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Chapter 2 transmission line parameters

1. 1. CHAPTER-TWO TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 132 kV Double Circuit Overhead Transmission Line Kaliti Substation 132 KV Single Circuit Overhead Transmission
Line Kaliti-Substation
2. 2. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Generators and loads are connected together through transmission lines transporting electric power from one place to another. Transmission line must,
therefore, take power from generators, transmit it to location where it will be used, and then distribute it to individual consumers. Transmission of electric power has been along the
years and will still continue one of the most important elements of today’s electric power systems. Power transmission from generating stations to industrial sites and to substations is
the fundamental objective of the transmission systems. The Transmission line function is accomplished by overhead AC or DC transmission lines or underground cables that connect
 the power plants in to the transmission network, interconnect various areas of transmission networks, interconnect one electric utility with another, or deliver the electric power from
various areas within the transmission network to the distribution substations, from which the distribution systems supply residential and commercial consumers.
3. 3. INTRODUCTION CONT’D The voltage levels of transmission lines; either overhead or cables are selected according to the power to be transmitted to a certain area or supplied to
a customer. The advantage of higher levels of transmission line voltage clearly appears when consideration is given to the transmitting capability of a line, which increases with the
square of the voltage. i.e. P = VI = V2/R Therefore, very high voltage levels are used to transmit power over long distances. Once the power reaches the area where it will be used, it
is stepped down to a lower voltages in distribution substations, and then delivered to customers through distribution lines.
4. 4. There two types of transmission lines: overhead lines and buried cables. Figure 1 Introduction Cont’d
5. 5.  The transmission and distribution of three-phase electrical power on overhead lines requires the use of at least three-phase conductors.  Most low voltage lines use three-phase
conductors forming a single three- phase circuit. Many higher voltage lines consist of a single three-phase circuit or two three-phase circuits strung or suspended from the same tower
structure and usually called a double-circuit line.  The two circuits may be strung in a variety of configurations such as vertical, horizontal or triangular configurations.  Figure 2
illustrates typical single-circuit lines and double-circuit lines in horizontal, triangular and vertical phase conductor arrangements. A line may also consist of two circuits running
physically in parallel but on different towers.  In addition, a few lines have been built with three, four or even six three- phase circuits strung on the same tower structure in various
horizontal and/or triangular formations. Introduction Cont’d
6. 6. Introduction Cont’d Figure 2
7. 7. An overhead transmission line usually consists of three conductors or bundles of conductors containing the three phases of the power system. The conductors are usually aluminum
cable steel reinforced (ACSR), which are steel core (for strength) and aluminum wires (having low resistance) wrapped around the core. OVERHEAD LINE CONT’D
8. 8. OVERHEAD LINE CONT’D In overhead transmission lines, the conductors are suspended from a pole or a tower via insulators.
9. 9. In addition to phase conductors, a transmission line usually includes one or two steel wires called ground (shield) wires. These wires are electrically connected to the tower and to
the ground, and, therefore, are at ground potential. In large transmission lines, these wires are located above the phase conductors, shielding them from lightning. OVERHEAD LINE
CONT’D
10. 10. CONT…  Bundled phase conductors are usually used on transmission lines at 220 kV and above. These are constructed with more than one conductor per phase separated at
regular intervals along the span length between two towers by metal spacers.  Conductor bundles of two, three, four, six and eight are in use in various countries.  The purpose of
bundled conductors is to reduce the voltage gradients at the surface of the conductors because the bundle appears as an equivalent conductor of much larger diameter than that of the
component conductors.  This minimizes active losses due to corona, reduces noise generation, e.g. radio interference, reduces the inductive reactance and increases the capacitive
susceptance or capacitance of the line.  The latter two effects improve the steady state power transfer capability of the line.
11. 11. Cable lines are designed to be placed underground or under water. The conductors are insulated from one another and surrounded by protective sheath. Cable lines are usually
more expensive and harder to maintain. They also have capacitance problem – not suitable for long distance. UNDERGROUND CABLES CONT’D
12. 12. 2.2 TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS An electric transmission lines are characterized by four parameters, namely resistance, inductance, capacitance and shunt
conductance. The electrical design and performance of a line are dependent on these parameters. These values determine the power-carrying capacity of the transmission line and the
voltage drop across it at full load. These parameters are uniformly distributed along the whole line. Each line has its own value, and it is not possible to concentrate or lump them at
discrete points on the line. For this reason the line parameters are known as distributed parameters. Their values are given in per unit length of line and they are denoted as R, L, C
and G respectively. The line parameters are functions of the line-geometry, construction material and operational frequency. The line resistance and inductance form the series
impedance of the line. While the capacitance and conductance form the shunt admittance of the line.
13. 13. CONT…  The series resistance relies basically on the physical composition of the conductor at a given temperature.  The series inductance and shunt capacitance are
produced by the presence of magnetic and electric fields around the conductors, and depend on their geometrical arrangement.  The shunt conductance is due to leakage currents
flowing across insulators and air. As leakage current is considerably small compared to nominal current, it is usually neglected, and therefore, shunt conductance is normally not
considered for the transmission line modeling
14. 14. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS CONT’D Transmission lines are classified in to short, medium and long groups according to the length of the transmission lines. The
performance of one or more of the parameters of a line is governed by its length and conductor configuration. For overhead lines up to 80 km the capacitance C and shunt
conductance G are negligibly small but for cable lines where the distance between the conductors is small, the effect of capacitance can not ignored. All low-voltage overhead lines
having lengths up to 80 km are generally classified as Short lines. The lines ranging in length from 80 to 240 km are termed as Medium or moderately long lines. For these lines, the
capacitance of the line cannot be neglected and it’s considered to be lumped at one or more points of the line. The effect of capacitance is more at higher frequency. The leakage
conductance or leakance is neglected. The term Long line refers to a line having its length more than 240 km. The long line treatment takes all the four parameters in to account and
allows for the fact that they are distributed uniformly over the entire length of the line.
15. 15. Short Transmission line Equivalent Circuit (Series Impedance parameters only) Medium Transmission line Equivalent Circuit (Series Impedance and Shunt Capacitance Long
Transmission line Equivalent Circuit ( All the four TL Parameters) TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS CONT’D
16. 16. 2.2.1 RESISTANCE The AC resistance of a conductor in a transmission line is based on the calculation of its DC resistance. If DC current is flowing along a round cylindrical
conductor, the current is uniformly distributed over its cross-section area and its DC resistance is evaluated by RDC =  l /A [Ω] Where l is the length of conductor; A – cross-
sectional area,  is the resistivity of the conductor. Therefore, the DC resistance per meter of the conductor is rDC =  /A [Ω/m] The resistivity of a conductor is a fundamental
property of the material that the conductor is made from. It varies with both type and temperature of the material. At the same temperature, the resistivity of aluminum is higher than
the resistivity of copper.
17. 17. LINE RESISTANCE CONT’D  If AC current is flowing, rather than DC current, the following factors need to be considered: 1. Frequency or skin effect 2. Temperature 3.
Spiraling of stranded conductors 4. Bundle conductors arrangement 5. Proximity effect 6. Also the resistance of magnetic conductor varies with current magnitude. A. Skin Effect 
The frequency of the AC voltage produces effect on the conductor resistance due to the non uniform distribution of the current. This phenomenon is known as skin effect or frequency
effect.  As frequency increases, the current tends to go toward the surface of the conductor and the current density decreases at the center.  Skin effect reduces the effective cross-
section area used by the current, and thus, the effective resistance increases.  Also, although in small amount, a further resistance increase occurs when other current-carrying
conductors are present in the immediate vicinity.
18. 18.  A skin correction factor k, obtained by differential equations and Bessel functions, is considered to reevaluate the AC resistance.  For 60 Hz, k is estimated around 1.02
𝑅𝐴𝐶=𝑘𝑅𝐷𝐶 B. Temperature Effect  The resistivity of any conductive material varies linearly over an operating temperature, and therefore, the resistance of any conductor suffers
the same variations.  As temperature rises, the conductor resistance increases linearly, over normal operating temperatures, according to the following equation: Where R2 is the
resistance at second temperature t2 R1 is the resistance at initial temperature t1 T is the temperature coefficient for the particular material (C°)
19. 19. RESISTANCE CONT’D The resistivity increases linearly with temperature over normal range of temperatures. If the resistivity at one temperature is known, the resistivity at
another temperature can be found from T2 = (T+t2) /(T+t1)T1 Where t1 and t1 are temperature 1 in oC and the resistivity at that temperature, t2 and t2 are temperature 2 in
oC and the resistivity at that temperature, and T is the temperature constant. Resistivity (𝜌) and temperature coefficient (T) constants depend upon the particular conductor material
Material Resistivity at 20oC [m] Temperature constant [oC] Annealed copper 1.7210-8 234.5 Hard-drawn copper 1.7710-8 241.5 Aluminum 2.8310-8 228.1 -8
20. 20. We notice that silver and copper would be among the best conductors. However, aluminum, being much cheaper and lighter, is used to make most of the transmission line
conductors. Conductors made out of aluminum should have bigger diameter than copper conductors to offset the higher resistivity of the material and, therefore, support the
necessary currents. AC resistance of a conductor is always higher than its DC resistance due to the skin effect forcing more current flow near the outer surface of the conductor. The
higher the frequency of current, the more noticeable skin effect would be. At frequencies of our interest (50-60 Hz), however, skin effect is not very strong. Wire manufacturers
usually supply tables of resistance per unit length at common frequencies (50 and 60 Hz). Therefore, the resistance can be determined from such tables. RESISTANCE CONT’D
21. 21. C. Spiraling and Bundle Conductor Effect •Overhead conductors, made of naked metal and suspended on insulators, are preferred over underground conductors because of the
lower cost and easy maintenance. Also, overhead transmission lines use aluminum conductors, because of the lower cost and lighter weight compared to copper conductors, although
more cross-section area is needed to conduct the same amount of current. •There are different types of commercially available aluminum conductors: aluminum-conductor-steel-
reinforced (ACSR), aluminum-conductor-alloy- reinforced (ACAR), all-aluminum-conductor (AAC), and all-aluminumalloy- conductor (AAAC). Figure 3: Stranded aluminum
conductor with stranded steel core (ACSR).
22. 22.  ACSR is one of the most used conductors in transmission lines. • It consists of alternate layers of stranded conductors, spiraled in opposite directions to hold the strands
together, surrounding a core of steel strands.  The purpose of introducing a steel core inside the stranded aluminum conductors is to obtain a high strength-to-weight ratio.  A
stranded conductor offers more flexibility and easier to manufacture than a solid large conductor. However, the total resistance is increased because the outside strands are larger than
the inside strands on account of the spiraling.  The resistance of each wound conductor at any layer, per unit length, is based on its total length as follows: Resistance Cont’d
23. 23.  where 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑: resistance of wound conductor (Ω)  : : length of wound conductor (m)  𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑=𝑙t𝑢𝑟n /2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 relative pitch of wound conductor  𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 : length of
one turn of the spiral (m)  2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟: diameter of the layer (m)  The parallel combination of n conductors, with same diameter per layer, gives the resistance per layer as
follows: Similarly, the total resistance of the stranded conductor is evaluated by the parallel combination of resistances per layer.
24. 24.  In high-voltage transmission lines, there may be more than one conductor per phase (bundle configuration) to increase the current capability and to reduce corona effect
discharge.  Corona effect occurs when the surface potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the surrounding air (30 kV/cm during fair weather), producing
ionization in the area close to the conductor, with consequent corona losses, audible noise, and radio interference.  As corona effect is a function of conductor diameter, line
configuration, and conductor surface condition, then meteorological conditions play a key role in its evaluation.  Corona losses under rain or snow, for instance, are much higher
than in dry weather.
25. 25. Figure: Stranded conductors arranged in bundles per phase of (a) two, (b) three, and (c) four. • Corona, however, can be reduced by increasing the total conductor surface.
Although corona losses rely on meteorological conditions, their evaluation takes into account the conductance between conductors and between conductors and ground. •By
increasing the number of conductors per phase, the total cross-section area increases, the current capacity increases, and the total AC resistance decreases proportionally to the
number of conductors per bundle. •Conductor bundles may be applied to any voltage but are always used at 345 kV and above to limit corona. • T o maintain the distance between
bundle conductors along the line, spacers made of steel or aluminum bars are used.
26. 26. 26 D. PROXIMITY EFFECTS  In a transmission line there is a non-uniformity of current distribution caused by a higher current density in the elements of adjacent conductors
nearest each other than in the elements farther apart. The phenomenon is known as proximity effect.  It is present for three-phase as well as single-phase circuits.  For the usual
spacing of overhead lines at 60 Hz, the proximity effect is neglected.
27. 27. 27 EXAMPLE 1  A three phase transmission line is designed to deliver 190.5 MVA at 220 kV over a distance of 63 km. the total transmission loss is not to exceed 2.5 percent
of the rated line MVA. If the resistivity of the conductor material at 20°c is 2.8×10−8Ωm , determine the required conductor diameter and the conductor size. Solution
28. 28. 28  The inductive reactance is by far the most dominating impedance element.  A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor.  The magnetic
flux lines are concentric closed circles with direction given by the right hand rule. With the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers of the right hand encircled the
wire point in the direction of the magnetic field.  When the current changes, the flux changes and a voltage is induced in the circuit.  By definition, for nonmagnetic material, the
inductance L is the ratio of its total magnetic flux linkage to the current I, given by 2.2.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance
29. 29. The series inductance of a transmission line consists of two components: internal and external inductances, which are due the magnetic flux inside and outside the conductor
respectively. The inductance of a transmission line is defined as the number of flux linkages [Wb-turns] produced per ampere of current flowing through the line: L = λ / I 1. Internal
inductance: Consider a conductor of radius r carrying a current I. At a distance x from the center of this conductor, the magnetic field intensity Hx can be found from Ampere’s law:
CONT’D
30. 30. INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE CONT’D Where Hx is the magnetic field intensity at each point along a closed path, dl is a unit vector along that path and Ix
is the net current enclosed in the path. For the homogeneous materials and a circular path of radius x, the magnitude of Hx is constant, and dl is always parallel to Hx. Therefore:
Assuming next that the current is distributed uniformly in the conductor: Thus, the magnetic intensity at radius x inside the conductor is I
31. 31. The flux density at a distance x from the center of the conductor is The differential magnetic flux contained in a circular tube of thickness dx and at a distance x from the center of
the conductor is The flux linkages per meter of length due to flux in the tube is the product of the differential flux and the fraction of current linked: INDUCTANCE AND
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE CONT’D
32. 32. The total internal flux linkages per meter can be found via integration… Therefore, the internal inductance per meter is: L = λ/I If the relative permeability of the conductor is 1
(non-ferromagnetic materials, such as copper and aluminum), the permeability reduces to INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE CONT’D Where μ0 = 4л*10-7
33. 33. 2. EXTERNAL INDUCTANCE BETWEEN 2 POINTS OUTSIDE OF THE LINE To find the inductance external to a conductor, we need to calculate the flux linkages of the
conductor due only the portion of flux between two points P1 and P2 that lie at distances D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor. In the external to the conductor region, the
magnetic intensity at a distance x from the center of conductor is since all the current is within the tube, Ix = I. The flux density at a distance x from the center of conductor is
34. 34. The differential magnetic flux contained in a circular tube of thickness dx and at a distance x from the center of the conductor is The flux links the full current carried by the
conductor, therefore: The total external flux linkages per meter can be found via integration… The external inductance per meter is The inductance between two points external to a
conductor For non-ferromagnetic materials is then
35. 35. 3. INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE 2-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE We determine next the series inductance of a single-phase line consisting of two conductors of radii
r spaced by a distance D and both carrying currents of magnitude I flowing into the page in the left-hand conductor and out of the page in the right-hand conductor. Considering two
circular integration paths, we notice that the line integral along x1 produces a net magnetic intensity since a non-zero net current is enclosed by x1. Thus: Since the path of radius x2
encloses both conductors and the currents are equal and opposite, the net current enclosed is 0 and, therefore, there are no contributions to the total inductance from the magnetic
fields at distances greater than D.
36. 36. The total inductance of a wire per unit length in this transmission line is a sum of the internal inductance and the external inductance between the conductor surface (r) and the
separation distance (D): By symmetry, the total inductance of the other wire is the same, therefore, the total inductance of a two-wire transmission line is Where r is the radius of each
conductor and D is the distance between conductors. INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE 2-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE CONT’D The flux beyond D links a net current of
zero and does not contribute to the net magnetic flux linkage in the circuit. Thus, to obtain the inductance of conductor 1 due to the net external flux linkage, it is necessary to
evaluate external inductance from 𝐷1=𝑟1 to 𝐷2=𝐷.
37. 37. 37
38. 38. 38
39. 39. 39
40. 40. 40 FLUX LINKAGE IN TERMS OF SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE The series inductance per phase for the above single phase two wire line can be expressed in terms
of self inductance of each conductor and their mutual inductance. Consider one meter length of the single phase circuit represented by two coils characterized by the self inductances
𝐿11 and 𝐿22 and the mutual inductance 𝐿12 . The magnetic polarity is indicated by dot symbols as shown in the following Figure . The single phase line viewed as two magnetically
coupled coils
41. 41. 41 Comparing the above questions with the external inductance of a conductor (Lext = 2x10-7ln(D2/D1) H/m), we conclude the following equivalent expressions for the self and
mutual inductances:
42. 42. 42 4. INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES -SYMMETRICAL SPACING Consider one meter length of a three phase line with three conductors, each
with radius r, symmetrically spaced in a triangular configuration as shown in the following Figure.
43. 43. 43
44. 44. 44 5. INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES -ASYMMETRICAL SPACING Practical transmission lines cannot maintain symmetrical spacing of
conductors because of construction considerations. With asymmetrical spacing, even with balanced currents, the voltage drop due to the line inductance will be unbalanced. Consider
one meter length of a three phase line with three conductors, each with radius r. the conductors are asymmetrically spaced with distances shown in the following Figure. Three phase
line with asymmetrical spacing.
45. 45. 45 Or in matrix form
46. 46. 46 6. TRANSPOSE LINE The equilateral triangular spacing configuration is not the only configuration commonly used in practice. Thus the need exists for equalizing the mutual
inductances. One means for doing this is to construct transpositions or rotations of overhead line wires. A transposition is a physical rotation of the conductors, arranged so that each
conductor is moved to occupy the next physical position in a regular sequence such as a-b-c, b-c-a, c-a-b, etc. Such a transposition arrangement is shown in the following Figure. If a
section of line is divided into three segments of equal length separated by rotations, we say that the line is “completely transposed.” A transposed three phase line
47. 47. 47
48. 48. 48 INDUCTANCE OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS In the evaluation of inductance, solid round conductors were considered. However, in practical transmission lines,
stranded conductors are used. Also, for reasons of economy, most EHV lines are constructed with bundled conductors. In this section an expression is found for the inductance of
composite conductors. The result can be used for evaluating the GMR of stranded or bundled conductors. It is also useful in finding the equivalent GMR and GMD of parallel
circuits.
49. 49. 49
50. 50. 50
51. 51. 51
52. 52. 52
53. 53. 53
54. 54. 54 7. INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINE A three double circuit line consists of two identical three phase circuits. The circuits are opened with
𝑎1−𝑎2,𝑏1−𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1−𝑐2 in parallel. Because of geometrical differences between conductors, voltage drop due to line inductance will be unbalanced. To achieve balance, each phase
conductor must be transposed within its group and with respect to parallel three phase line. Consider a three phase double circuit line with relative phase positions 𝑎1𝑏1𝑐1−𝑐2 𝑏2𝑎2,
as shown in the following Figure
55. 55. 55
56. 56. 56
57. 57. INDUCTANCE OF A TRANSMISSION LINE CONT’D A two-conductor bundle A four-conductor bundle
58. 58. CONCLUSIONS ON INDUCTANCE OF A TRANSMISSION LINE Analysis of the above equations show that: 1. The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission
line, the greater the inductance of the line. Since the phases of a high-voltage overhead transmission line must be spaced further apart to ensure proper insulation, a high-voltage line
will have a higher inductance than a low-voltage line. Since the spacing between lines in buried cables is very small, series inductance of cables is much smaller than the inductance
of overhead lines. 1. The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the lower the inductance of the line. In practical transmission lines, instead of using heavy and
inflexible conductors of large radii, two and more conductors are bundled together to approximate a large diameter conductor. The more conductors included in the bundle, the better
the approximation becomes. Bundles are often used in the high-voltage transmission lines.
 59. 59. INDUCTIVE REACTANCE OF A LINE The series inductive reactance of a transmission line depends on both the inductance of the line and the frequency of the power system.
Denoting the inductance per unit length as l, the inductive reactance per unit length will be where f is the power system frequency. Therefore, the total series inductive reactance of a
transmission line can be found as where d is the length of the line. xI = jωɭ = j2лfɭ XI = xId
60. 60. 2.2.3 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE Since a voltage V is applied to a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (air), charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign will accumulate on the conductors. Transmission line conductors exhibit capacitance with respect to each other due to the potential difference between them. The
amount of capacitance between conductors is a function of conductor size, spacing, and height above ground. By definition, the capacitance C is the ratio of charge q to the voltage v,
given by In AC power systems, a transmission line carries a time-varying voltage different in each phase. This time-varying voltage causes the changes in charges stored on
conductors. Changing charges produce a changing current, which will increase the current through the transmission line and affect the power factor and voltage drop of the line. This
changing current will flow in a transmission line even if it is open circuited.
61. 61. Consider a long round conductor with radius r, carrying a charge of q coulombs per meter length as shown in the following Figure. Electric field around a long round conductor.
The charge on the conductor gives rise to an electric field with radial flux lines. The total electric flux is numerically equal to the value of charge on the conductor. The intensity of
the field at any point defined as the force per unit charge and is termed electric field intensity designated as E. Concentric cylinders surrounding the conductor are equipentential
surfaces and have the same electric flux density.
62. 62. The electric flux density D may be found from the relation: From Gauss’s law for one meter length of the conductor, the electric flux density at a cylinder of a radius x is given by
where A specifies a closed surface; dA is the unit vector normal to the surface; q is the charge inside the surface; D is the electric flux density at the surface: where E is the electric
field intensity at that point;  is the permittivity of the material: Where r is Relative permittivity of the material The permittivity of free space 0 = 8.8510-12 F/m Ԑ = ԐrԐo
63. 63. Electric flux lines radiate uniformly outwards from the surface of the conductor with a positive charge on its surface. In this case, the flux density vector D is always parallel to
the normal vector dA and is constant at all points around a path of constant radius r. Therefore: were l is the length of conductor; q is the charge density; Q is the total charge on the
conductor. Then the flux density is The electric field intensity is Capacitance and capacitive reactance Cont’d
64. 64. The potential difference between two points P1 and P2 can be found as where dl is a differential element tangential to the integration path between P1 and P2. The path is
irrelevant. Selection of path can simplify calculations. For P1 - Pint, vectors E and dl are parallel; therefore, Edl = Edx. For Pint – P2 vectors are orthogonal, therefore Edl = 0.
CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE CONT’D
65. 65. 2.3.1 CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE PHASE TWO-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE The potential difference due to the charge on conductor a can be found as Similarly, the
potential difference due to the charge on conductor b is or
66. 66. The total voltage between the lines is Since q1 = q2 = q, the equation reduces to The capacitance per unit length between the two conductors of the line is CAPACITANCE OF A
SINGLE PHASE TWO-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE CONT’D
67. 67. Thus: Which is the capacitance per unit length of a single-phase two-wire transmission line. The above Equation gives the line to line capacitance between conductors. For the
purpose of transmission line modeling, it is convenient to define a capacitance C between each conductor and a neural as illustrated in below. The potential difference between each
conductor and the ground (or neutral) is one half of the potential difference between the two conductors. Therefore, the capacitance to ground of this single-phase transmission line
will be CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE PHASE TWO-WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE CONT’D
68. 68. Recalling 𝜖0=8.85×10−12 𝐹/𝑚 and converting to 𝜇𝐹 per kilometer, we have Analysis of the above final equation shows that: 1. The greater the spacing between the phases of a
transmission line, the lower the capacitance of the line. Since the phases of a high-voltage overhead transmission line must be spaced further apart to ensure proper insulation, a high-
voltage line will have a lower capacitance than a low-voltage line. Since the spacing between lines in buried cables is very small, shunt capacitance of cables is much larger than the
capacitance of overhead lines. Cable lines are normally used for short transmission lines (to min capacitance) in urban areas. 2. The greater the radius of the conductors in a
transmission line, the higher the capacitance of the line. Therefore, bundling increases the capacitance. Good transmission line is a compromise among the requirements for low series
inductance, low shunt capacitance, and a large enough separation to provide insulation between the phases.
69. 69. SHUNT CAPACITIVE ADMITTANCE The shunt capacitive admittance of a transmission line depends on both the capacitance of the line and the frequency of the power
system. Denoting the capacitance per unit length as c, the shunt admittance per unit length will be The total shunt capacitive admittance therefore is where d is the length of the line.
The corresponding capacitive reactance is the reciprocal to the admittance: 1 1 2 C C Z j Y fcd    
70. 70. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN A MULTICONDUCTOR CONFIGURATION Consider n parallel long conductors with charges 𝑞1,𝑞2,…,𝑞𝑛 coulombs/meter as shown in Multi-
conductor configuration. Assume that the distortion effect is negligible and charge is uniformly distributed around the conductor, with the following constraint
71. 71. Using superposition, the potential difference between conductor I and j due to the presence of all charges is given by: When k=I, 𝐷𝑖𝑖 is the distance between the surface of the
conductor and its center, namely its radius r. CAPACITANCE OF THREE PHASE LINES Consider one meter length of a three phase line with three long conductors, each with
radius r, with conductor spacing as shown in the following figure:
72. 72. For a balanced three phase system We shall neglect the effect of ground and the shield wires. Assume that the lines is transposed. We proceed with the calculation of the potential
difference between a and b for each section of transposition. Applying ( 80) to the first section of the transposition, 𝑉_𝑎𝑏 is
73. 73. EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE CAPACITANCE For an isolated charged conductor the electric flux lines are radial and are orthogonal to the cylindrical equipotential surfaces.
The presence of earth will alter the distribution of electric flux lines and equipotential surfaces, which will change the effective capacitance of the line. The earth level is an
equipotential surface, therefore the flux lines are forced to cut the surface of the earth orthogonally. The effect of the presence of earth can be accounted for by the method of image
charges introduced by Kelvin.
74. 74. To illustrate this method, consider a conductor with a charge q coulombs/meter at a high H above ground. Also, imagine a charge –q at a depth –H below the surface of earth. This
configuration without the presence of the earth surface will produce the same field distribution as a single charge and the earth surface. Thus, the earth can be replaced for the
calculation of electric field potential by a fictitious charged conductor with charge equal and opposite to the charge on the actual conductor and at a depth below the surface of the
earth the same as the height of the actual conductor above earth. This, imaginary conductor is called the image of the actual conductor.
75. 75. The effect of the earth is to increase the capacitance. But normally the height of the conductor is large as compared to the distance between the conductors, and the earth effect is
negligible. Therefore, for all line models used for balanced steady state analysis, the effect of earth on the capacitance can be neglected. However, for unbalanced analysis such as
unbalanced faults, the earth’s effect as well as the shield wires should be considered. Example 1: If a single phase line has parameters D=5ft, r=0.023 ft, and a flat horizontal spacing
H=18ft average line height, determine the effect of the earth on capacitance. Assume a perfectly conducting earth plane.
76. 76. Solution: The earth plane is replaced by a separate image for each overhead conductor, and the conductors are charged as shown in the above figure. The voltages between
conductors x and y is:
77. 77. Example 2: A 500kV three phase transposed line is composed of one ACSR 1,272,000 cmil, 45/7 Bittern conductor per phase with horizontal conductor configuration as shown in
the following Figure. The conductors have a diameter of 1.345 in and a GMR of 0.5328 in. find the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the line. Figure: conductor
layout for the three phase transmission line
78. 78. EXAMPLE 3: An 8000 V, 60 Hz, single-phase, transmission line consists of two hard- drawn aluminum conductors with a radius of 2 cm spaced 1.2 m apart. If the transmission
line is 30 km long and the temperature of the conductors is 200C, a. What is the series resistance per kilometer of this line? b. What is the series inductance per kilometer of this line?
c. What is the shunt capacitance per kilometer of this line? d. What is the total series reactance of this line? e. What is the total shunt admittance of this line? Solution: a. The series
resistance of the transmission line is l R A   Ignoring the skin effect, the resistivity of the line at 200 will be 2.8310-8 - m and the resistance per kilometer of the line is 8 2
2.83 10 1000 0.0225 0.02 l r km A          
79. 79. SOLUTION CONT’D b. The series inductance per kilometer of the transmission line is 3 1 1 1.2 ln 1000 ln 1000 1.738 10 4 4 0.02 D l H km r             
             c. The shunt capacitance per kilometer of the transmission line is 12 9 8.854 10 1000 1000 6.794 10 1.2 ln ln 0.02 ab c F km D r     
        d. The series impedance per kilometer of the transmission line is 3 2 0.0225 2 60 1.738 10 0.0225 0.655 se z r jx r j fl j j km              
 Then the total series impedance of the line is   0.0225 0.655 30 0.675 19.7 se Z j j      
80. 80. e. The shunt admittance per kilometer of the transmission line is 9 6 2 2 60 6.794 10 2.561 10 C y j fc j j S m             The total shunt admittance will be
  6 5 2.561 10 30 7.684 10 se Y j j S         The corresponding shunt capacitive reactance is 5 1 1 13.0 7.684 10 sh sh Z j k Y j         SOLUTION
CONT’D

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