized
structures.
• Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500 meters of HTL is permitted in CRZ III for the
purpose of construction of dwelling units and hotels/beach resorts subject to certain conditions.
⦁ CRZ-IV
• The activities impugning on the sea and tidal influenced water bodies will be regulated except
for traditional fishing and related activities undertaken by local communities.
• No untreated sewage, effluents, pollution from oil drilling shall be let off or dumped.
Two separate categories for CRZ-III (Rural) areas
CRZ-III A: The category of CRZ-III areas are densely populated rural areas with a population
density of 2161 per square kilometer as per 2011 Census. Such areas have a No Development Zone
(NDZ) of 50 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) as against 200 meters from the High Tide
Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
CRZ-III B - The B category of CRZ-III rural areas have population density of below 2161 per
square kilometer as per 2011 Census. Such areas have a No Development Zone of 200 meters from
the HTL.
Environment Ministry notifies CRZ Regulations 2019; replaces CRZ norms of 2011
Tourism infrastructure permitted in coastal areas
The new norms permit temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms,

drinking water facilities, etc. in Beaches
Streamlining of CRZ Clearances
The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Now, the only such projects which are
located in the CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) and CRZ IV (area covered between Low Tide
Line and 12 Nautical Miles seaward) will be dealt with for CRZ clearance by the Ministry. The
powers for clearances with respect to CRZ-II and III have been delegated at the State level.
CRZ-IV, which includes the shallow belt of coastal waters extending up to 12 nautical miles, is
not only a crucial fishing zone for small fishers but also bears the maximum brunt of waste from
offshore activities, such as oil exploration, mining and shipping. The 2011 notification had thus
laid importance on regulation of pollution from such offshore activities. Instead of strengthening
the regulation, the 2018 notification allows land reclamation for setting up ports, harbours and
roads; facilities for discharging treated effluents; transfer of hazardous substances; and
construction of memorials or monuments.

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Environment & Ecology- January, 2022 Batch

Preliminary Exam Syllabus Mains Exam Syllabus

1. Environment & Ecology a. Ecology and Ecosystem- Concept, Meaning, Properties

2. Biodiversity and a. Biodiversity- Concept and Importance

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 1

3. Climate Change a. Concepts

4. Biosphere: An Ecosystem a. Biosphere as an ecosystem

5. Biomes a. Meaning and concept

6 Sustainable Development Source: Visit United Nations Sustainable Development

7. Important Chapters of Source: Visit the Ministry of Finance’s following Website

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 2

9.Miscellaneous ● MoEFCC Website

Notes of the 3rd ARC report 1. India’s Key Hazards, Vulnerabilities

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(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 4

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 5

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 6

Protected Area Network

➢ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

➢ It has a membership of over 1400 governmental and non-governmental organizations.

implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity.

Conservation Monitoring Centre.

IUCN and India

IUCN protected area categories:

▪ Category Ia – Strict Nature Reserve

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 7

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 8

IUCN Red list categories

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Conservation Reserves and Community Reserve

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 10

Tillari Conservation Reserve

National Parks in India

• National park has more restrictions as compared to a wildlife sanctuary. Their

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 11

Declaration of the Protected Area by the State government

Declared By the Central government

● Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973.

National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA)

● Boss? Ministry of Environment & Forest

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 12

Powers and functions of NTCA

● Approval of Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by States .

Structure of a Tiger Reserve

Tiger Task Force

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Methods for Tiger Census

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Tiger Census, 2014

● “Status of Tigers in India, 2014” report by NTCA Findings:

Tiger Census, 2018

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● M-STrIPES = Monitoring System for Tigers-Intensive Protection and Ecological Status.

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Global Tiger Forum

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Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP)

Conservation Assured Tiger Standard Accreditation (CATS)

● Launched in 2013, implemented across 125 sites including India’s 94 sites.

National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise

(#for Tiger Reserve be used)

(Batch-Jan, 2022) Sudarshan Gurjar’s Compiled Environment Handout → 18

Salim Ali NP, Dachingham NP, Kishtwar NP (#पि म से पुबा म िलखा आ है )