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Colour-measuring instruments and their calibration

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DOI: 10.1016/0141-9382(96)01010-4

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Colour-measuring instruments and
their calibration
Joanne C Zwinkels
The types of instruments used for colour measurement of self-
luminous and surface colours, and the choices available for their
optical design, are described. Guidelines are given for selection
of measurement conditions appropriate to different measurement
applications. The important steps in calibrating and verifying the
performance of colour-measuring instruments are described and
the standards available for these procedures are discussed in detail.
Keywords: colour measurement, spectroradiometers, colori-
meters, spectrophotometers, calibration procedures and
standards
Colorimetry is the science of measuring and evaluating
colour. The colour specification of a self-luminous colour
(sources, CRTs, VDUs, LCDs) or a surface colour (opaque
or transparent materials) consists of a set of three numbers
- X, Yand Z, termed the tristimulus values, which give the
relative amounts of three reference primary colours required
for a colour match. These quantities are computed from the
sample's spectral characteristics - spectral irradiance or
spectral radiance for self-luminous colours, or spectral trans-
mittance or spectral reflectance factors for surface colours.
Accurate and precise colorimetry requires reproducible
samples and sample presentation procedures and standardized
instrument calibration and verification procedures. This
paper describes the recommended procedures and available
standards for calibration of various colour measuring
instruments.
COLOUR-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
A variety of instruments are available for colour meas-
urement. They can be broadly classified as tristimulus
National ResearchCouncil of Canada, Institutefor National Measurement
Standards, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0R6
0141-9382/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII S0141-9382(96)01010-4
colorimeters, spectroradiometers and spectrophotometers
(Figure 1).
Tristimulus colorimeters use a filtered light source and
three or four filtered detectors whose modified spectral
response approximates that of a particular CIE standard
illuminant/observer combination. They give a direct measure
of colorimetric quantities (tristimulus values) but provide
no information on the underlying spectral data. They are
used for colour measurement of both surface colours and
self-luminous colours. Their advantages are their speed,
ease of operation, and good measurement repeatability,
which makes them well suited for field use and for pro-
duction quality control, particularly for colour-difference
evaluation. Their disadvantages are their failure to detect
metamerism and their limited information for a particular
illuminant/observer combination, Their accuracy is also
critically dependent on how well this simulation has been
achieved. These disadvantages are less serious for applica-
tions involving measurements of colours with similar spectral
characteristics.
A spectroradiometer is an instrument designed to measure
radiometric quantities (irradiance, radiance) in a narrow
spectral bandpass as a function of wavelength. These spec-
troradiometric data are used for colour measurement of
self-luminous colours, and for determination of correlated
colour temperature and colour rendering properties.
A tele-spectroradiometer is similar to a spectroradiometer,
but it incorporates a telescopic input module. This in-
strument is used when it is desired to measure the colour
of a distant object at its usual observing position and under
its usual viewing conditions. This makes them well suited
for colour vision experiments. The disadvantage of these
instruments is that their calibration procedures are tedious
and they do not conform to a standard illuminating and
viewing geometry, which causes uncertainties in inter-
instrument comparisons.
A spectrophotometer is designed to compare, at each
wavelength, the radiant power leaving an object to that
incident on it. These radiant power ratios are dimensionless
quantities used for colour measurement of surface colours.
Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996 163
Colour-measuringinstruments:J CZwinkels
Colorimeter range of 380-760 nm with 5 nm spectral bandpass and a
Photodetectors
5 nm measurement interval will suffice. For colorimetry of
Colour
Conversion Display radiation sources with both continuous and line emissions,
Filter
the CIE recommends 2 nm as the widest permissable band-
pass 2. For colorimetry of samples containing fluorescent
whitening agents, the colour measurements should begin at
300 nm 3. These considerations are important in selecting
Source options of instrument light source, optical system and
detector, which are appropriate to a given application.
Tristimulus
Filters The source is usually an incandescent lamp or a con-
tinuous or pulsed xenon arc lamp. The output spectrum of

Spectroradiometer
oe,o an incandescent lamp is smooth and predictable, whereas
that of a xenon lamp is irregular, making wavelength cali-
bration more critical with a xenon lamp. A continuum lamp
is generally more stable than a pulsed lamp due to pulse-to-
pulse variations. However, the short duration of a pulsed
lamp makes it well suited for fast on-line measurements and
introduces negligible sample heating, which is an important
9 ~
consideration in the measurement of thermochromic samples.
In most instances, the particular lamp that is selected is
immaterial, provided that it is stable and has adequate
output over the wavelength range of interest. This is not the
Spectrophotometer case for colour measurement of fluorescent materials, in
which the instrument source must accurately simulate the
Colour desired standard illuminant. As can be seen from Figure 2,
Conversion Filter ~ ~.~Source
a xenon lamp has a spectral distribution close to that of CIE
UV Cut-off Filter .t~" Illuminant D65, which makes it an excellent choice for
B~affie -'~ ~/Transmission Port daylight simulator.
The wavelength separation may be accomplished by
- - To Spectrum Analyser
various means, such as interference filters or wedges,
prisms or gratings. The choice of wavelength separation
;:flmep;:ng~ s Trap method will depend upon the desired spectral range,
resolution, stray light level and cost.
For many colour-measurement applications, such as colour
sorting and process monitoring or control, an abridged
instrument, which employs a series of narrow passband
-\ Integrating interference filters or wedges, may be adequate. These
Sphere
filters restrict the range of transmitted radiant energy to a
Figure 1 Typesof colour-measuringinstrumentsand theirkey components narrow band of wavelengths (passband). A typical abridged
instrument employs 16 filters at 20 nm intervals to cover the
The main advantages of a spectrophotometer or spectro-
radiometer over a colorimeter are their greater versatility, 1.5
I I I I
and their ability to detect metamerism and to calculate
colorimetric quantities for a variety of illuminant/observer
combinations.
-'< 1.0
¢0

DESIGN CONCEPTS x_., ._x

4J
All colour measurement instruments basically consist of
CE
a source of radiation, an object (for surface colours), an 0.5
,,'" D65
optical system for wavelength separation, and a photo-
detector. However, for each of these components, several /
design options are available. The choice of options will
affect the instrument's spectral range of use, sensitivity,
resolution and repeatability.
o.o I I I I
300 400 500 600 700 800
For highest accuracy, the CIE recommends that the Wavelength (nm)
spectral range should be 360-830 nm with a 1 nm spectral
bandpass and 1 nm measurement interval'. However, for Figure 2 Comparison of spectral distribution of a xenon arc lamp and
most colorimetric applications of surface colours, a spectral CIE Standard Illuminant D65

164 DisplaysVolume16Number4 1996


range 400 nm to 700 nm. Since this situation does not satisfy
the CIE recommendations for colorimetric calculations,
the instrument manufacturer must take account of these
differences to give an unambiguous colour specification.
The recommended procedures for treating abridged and
truncated spectral data are given in CIE Publication 15.2 t
and ASTM E3084.
For measurements over an extended wavelength range
from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared, or requiring higher
resolution, a prism or grating is used. If a grating instrument
spans more than one order of diffraction, it is necessary to
include a prism predisperser or order-sorting filters to
eliminate interfering orders. The advantage of a grating
system is that its dispersion is nearly linear, making
wavelength calibration a fairly straightforward procedure.
The detectors used with colour-measuring instruments
are generally photomultipliers, silicon photodiodes or diode
arrays. Photomultipliers (PMTs) are traditionally used in
spectrophotometers and spectroradiometers because of
their superior sensitivity and low-noise performance in low
light level conditions, but they suffer from a limited dynamic
range for linear response, are fairly large, fragile and
sensitive to magnetic field effects. Silicon photodiodes do
not suffer from these disadvantages, but they are less
sensitive than PMTs. Silicon photodiodes also have several
other advantages, including low cost, a compact size and
excellent spectral stability, making them well suited for
colour measurement. Many commercial spectrophotometers
and spectroradiometers employ diode array detectors. The
advantage of an array system over a scanning system is that
it acquires the entire visible spectrum in milliseconds or
less. This feature is useful for on-line monitoring and
kinetic studies of transient phenomena. Array detectors for
colour measurement applications typically have 16 or 32
elements, so they provide limited spectral resolution com-
pared with scanning systems.
SELECTION OF MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS
First of all, it is necessary to determine the appropriate
measurement quantity. For self-luminous colours, the choices
are spectral irradiance or spectral radiance. Spectral irradi-
ance is defined as the radiant flux incident on a receiving
surface from all directions, per unit area of surface, and has
units of watts per square meter (W/m2). Spectral radiance
is defined as the radiant flux emitted (scattered) per unit
projected area of a source (surface), per unit solid angle in
a specified direction, and has units of watts per steradian
per square metre (W/m2/sr). For small or highly direc-
tional sources, such as LEDs, the spectral irradiance should
be measured, whereas for extended sources, such as CRT
screens, or large diffuse sources, such as a bank of fluor-
escent tubes, the spectral radiance should be measured.
For surface colours, the choice is spectral transmittance
factors or spectral reflectance factors. Transmittance factors
are defined as the ratio of the radiant flux transmitted by the
sample to the flux transmitted by the perfectly transmitting
diffuser identically irradiated. Reflectance factors are defined
as the ratio of the radiant flux reflected by the sample in the
Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels
directions delimited by a cone to that reflected in the same
directions by the perfectly reflecting diffuser identically
irradiated. If the cone solid angle approaches 27r, the
reflectance factor becomes the reflectance, and if the cone
solid angle approaches zero, the reflectance factor becomes
the reflected radiance factor. The usual measured quantities
are spectral transmittance factors for transparent objects
and spectral reflectance factors for opaque objects.
Thus, when reporting colour measurement results, it is
necessary first to specify the measurement scale (radiance,
irradiance, reflectance or transmittance) and the measure-
ment application (colour sorting, matching, formulation,
etc.). This will determine what type of colour-measuring
instrument is used (colorimeter, spectroradiometer, spectro-
photometer).
If a colorimeter is used, it is necessary to select an
instrument whose combined spectral response of source,
filters and detectors matches the desired standard illumi-
nant/observer combination. The most popular CIE standard
illuminants are: A (incandescent source), D65 (standard
daylight), and F2 (cool white fluorescent). The two types
of colorimetric observer, determined for two different fields-
of-view, are: the 1931 (2 °) and the 1964 (10 °) observer,
which are appropriate for comparing small and large areas
of colour, respectively. If a spectroradiometer or spectro-
photometer is used for colour measurement, it is necessary
to specify what standard illuminant and observer combina-
tion(s) were used for the colorimetric computations.
The two main types of instrument geometry used in
colour measurement are bidirectional and hemispherical.
The CIE recommended geometries for colorimetry of
reflecting objects are shown in Figure 3. Bidirectional in-
struments have 45 ° incidence and normal viewing (450/0 ° )
or the reverse geometry (0°/45°). These results give good
correlation with visual evaluations of colour, and for this
reason this instrument geometry is most often used for
measurements of self-luminous colours, coloured images
and evaluation of colour reproductions. It is also recom-
mended for measurements of fluorescent and retroreflective
samples, but it is very sensitive to instrument polarization
errors and to surface irregularities. To reduce its sensitivity
to surface effects, an annular or hemispherical illumination
geometry is recommended5.
0° 0o
! • t
45o/0 ° 0o/45 °
: O°/d d/- 0°
Figure 3 CIE recommendedgeometriesof illuminationand viewingfor
evaluating the colour of reflectingobjects
Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996 165
Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels

Hemispherical instruments illuminate a sample diffusely
by a hemispherical illuminator, such as an integrating sphere,
and view the normal direction (d/0°), or in the reverse
configuration (0°/d). The sphere can be any diameter pro-
vided that the total area of the ports does not exceed 10%
of the internal reflecting area. The specular component can
be included or excluded by means of a gloss trap to give
total hemispherical or diffuse-only hemispherical reflectance
factors, respectively. Sphere instruments are relatively
insensitive to polarization effects and give data suitable for
use with Kubelka-Munk analysis which is used for colour
formulation and correction. It should be noted that bidirec-
tional and hemispherical instruments are not only recom-
mended for different applications, but also give different
measurement results, which are sample-dependent. This
effect is illustrated in Figure 4 for three BCRA grey tiles.
The geometrical arrangement of source, sample and
monochromator must also be specified. This can be described
as either monochromatic or polychromatic irradiation and
these configurations are schematically illustrated in Figure 5.
In monochromatic irradiation, the monochromator precedes
the sample• In polychromatic irradiation, the sample is
O.B
' ' ' ' I ' ' '
- - O°/d r e f l e c t a n c e
.... 0o/45 ° radiance
0.6
0.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2
0.0 I or its image at the diffuser (for spectral radiance lamps).
' ' I ' ' '
380 480
Wavelength
Figure 4 Comparisonof reflectancefactors for three BCRA grey tiles
measuredwith bidirectional(00/45°) and hemispherical(0°/d) instrument
geometries
irradiated with the entire spectrum of the source (undis-
persed) and the light leaving the sample is analysed mono-
chromatically. For most samples, it is of little consequence
which configuration is used. However, for fluorescent and
thermochromic samples, a polychromatic configuration must
be used for the results to correlate with visual evaluations
of their colour.
M E A S U R E M E N T PROCEDURES
Colour measurements using a spectroradiometer involve a
comparison of the test source to a standard source, so it is
important that the entrance slit of the monochromator be
completely and uniformly illuminated. To accomplish this,
the input optics to the spectroradiometer generally incor-
porate a plate diffuser with imaging optics (see Figure 6)
or an integrating sphere. In spectral irradiance measurement,
it is important to specify and maintain the distance from the
source (or its image at the diffuser) to the spectroradiometer
entrance optics. In spectral radiance measurement, the
radiation emitted from a defined area of the source in a
given direction is measured. An aperture (mask) at the
entrance to the spectroradiometer determines the measured
' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' '
source area and it is important to specify and maintain its
factor
Pale Grey
setting.
The calibration source is a standard source of spectral
irradiance (radiance) whose absolute or relative spectral
power distribution is known. For best results, the spec-
tral distribution of the calibration source should be similar
to that of the test source• Commonly used calibration lamps
are tungsten filament lamps operated at a specified current
Mid Grey
_ . . . . . . .
to give CIE Illuminant A (To = 2856 K). The calibration
values for these standard lamps are valid for specified
Deep ~ J conditions of: (1) source current or voltage, (2) source
orientation, (3) distance from source to spectroradiometer
entrance aperture, and (4) defined target area of the source
' I . . . . I ' ' ' '
580 680 7BO In some situations, it is necessary to measure a spectral
(nm) radiance test lamp using a standard of spectral irradiance.
In this case, the spectral irradiance lamp illuminates a white
diffusing surface whose spectral reflectance factor, Px, is
known and the diffusely reflected light incident on the

SOUI'Ce
L

Source E
o
L
u
o
c
I
o
X

I • I
I

/ i/I
~tanderd oblec~ i/, •
~ Stanclar'd Object~

Figure 5 Schematic illustration of instrument configurations for monochromatic(left) and polychromatic (right) illumination

166 Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996


Diffuser
Standard Lamp
Tes ptics
Spectroradiometer
Figure 6 Experimentalconfigurationfor a spectralirradiancemeasurement
spectroradiometer entrance aperture is measured. The
spectral radiance values of the standard lamp-diffuser com-
bination, Lx, are then calculated from the known spectral
irradiance values, E x, according to Equation (1):
Lx=(pxEx)/r (1)
The first step in colour measurements using a spectro-
radiometer is to determine the instrument zero error at each
wavelength in the range of interest. This is carried out by
recording the signal with the entrance slit to the mono-
chromator blocked with an opaque sample, such as a metal
shutter, and subtracting these readings from all subsequent
scans. The calibration source is then placed at the specified
distance from the spectroradiometer entrance aperture and
after a sufficient warm-up period (typically 15-30 min) the
output signal, i~, recorded. The test source is then directly
substituted for the calibration source to maintain identical
geometrical configurations and, after a sufficient warm-up
time, the signal, i,, recorded. The test source spectral
irradiance (radiance), St, is obtained from Equation (2),
where S, are the spectral irradiance (radiance) values of
the calibrated source.
S~ = &(i~/i~) (2)
In a commercial spectroradiometer, the calibration factor,
Ss/is, may have been determined by the manufacturer and
built into the instrument operating software. The colour of
the test source can then be determined without a measure-
ment of the calibration source provided that the instrument
has good long-term stability and the appropriate calibration
configuration is used.
Calibration of a telespectroradiometer system can be
carried out with either a spectral irradiance lamp at some
distance from the telescope or with a spectral radiance lamp
that fills the telescope field-of-view6.
If the source is pulsed or flickering (e.g. a VDU), it is
necessary to adopt an alternative procedure 7. Either (1)
synchronize the spectroradiometer integration time with the
source pulse rate or the VDU refresh cycle and then
integrate for an integral number of cycles, or (2) integrate
for a large number of cycles that exceeds the inverse
precision desired in the measurement.
To summarize, in a spectroradiometric measurement of
Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels
self-luminous colour it is necessary to specify: (1) the quantity
measured (irradiance, radiance), (2) the measurement
geometry, including whether a diffuser was used and its
description, (3) the calibration lamp used and its trace-
ability, (4) the lamp current or voltage, (5) the exact distance
from the source filament to the spectroradiometer entrance
aperture (irradiance measurement) or the measured target
area of the source or its image at the diffuser and the
spectroradiometer aperture setting (radiance measurement),
and (6) the number of measurement cycles for a pulsed or
flickering source.
Colour measurements using a spectrophotometer involve
comparison of the light reflected (transmitted) by the sample
to that of a standard surface under identical conditions of
illumination and viewing. For a transmittance measurement,
the standard surface is air (i.e. with no sample). In a sphere
instrument, a white surface of the same material as the
sphere wall coating is mounted at the usual reflectance port
and the test sample is placed flush against the entrance port
to the sphere. To correct for the instrument zero reading,
an opaque sample, such as a metal shutter, is used and these
values are subtracted from all subsequent readings.
For a reflectance measurement, the standard surface is a
white reflectance standard whose absolute reflectance is
known in terms of the perfectly reflecting diffuser (PRD).
The PRD is not available so secondary white transfer
standards, such as pressed tablets of BaSO4 and PTFE
(Halon) and matte opal glasses, are calibrated in terms of
the PRD using absolute methods. These absolute reflectance
facilities are available at only a few national standardizing
laboratories 8 (e.g. PTB, NRC, NIST). The transfer stan-
dards have optical properties approaching the PRD, but
they are fragile and easily contaminated. For day-to-day
use, more durable and cleanable white working standards,
such as glossy white opal glasses and ceramic tiles, are
generally preferred. The working standards are then cali-
brated using the transfer standards for use in a particular
colour-measuring instrument. The working standards are
sensitive to instrument geometry, so they should be used only
in an instrument with the same geometrical specifications.
For the measurement of reflected radiance factors (45/0
or 0/45), the instrument zero reading is recorded with a
highly polished black glass standard and this value is
subtracted from all subsequent readings.
For a measurement of diffuse-only reflectance factors
(d/0 or 0/d), a light trap is placed at the gloss trap position.
In a total reflectance measurement (t/0 or 0/t), a white
surface of the same material as the sphere wall coating is
mounted at the gloss trap position. To correct for the in-
strument zero reading, a sample measurement is also
recorded with a light trap or a calibrated black material.
Suitable black standards include black glazed ceramic tiles
and black porcelain enamels available from NPL and
NIST 9. The spectral reflectance of the sample is then cal-
culated from Equation (3).
p(X) = [(Sx - Zx)/(100x - Zx)] p'(X) (3)
where Sx = signal recorded with sample, Zx = signal rec-
orded with light trap or dark sample, 100x = signal recorded
Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996 167
Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels
with white standard and p' (~) = calibrated spectral reflec-
tance of white standard.
If the sample is fluorescent or thermochromic, a poly-
chromatic irradiation geometry should be used and the
instrument source should approximate the desired illumina-
ting conditions 3. To determine the degree of fluorescence
for samples containing fluorescent whitening agents, it is
common practice to perform the measurement with and
without a UV cutoff filter in the beam. In some instru-
ments, it is possible to adjust the UV content of the in-
strument source (see Figure 1). This feature is essential for
quality control of fluorescent brightening agents. For inter-
instrument agreement in colour specification of fluorescent
materials, it is necessary to specify the spectral charac-
teristics of the UV cutoff filter and the adjustment of the
source UV control, if used.
If the sample is translucent, the sample should be
measured with a small area of illumination or view and with
a standard black or white backing material ~°.
To summarize, in a spectrophotometric measurement of
a surface colour, it is necessary to specify: (1) the quantity
measured (reflectance, transmittance), (2) the geometry of
illumination and viewing, including the component measured
for hemispherical geometry (total, diffuse-only), (3) the
white reflectance standard and its traceability, (4) the backing
material, if used, (5) large or small area of view, (6) and
any special requirements, such as type of illuminating
source and UV-filter adjustment factor for fluorescent
samples.
In the description of the measurement procedure for
spectroradiometers and spectrophotometers, it is necessary
to specify the spectral parameters (wavelength range, spec-
tral bandpass, measurement interval) and for all colour-
measuring instruments, it is necessary to specify the standard
observer and illuminant for the colorimetric quantities.
CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION
PROCEDURES
The procedures involved in calibrating instrument stability,
wavelength scale and spectral bandwidth, stray light level
and linearity (including instrument zero errors and full-
scale level) are described in detail. These procedures are
common to all types of colour-measuring instruments. For
a further discussion of the special systematic errors
encountered in sphere-type instruments, see Clarke and
Compton n or Zwinkels ]2.
Instrument stability
The first step in calibrating and verifying the performance
of any colour-measuring instrument is to ensure that the
instrument is stable. Unreliable results may be obtained if
the instrument has not sufficiently wanned up or if deteri-
oration of the optical, mechanical or electronic components
has occurred. This measurement repeatability can be
checked with a stable source or material sample, whose
spectral characteristics are monitored on a routine basis,
168 Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996
e.g. in transmittance mode, using NIST SRM 930 filters.
The problem of instrument drift is most serious in spectro-
radiometers and spectrophotometers, which are single-beam
designs. Generally, drift is fairly linear with time, so it can
be effectively minimized by performing measurements in a
time-symmetrical sequence and sandwiching a measurement
of the test sample or source between measurements of the
calibrated white standard or calibration source.
Errors due to long-term drift are effectively reduced by
using a colour-measuring instrument with a double-beam
design. In this configuration, the beam is split, either optic-
ally or mechanically, to produce a sample and a reference
beam, and the ratio of these two signals is recorded by the
photodetector.
Wavelength scale and spectral bandwidth
For tristimulus colorimeters, the spectral sensitivity functions
determined by the combination of the source, detector and
filter characteristics, are only an approximation to the
theoretically required CIE illuminant/observer combination.
The discrepancies can be regarded as errors in the wave-
length scale. The accuracy of the spectral response of the
colorimeter can be checked by using metameric colour
pairs available from NPL t3, or the matrix method of Erb
et al. 14. The matrix method requires knowledge of at least
three independent colours, whose CIE tristimulus values
have been determined spectroradiometrically15.
The most accurate method for calibrating the instrument
wavelength scale and spectral bandwidth in spectrophoto-
meters and spectroradiometers is to use highly mono-
chromatic sources such as a laser or spectrum lamps. A
low-pressure Hg lamp is the best single source for wave-
length calibration in the UV and visible ranges. 'Pencil'-
style spectral calibration lamps are commercially available
that can be used in confined spaces. Some useful spectral
lines for wavelength calibration are given in Table 1. The
procedure involves plotting the apparent readings against
the known emission wavelengths in air and using a poly-
nomial least-squares regression to determine the wavelength
calibration function. The instrument spectral bandwidth can
be measured from the full-width-at-half-maximum energy
of the scanned emission lines.
In many colour-measuring instruments, it is not convenient
to use these methods. For this reason, material standards
with a V-type profile are more commonly used for deter-
mining wavelength errors. In transmittance mode, materials
with sharp transmission features such as didymium and
Table 1 Useful spectral lines for wavelength scale calibration of colour
measuring instruments
Wavelength in air (nm) of spectrum lamp
Mercury Neon
365.0 614.3
404.7 633.4
435.8 638.3
546.1 640.2
577.0 650.6
579.1 703.2
 Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels

holmium oxide glass filters or the McCrone wavelength
standard available from NPL can be used. In diffuse reflec-
tance mode, a wavelength standard, comprising a mixture
of rare earth oxides in a PTFE matrix, is available from
NIST. The accuracy of the wavelength calibration values
issued by standardizing laboratories is typically 0.1 nm.
This accuracy is necessary to obtain a measurement un-
certainty of 0.1 CIELAB on highly saturated colours ~2. It
is important to note that the calibration values issued by a
standardizing laboratory for material wavelength standards
are critically dependent upon the specified instrument
spectral bandpass. Frequently, standardizing laboratories
will provide calibration wavelengths measured with a
narrow instrument bandpass, typically 1 rim. The effect of
a wider spectral bandpass is illustrated in Figure 7, which
shows both the measured Inm bandpass data for a didymium
glass filter and the calculated 8 nm bandpass data, assuming
a symmetrical triangular instrument lineshape.
Complementary wavelength scale information can be
obtained from the inflection points of these material stand-
ards. These positions are calculated from the zero crossings
of the second derivative spectrum. The advantage of the
inflection points compared with the transmittance minima is
that they are less sensitive to instrument bandpass ~6. An
illustration of the procedure for determining the positions
of the inflection points on a didymium transmittance curve
is given in Figure 8.
For instruments with a lower resolution ( > 1 0 n m
bandpass), such as many diode array colour-measuring
instruments, the wavelength scale can be calibrated using:

1.0

0.9 i
0.8

0.7 ..

"~ 0,6 I

C
E 0.5 ..i

0.4

0.3 ~.:

o.2 i
ol

o.o
400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 7 Effectof instrumentspectralbandpass on the transmittanceminimafor a didymiumglass filter

1.2 i I I I 'I

1.0 ^^r,v- .4P

-Vv vvv V

0.8
C

=_ 0.6
E
t~
t'-

E
i
A
I- 0.4

1'
I
li
0.2

I
0.0
400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 8 Determiningthe wavelengths of the inflectionpoints on the transmittance spectrum of a
didymium glass filter (e) from the zero crossings in the second derivativespectrum (top curve)

Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996 169

Colour-measuring instruments: J C Zwinkels
(1) the linear filters method ~7 or (2) the wavelength pair
method ~8. An alternative procedure is being investigated at
NPL which uses an 'opposing slope' pair of reflectance
standards ~3.
Stray light level
The presence of unwanted radiation or stray light is not
really a parameter that is subject to calibration, but rather
a defect that is measured and verified to be adequately low
for the intended application of the colour-measurement
instrument. The stray light error is defined as the ratio of
the measured spurious radiation to the measured primary
radiation and is classified as either isochromatic or hetero-
chromatic in origin. Isochromatic stray light originates in
the sample compartment and is radiation of the same
spectral bandwidth as that incident on the sample which
reaches the detector without interacting with the sample.
This is the instrument zero error which was described
earlier in the discussion of measurement procedures.
Heterochromatic stray light, on the other hand, is radiation
transmitted at wavelengths outside the instrument bandpass
and its effects are greatest at wavelengths of low instrument
energy. Array instruments are especially susceptible to
heterochromatic stray light errors because all wavelengths in
the spectral range are measured simultaneously 19. The mag-
nitude of this error can be estimated by measuring a refer-
ence material with a sharp cutoff profile in the wavelength
region of very low reflectance or transmittance. Several
suitable cutoff filters are described in ASTM E3872°. This
stray light error can be reduced by cleaning the optical
components and increasing the baffling near the light path.
Linearity verification
Photometric accuracy of a colour-measuring instrument
requires linearity of the photometric scale, i.e. that the
output quantity of the detector (electrical signal) is propor-
tional to the input quantity (radiant flux, irradiance, radiance,
integrated spectral power).
In a standardizing laboratory, linearity checks are based
on the light-addition principle, typically using multiple
sources21 with spectroradiometers or multiple apertures 22
with spectrophotometers. These methods are not readily
implemented with most commercial colour-measuring in-
struments. It is more practical and convenient to use cali-
brated reference materials of known transmittance or
reflectance. The photometric scale should be calibrated
near the 0% and 100% levels and verified at one or more
intermediate levels. The calibration procedure for the
endpoints was discussed earlier. At intermediate levels,
several reference materials are available. In reflectance
mode, suitable materials are the BCRA grey ceramic colour
standards and the Labsphere Spectralon SRS grey materials.
In transmittance mode, calibrated neutral-density filters of
absorbing glass or evaporated metal-on-quartz, or standard
solutions of known concentration and molar absorptivity,
are available from NPL and NIST9. However, it should
170 Displays Volume 16 Number 4 1996
be noted that the metallic filters are susceptible to inter-
reflection and stray light errors. For a single-beam sphere
instrument, it is necessary to evaluate the single-beam
photometric error using a grey tile supplied by the manu-
facturer. The linearity verification should be carried out
independently using a different intermediate standard. In
spectroradiometric measurements, non-linearity errors
can be reduced by adjusting the signal levels of the test
and calibration source to be more nearly equal by using
calibrated attenuators.
System verification
After checking the stability of the instrument, calibrating its
wavelength and photometric scale, and assessing its stray
light level, it is good practice to verify the precision and
bias of the entire measurement procedure, including the
calculation of the colorimetric quantities. This can be
carried out with a set of verification standards which are
stable, uniform and possess a variety of spectral shapes and
features. Examples of suitable materials are the BCRA
ceramic colour standards, which are available in both matte
and glossy sets. It is important to use verification standards
that have been calibrated for the same geometrical con-
ditions as the instrument being tested.
A second method of instrument calibration and verifica-
tion involves measuring a set of verification standards, such
as the BCRA ceramic tiles, and modelling the systematic
errors (i.e. the differences between the measured and
calibration values) as a series of linear equations that are
minimized in a least-squares sense. The model assumes that
an instrument zero error causes a constant offset, that a
100% level error is proportional to the measured reflec-
tance or transmittance values, and that a wavelength scale
error is proportional to the first derivative or slope of the
measured reflectance or transmittance curve. The model
can be expanded to include other sources of error, such as
spectral bandwidth z3'24.
CONCLUSIONS
To obtain precise and accurate colour specifications for
self-luminous and surface colours, it is necessary carefully
to select, calibrate and verify the colour-measuring in-
strument. A variety of instrument designs are available and
the advantages and disadvantages of these design options
for different measurement applications have been discussed
in this paper, together with the basic measurement pro-
cedures for colorimeters, spectroradiometers and spectro-
photometers and the calibration procedures and reference
materials available for wavelength scale, stray light level
and photometric linearity.
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