Use Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies

HARAMBEE UNIVERSITY TVET PHARMACY LEVEL III
Harambee University
Health Faculty
DEPARTMENT OFPHARMACY
TECHNOLOGY
TVET PROGRAM TITLE: Pharmacy Technology Level
III
Based on Ethiopian Occupational Standard

(EOS)
1. Unit of Competences: Use Pharmaceutical

Calculation Techniques and Terminologies
2. MODULETITLE: Using Pharmaceutical Calculation
Techniques and Terminologies
3.MODULE CODE:HLT PHS3 M01 0621
Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 1
Module Descriptor
This module involves basic knowledge, skill and attitude required in pharmaceutical
calculation related to computing the correct quantity of medicine for a specific prescription or
regimen. This module shall also cover knowledge on pharmaceutical terms and abbreviation
commonly used in practice.
LO1:- Use dimensional analysis to convert one unit to another
1. Measuring Pharmaceutical quantities

1. Mathematical Review
1.1.1. Fractions, decimals and significant figures
1.1.2. Ratio & ratio strength
1.1.3. Percentage
1.1.4. Proportion
2. Metric systems
1.2.1. Measure of length
1.2.2. Measure of volume
1.2.3. Measure of weight
3. Density, specific gravity and specific volume
1.3.1. Density
1.3.2. Specific gravity
1.3.3. Density Vs specific gravity
1.3.4. Specific gravity of liquids /specific volume/
1.3.5. Specific gravity of solids
4. Percentage preparations
1.4.1. Percentage weight –in- volume
1.4.2. Percentage volume- in- volume
1.4.3. Percentage weight – in- weight
LO2:- Describe pharmaceutical terminologies and medical terms
2. Described the pharmaceutical terminology and dosage forms

2.1. Pharmaceutical terminologies
2.2. Medical Terms
2.3. Dosage Forms
LO3:- Use of equipment, glassware, and tools
3. Understand pharmaceuticals preparations

3.1. Common equipment, tools and glassware used in the pharmacy setting
are familiarized.
3.2. Specific parts and its functionality are known

Objectives
At the end of this module the trainers are able to:-
 Identify and used the dimensional analysis methods to convert one unit to another
 Described pharmaceutical terminologies and medical terminology during
preparations of dosage forms
 Identify and use pharmaceuticals preparations materials
LO1:- Use dimensional analysis to convert one unit to another
1.1. Mathematical Review
Introduction
Pharmacy:- are an art, philosophy and applied science of preparing, compounding and
dispensing of drugs
Scope of pharmacy
 By what area the pharmacy studied or applied

 Industrial pharmacy
 Quality control, regulatory area, research and laboratory, whole sale and distributor, retail
outlet, academic, consultant, nuclear pharmacy, clinical pharmacy and hospital.
Pharmaceutics
Pharmakon: - drug
Ceutics: - Technique, Dosage design or formulation of drugs.
Pharmaceutics: - is the science of dosage form design or preparation.
 It deals about drug dosage design or drug formulation

 Study on the: formulation, manufacture, stability, and effectiveness of
pharmaceutical dosage forms.
Pharmaceutical calculations are the area of study that applies the basic principles of
mathematics to the preparation and efficacious use of pharmaceutical preparations.
It includes calculations from initial product formulation through clinical administration and
outcomes assessment.

Main components or branches of pharmaceutics
1. Physical pharmacy:- concerned with basic physical chemistry necessary for the
efficient design of dosage forms.
 It aids the pharmacist predict the solubility, compatibility and biologic action of the
drug product.
2. Industrial pharmacy: - concerned with dosage form design, product processing,
packaging, evaluation and regulation etc.
3. Bio pharmaceutics: - involves the determination of factors that influence.
 The activity of the drug within the drug product
 The release of drug from the drug product
 The rate of dissolution of the drug
 The systemic absorption of the drug
4. Pharmacokinetics: - involves the kinetics of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism
and excretion.
5. Pharmaceutical microbiology and immunology:- concerned with the cultivation
and elimination of microorganisms in medicines
6. Pharmacy practice( social pharmacy ) is according to National Association of Boards
of Pharmacy(NABP) the practice of pharmacy involves the:-
 Interpretation
 Evaluation and implementation of prescription drugs
 Dispensing of prescription drugs
 Participation in the selection of drugs n medical device
 Administration of medication
Dimensional Analysis
When performing pharmaceutical calculations, some are prefer to use a method termed
dimensional analysis (also known as factor analysis, factor-label method, or unit-factor
method).
This method involves the logical sequencing and placement of a series of ratios (termed
factors) into an equation.
The ratios are prepared from the given data as well as from selected conversion actors and
contain both arithmetic quantities and their units of measurement.

Some terms are inverted (to their reciprocals) to permit the cancellation of like units in
the numerator(s) and denominator(s) and leave only the desired terms of the answer.
One advantage of using dimensional analysis is the consolidation of several arithmetic
steps into a single equation.
 Steps 1 Identify the wanted unit of the answer (e.g., mL, mg, etc.) and place it at the
beginning of the equation. Some persons prefer to place a question mark next to it.
 Step 2 Identify the given quantity (-ies) and it’s (their) unit(s) of measurement.
 Step 3 Identify the conversion factor(s) that is (are) needed for the “unit path” to arrive at
the arithmetic answer in the unit wanted.
 Step 4 Set up the ratios such that the cancellation of the units of measurement in the
numerators and denominators will retain only the wanted unit as identified in Step 1.
 Step 5 Perform the arithmetic computation by multiplying the numerators, multiplying
the denominators, and dividing the product of the numerators by the product of the
denominators.
Percent
The term percent and its corresponding sign, %, mean “in a hundred” So, 50 percent (50%)
means 50 parts in each one hundred of the same item. In pharmacy, percent most often is
used to:
a) Define the concentration or strength of a pharmaceutical preparation (e.g., a 10%

ointment),
b) Describe the accuracy of a method or procedure (e.g., a 5% error in a measurement or
weighing), and
c) Quantify a parameter in a clinical study (e.g., 15% of subjects exhibited a particular
effect).
The following examples demonstrate the use of percent to define a clinical result.
During a clinical study involving 2430 subjects, 2% of the subjects developed a

headache. How many patients experienced this adverse effect? NOTE: In performing
a pharmaceutical calculation, a given percent may be used directly (as when using a
calculator), or it may be converted to a ratio or decimal fraction (e.g., 2% = 2/100 =
0.02). 2430 × 2% = 48.6 or 48 patients, or, 2430 × 2/100 = 48.6 or 48 patients, or,
2430 × 0.02 = 48.6 or 48 patients.

During a clinical study, 48 out of a total of 2430 patients developed a headache.
Calculate the percent of patients who experienced this adverse effect.
48 x100% = 1. 975 ≈ 2%
2430
Ratio and Proportion Ratio
The relative amount of two quantities (one to the other), is called their ratio. A ratio
resembles a common fraction except in the manner in which it is presented. For
example, the fraction ½ may be expressed as the ratio, 1:2, and is not read as “one
half,” but rather as “one is to two.” Rules governing common fractions apply to ratios.
For example, if the two terms of a ratio are either multiplied or divided by the same
number, the value remains unchanged. The value is the quotient of the first term
divided by the second term. For instance, the value of the ratio 20:4 is 5. In the ratio is
multiplied by 4, becoming 80:16, or divided by 4, becoming 5:1, the value remains 5.
When two ratios have the same value, they are termed equivalent ratios, as is the case
with the ratios 20:4, 80:16, and 5:1. As described next, equivalent ratios provide the
basis or problem solving by the ratio and proportion method.
Proportion
A proportion is the expression of the equality of two ratios. It may be written in any
one of three standard forms:
1. a:b=c:d
2. a : b :: c : d
3. a = c
b d
Each of these expressions is read: a is to b as c is to d, and a and d are called the extremes
(meaning “outer members”) and b and c the means (“middle members”). In any proportion,
the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. This principle allows us to
find the missing term of any proportion when the other three terms are known. If the missing
term is a mean, it will be the product of the extremes divided by the given mean, and if it is
an extreme, it will be the product of the means divided by the given extreme. Using this
information, we may derive the following fractional equations:
1. If a = c a=bc b= a d c=ad and d = b c

b d then d , c , b , a

In a proportion that is properly set up, the position of the unknown term does not matter.
However, some persons prefer to place the unknown term in the fourth position—that is, in
the denominator of the second ratio. It is important to label the units in each position (e.g.,
ml, mg) to ensure the proper relationship between the ratios of a proportion. The application
of ratio and proportion enables the solution to many of the pharmaceutical calculation
problems in this text and in pharmacy practice.
If 3 tablets contain 975 milligrams of aspirin, how many milligrams should be

contained in 12 tablets?
3(tablets) = 975 (milligrams)
12 (tablets) x (milligrams)
X (milligrams) = 12 (tablets) x 975 (milligrams) = 3900 milligram
3 (tablets)
If 3 tablets contain 975 milligrams of aspirin, how many tablets should contain 3900
milligrams?
3 (tablets) = 975 (milligrams)
X (tablets) 3900 (milligrams)
X (tablets) = 3 (tablets) x 3900 (milligrams) = 12 tablets
975 (milligrams)
If 12 tablets contain 3900 milligrams of aspirin, how many milligrams should 3

tablets contain?
3 (tablets) X (milligrams)
X (milligram) = 3 (tablets) x 3900 (milligrams) = 975 tablets
12 (tablets)
If 12 tablets contain 3900 milligrams of aspirin, how many tablets should contain
975 milligrams?

X (tablets) 975 (milligrams)
X (tablets) = 12 (tablets) x 975 (milligrams) = 3 tablets
3900 (milligrams)
Proportions need not contain whole numbers. If common or decimal fractions are supplied in
the data, they may be included in the proportion without changing the method. For ease of
calculation, it is recommended that common fractions be converted to decimal fractions prior
to setting up the proportion. If 30 milliliters (mL) represent 1/6 of the volume of a
prescription, how many milliliters will represent ¼ of the volume?
1/6 = 0.167 and ¼= 0.25
0.167(volume) = 30 (milliliters) = X= 44.91 or ≈ 45 milliliters
0.25 (volume) X (milliliters)
1.2. Metric System

Pharmacy and all other health professions utilize the International Systems of Units (SI),
commonly re erred to as the metric system.
This familiar system with its base units are (meter, litter, and kilogram).
Pharmaceutical calculations often required the accurate conversion of quantities from a given
or calculated unit to another (e.g., milligrams to micrograms).
Proficiency in operating within this system is fundamental to the practice of pharmacy.
The avoirdupois system is the common system of commerce, which has not fully been
replaced in the United States by the International System of Units.
Many product designations are dual scale; that is, equivalent SI and common system
measures.
It is in the common system that goods are packaged and sold by the ounce, pound, pint, quart,
and gallon or linearly measured by the inch, foot, yard, and mile.
The apothecaries’ system of measurement is the traditional system of pharmaceutical
measurement, which is now largely of historic significance
Measure of Length and Volume

The meter is the primary unit of length in the SI. The table of metric length:
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000,000 meters 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000,000
1 hectometer (hm) = 100,000 meters liters 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100,000 liters
1 decameter (dam) = 10,000 meters 1 1 decaliter (daL) = 10,000 liters 1 liter (L)
meter (m)
1 deciliter (dL) = 0.100 liter
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.100 meter
1 centiliter (cL) = 0.010 liter
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.010 meter
1 milliliter (mL) = 0.001 liter
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meter
1 microliter (mL) = 0.000,001 liter
1 micrometer (mm) = 0.000,001 meter
1 liter = 0.001 kiloliter
1 nanometer (nm) = 0.000,000,001 meter
0.010 hectoliter
1 meter = 0.001 kilometer
0.100 decaliter
0.01 hectometer
10 deciliters
0.1 decameter
100 centiliters
10 decimeters
1000 milliliters
100 centimeters
1,000,000 microliters
1000 millimeters
1,000,000 micrometers
1,000,000,000 nanometers
Measure of length 1 gallon, United States (128 fl. oz.) = 3785

1 inch = 2.54 cm mL
1 meter (m) = 39.37 1 gallon, United Kingdom = 4545 mL
Measure of volume Measure of weight
1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 29.57 mL 1 pound (lb, avoirdupois) = 454 g
1 pint (16 fl. oz.) = 473 mL 1 ounce (oz, avoirdupois) = 28.35 g
1 quart (32 fl. oz.) = 946 mL 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 lb

Measure of Weight The primary unit of weight in the SI is the gram, which is
the weight of 1 cm3 of water at 4°C, its temperature of greatest density.
For practical purposes, 1 cm3 of water ≈ 1 mL ≈ 1 g of weight
Measure of weight
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000,000 grams
1 hectogram (hg) = 100,000 grams
1 dekagram (dag) = 10,000 grams 1 gram (g)
1 decigram (dg) = 0.100 gram
1 centigram (cg) = 0.010 gram
1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 gram
1 microgram (mg or mcg) = 0.000,001 gram
1 nanogram (ng) = 0.000,000,001 gram
1 picogram (pg) = 0.000,000,000,001 gram
1 femtogram (fg) = 0.000,000,000,000,001 gram
1 gram = 0.001 kilogram
0.010 hectogram
0.100 decagram
10 decigrams
100 centigrams
1000 milligrams
1,000,000 micrograms
1,000,000,000 nanograms
1,000,000,000,000 picograms
1,000,000,000,000,000 femtograms

Although not precisely equivalent, the milliliter is so nearly the same volume as the cubic
centimeter (cm3, cc), the United States Pharmacopeia–National Formulary states: “One
milliliter (mL) is used herein as the equivalent of 1 cubic centimeter (cc)’’. Measurement of
volume is commonplace for the pharmacist in preparing and dispensing liquid medications
and for the patient in measuring dosage
Examples of the use of linear measurement in pharmacy include the dimensions of

transdermal skin patches, expressed in cm2; the use of a patient’s height and weight in
calculating the doses of certain drugs; and the clinical reference to the size of a patient’s
physical structure, as a tumor, usually measured in mm or cm.
As a point of reference, 1 inch is equivalent to 2.54 centimetres or 25.4 millimetres
Examples of unit conversions
1. How many milligrams are in 4 grams?
2. How many milligrams are in 5 grains?
4. How many kilograms does a 154-pound person weigh?

 Did you know? Most pharmacokinetic calculations—those used by

pharmacists to calculate drug dosages—are based on a 70 kg person. The
equations are adjusted for the patient’s actual body mass as part of the
calculation.
Self-test Activities
1. How many grams are in 3 kilograms?
2. How many millilitres are in 5 dL?
3. How many inches are in 5 meters?
4. If a patient weighs 22.4 kilograms, how many pounds is that?
5. A new way to diet: Just give your weight in kilograms!

6. How many centimetres are in 6 inches?
7. How many millilitres are in 15 litters?
8. If a solution has 10 mg of drug per millilitre, how much drug is in 10 mL?
Ratio Strengths

Ratio strengths are another type of pharmaceutical calculation, and they are
quite similar to percentage concentration problems. The amount of drug in a
preparation is expressed as ratio strength (for example, 1:10 strength).
Similar to percentage calculations, ratio strength problems can be weight-in-

volume, volume-in-volume, or weight-in-weight, depending on whether the
preparation involves liquids or solids. This calculation most often involves a
solution in which a drug powder is dissolved in water or some other vehicle.
But it could also be a liquid dissolved in a liquid, as with alcohol in water, or a
mixture of two solids, as with a drug in a cream or ointment. The percentage
refers to the amount of drug (the solute) that is dispersed in the vehicle (the
solvent).
With ratio strengths, you always assume that the solute is 1 part. Then you
calculate how many parts of the final preparation contain that 1 part. For
instance, in a 1:10 solution of sodium chloride, there is 1 part of sodium
chloride in 10 parts of solution. This is basically the opposite of a percentage
calculation where you are calculating the amount of solute present in 100 g or
100 mL of final product.
Here are some examples of ratio strength problems

1. What is the ratio strength (w/v) of a solution with 2 g of drug in 50 mL of
solution?
First, set up two common fractions that express the proportional relationships
 Therefore, the ratio strength is expressed as 1:25.
2. How many litters of a 1:20 dextrose solution contain 100 g of dextrose?

3. How many grams of Lidocaine are in 75 g of a 1:50 w/w ointment?
4. How many millilitres of ethanol are in 35 mL of a 1:2 v/v ethanol solution?
5. How many grams of a 1:100 hydrocortisone cream contain 0.5 g of

hydrocortisone?

6. How much sodium chloride is in 200 mL of a 1:111 solution?
7. How much of a 1:1.43 v/v ethanol solution would contain 140 mL of ethanol?
Self test activities
1. How many grams of dexamethasone are in 75 g of a 1:100 cream?
2. How many liters of a 1:2 alcohol solution contain 4 L of alcohol?
3. How many grams of dextrose are in 300 mL of a 1:20 solution?
Temperature Conversion
Although Americans are more familiar with Fahrenheit temperatures, most

medical temperature measurements are taken using the Centigrade or Celsius

system. As a result, pharmacy technicians are occasionally called on to
convert between the two systems.
The Celsius scale is based on the freezing and boiling points of water, which
are denoted as 0°C and 100°C. These two points are equivalent to 32°F and
212°F. To convert between the two systems, simply use the following
equation: 9(°C) = 5(°F)–160
Let’s use this equation to solve some problems.
 Convert 39°F to °C.
 Convert 80°C to °F.
Self test activity
1. Convert 98.6°F (normal body temperature) to °C.
2. Convert 20°C to °F.

1.3. Density, Specific Gravity and Specific Volume
Objectives
 Define density, specific gravity, and specific volume and determine each through
appropriate calculations.
 Calculate specific gravity from data derived from the use of a pycnometer.
 Apply specific gravity correctly in converting weight to volume and volume to weight.
Density (d):
It is mass per unit volume of a substance and is usually expressed as grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3).
The density of water is 1 g/cm3.
Density = Mass
Volume
Example: if 10 mL of sulfuric acid weighs 18 g, its density is:
Density = 18 (g) = 1.8 grams per milliliter
10 (mL)
Specific Gravity (Sp. Gr.)
It is a ratio, expressed decimally, of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal
volume of a substance chosen as a standard, both substances at the same temperature.
Water is used as the standard for the specific gravities of liquids and solids.
Sp. Gr. = Weight of substance

Weight of equal volume of water

Example: if 10 mL of sulfuric acid weighs 18 g, and 10 mL of water, under similar
conditions, weighs 10 g, the specific gravity of the acid is:
Sp. Gr. = 18 (g) = 1.8
10 (g)
ØSubstances that have a specific gravity less than 1 are lighter than water.
ØSubstances that have a specific gravity greater than 1 are heavier than water.
ØIt is important to remember that specific gravity is a factor that expresses how much heavier
or lighter a substance is than water, the standard with a specific gravity of 1.0.
For example, a liquid with a specific gravity of 1.25 is 1.25 times as heavy as water, and a
liquid with a specific gravity of 0.85 is 0.85 times as heavy as water.
ØThus, if we had 50 mL of a liquid with a specific gravity of 1.2, it would weigh 1.2 times as
much as an equivalent volume of water.
An equivalent volume of water, 50 mL, would weigh 50 g, and therefore the liquid would
weigh 1.2 times that, or 60 g.
Density and specific gravity are affected by:-
Changing temperature
Calculating the Specific Gravity of Liquids
Examples:If 54.96 mL of an oil weighs 52.78 g, what is the specific gravity of the oil?
Ø 54.96 mL of water weighs 54.96 g
Sp. gr. of oil = 52.78 (g) = 0.9603
54.96 (g)
Calculating Weight, Knowing the Volume and Specific Gravity
Grams (other liquid) = Grams (of equal volume of water) x Specific gravity (other liquid)
Examples: What is the weight, in grams, of 3620 mL of alcohol with a specific gravity of
0.820? 3620 mL of water weigh 3620 g
Answer. 3620 g x 0.820 = 2968 g
Examples: What is the weight, in grams, of 2 fl. oz. of a liquid having a specific gravity of
1.118?
In this type of problem, it is best to convert the given volume to its metric equivalent first and
then solve the problem in the metric system.
2 x 29.57 mL = 59.14 mL
59.14 mL of water weigh 59.14 g
Answer. 59.14 g x 1.118 = 66.12 g
Calculating Volume, Knowing the Weight and Specific Gravity
Milliliters = Grams
Specific gravity
Examples: What is the volume, in milliliters, of 492 g of nitric acid with a specific gravity of
1.40? 492 g of water measure 492 mL
492 (g) = 351 mL
1.4 (g)
Calculating Specific Volume
Specific volume (SP. Vol.)
It is usually defined as an abstract number representing the ratio, expressed decimally, of the
volume of a substance to the volume of an equal weight of another substance taken as a
standard, both having the same temperature.
Note: Sp.gr.& sp.vol. are reciprocal, if it multiplied together, the product is 1.
Example: If 25 gm of glycerin measure 20 ml & 25 gm of water measure 25 mL, under the

same conditions calculate the sp. Vol.?
Volume of 25 g of glycerin = 20 (mL) = 0.8
Volume of 25 g of water 25(mL)

Example: Calculate the specific volume of a syrup, 91.0 mL of which weighs 107.16 g?
107.16 g of water measures 107.16 mL
Sp. vol. of syrup = 91.0 (mL.) = 0.849
107.16 (mL.)
1.4. Percentage preparations

 While most medications are commercially available in ready-to-dispense
form, pharmacists and pharmacy technicians sometimes make prescriptions
from other ingredients through a process called compounding. This process
will be described in more detail in
 Percentage calculations come into play during compounding when one
substance (usually the drug) is dissolved or incorporated into a larger amount
of a second substance. This is most often a solution in which a drug powder
is dissolved in water or some other vehicle. The percentage then refers to the
amount of drug (the solute) that is dispersed in the vehicle (the solvent). An
example would be a solution of salt, or sodium chloride, dissolved in water.
 Many of these products are prepared for injection into the veins, and many
contain very powerful drugs. Because there is little room for error in these or
any other pharmaceutical calculations, you need to be completely certain of
the accuracy of your work. Always double or triple check your calculations
or ask someone else to confirm them.
 Fortunately, percentage calculations can be solved using the same ratio and
proportion technique presented in the previous section, Units of Measure and
Common Equivalents. All you have to remember is what “percentage”
means: the amount of solute in millilitres or grams contained in 100 mL or
100 g of the final solution.
Weight-in-Volume Solutions (w/v)
 If 5 g of dextrose (the chemical name for table sugar) is dissolved in water
such that 100 mL of total solution is prepared (5 g per 100 mL), the result is

a 5% solution of dextrose in water. Because this type of solution involves a
certain weight of drug in a total volume of solution, it is sometimes called a
weight-in-volume solution, and you will sometimes see the concentration
expressed as 5% w/v to denote this relationship. But because this is the most
common kind of solution, it is often understood that the percentage is w/v if
nothing indicates otherwise.
Volume-in-Volume Solutions (v/v)
 An example involving two liquids would be alcohol dissolved in water. A

70% ethanol solution in water is made up of 70 mL of ethanol (the kind of
alcohol found in beer, wine, and liquor) mixed with enough water to make
100 mL of solution (70 mL per 100 mL). These types of solutions are
sometimes called volume-in-volume solutions, and the percentage is then
written as 70% v/v.
Weight-in-Weight Percentages (w/w)
 When a drug is incorporated into another solid or semisolid product, such as

a cream or ointment, the product is expressed as a weight-in-weight
percentage. For example, 2 g of Lidocaine mixed with enough of a
compounding base to make 100 g of ointment (2 g per 100 g) would be a 2%
w/w Lidocaine ointment.
Let’s try a few problems using percentage calculations
 How many grams of dextrose are in 50 mL of a 5% w/v solution?
First, set up two common fractions that express the proportional
relationships:

 How many litters of a 5% dextrose solution contain 100 g of dextrose?
 Now, convert 2000 mL to litters:
 How many grams of Lidocaine are in 75 g of a 2% w/w ointment?
 How many millilitres of ethanol are in 35 mL of a 70% v/v ethanol solution?

 How many grams of a 1% hydrocortisone cream contain 0.5 g of hydrocortisone?
 How much sodium chloride is in 200 mL of a 0.9% solution?
 How much of a 70% v/v ethanol solution would contain 140 mL of ethanol?
Activities of self test

1. How many grams of dextrose would be needed to make 300 mL of a 5%
dextrose solution?
2. How many millilitres of ethanol are in 50 mL of a 50% v/v solution?
3. To prepare 150 g of a 2% w/w Lidocaine ointment, how many grams of
Lidocaine would you need?

LO2:- Describe pharmaceutical terminologies and medical terms
Pharmaceutical Dosage forms

Drugs: - is a chemical substance that modifies our physiologies that are used for prevention
(prophylactic), diagnosis, mitigation (relief pain) and cure (treatment of disease) and also
used as contraception.
Drug= pharmaceutical active ingredient + Excipient / Adjuvant/ Additive / Inactive substance
Pharmaceutical active ingredient: - is a chemical substance that is responsible

for pharmacological response or activity or direct affect in the diagnosis, cure or treatment of
disease.
Excipient / Adjuvant, Additive, Inactive substance/:-
 Improve organoleptic property – improve taste, smell (flavorants), sight

appearance (colorants), texture and shape.
 Improve stability; - to increase shelf life of the drug. Example- Antioxidant,
preservative.
 Improve the release of drugs. Example- disintegrates agent (Starch)
 Improve the protection from exogenous environmental. Example- Antioxidant,
preservative
Pharmaceutical dosage form= active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) +inactive

pharmaceutical ingredient (additives, adjuvant, excipient)
Active drug substance (active pharmaceutical ingredient - API)

 chemical compound with pharmacological (or other direct effect ) intended for used in
diagnosis, treatment or prevention of diseases
 Direct clinical use of the active drug substances „as they are“ is rare due to the number
of good reasons:
 API handling can be difficult or impossible (e.g., low mg and g doses)
 Accurate drug dosing can be difficult or impossible
 moisture…), or they need to be chemically stabilised due to the inherent chemical
instability
 API can be degraded at the site of administration (e.g., low pH in stomach)

 API may cause local irritations or injury when they are present at high concentrations
at the site of administration
 API can have unpleasant organoleptic qualities (taste, smell – compliance!)
 Administration of active substance would mean to have no chance for modification
(improvement) of its PK profile
 Besides the choice of the active drug substance, you need to also make a responsible
decision regarding the route of administration and the DOSAGE FORM(drug delivery
system) – wrong choice can cause failure of therapy
 You should also be able to handle and administer the drug properly or advise the
patient about it – wrong use can cause failure of therapy
 From drug substance to pharmaceutical preparation.
 API administration can be impractical, unfeasible or not according to the
therapeutically aims
 Some API can benefit from reducing the exposure to the environmental factors (light,
Pharmaceutical Dosage forms = active ingredient + additives
 Are the final formulation of products or formulations determines the physical form of the
final pharmaceutical preparation
 is a drug delivery system which is formed by technological processing (drug formulation)
 Must reflect therapeutic intentions, route of administrations, dosing etc.
Pharmaceutical preparation (PP)
 Particular pharmaceutical product containing active and inactive pharmaceutical

ingredients formulated into the particular dosage form.
 Packed and labelled appropriately
Two major types of PP according the origin:
 Mmanufactured in large scales by pharmaceutical industry (original and generic

preparations)
 Compounded individually in compounding pharmacies
 Rigorous quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) during manufacturing - with
surveillance of national authorities to ensure the safety and effectiveness
Requirements of a proper design & formulation of dosage form

*Consideration of drug substances:
Physical, chemical & biological characteristics
*compatible with one another - stable, efficacious, attractive, easy to administer & safe
*manufactured under appropriate measures of quality control & packaged in containers to
make product stable
*labelled to promote correct use & stored under conditions to maximize shell life
1. Chemical–active ingredient retains chemical integrity and labelled potency within the
specified limits.
 Important for selecting:
 storage conditions (temp., light, humidity)
 proper container for dispensing
 anticipating interactions when mixing drugs & dosage forms
 must know reaction order & rate
2. Physical - original physical properties, appearance, palatability, uniformity,

dissolution and suspend ability are retained.
3. Microbiologic–sterility/resistance to Microbial growth

4. Therapeutic–therapeutic effect remains unchanged
5. Toxicological- no significant increase in toxicity occurs.
Definition of terms
 Solventsare used to dissolve the drug substance.
 Flavours and sweetenersare used to make the product more palatable.
 Are agents used to impart a pleasant flavour and often odours to pharmaceutical
preparations?
Problems with flavouring agents include:-
Acceptance of flavours is influenced by age:-
 Children like fruit flavours

 Adults prefer more acid taste
 Old people find mint or wine flavours more agreeable
 Colorantsare added to enhance appeal
 Are agents used to impart colour to liquid and solid pharmaceutical preparations.

 To increase their acceptability
 For identification
 To give warning
 Preservatives may be added to prevent microbial growth.
 Are agents in liquid and semisolid preparation to prevent microorganisms?
 Stabilizers (antioxidants and chelating) - to prevent decomposition.
 Antioxidant: - that are agents inhibit oxidation and thus are used to prevent the
deterioration of preparations by the oxidation process.
 Diluents or fillers - to increase the bulk of the formulation.
 Binders– to cause adhesion of the powdered drug and pharmaceutical substances.
 Ant adherents or lubricantsto assist smooth tablet information.
 Disintegrating agents - promote tablet break up after administration and coatings to
improve stability, control disintegration or enhance appearance.
 Surfactants: - which adsorbed to surface or inter face to reduce surface or interfacial
tension.
 Emulsifying agents :- are agents required to stabilize emulsion
 Thickenings agents: - are viscosity increasing agents used to reduce the rate of
sedimentation of drug particle dispersed throughout a vehicle in which they are not
suitable.
 Sweetening Pharmaceuticals
 Used in foods and pharmaceuticals:
 sucrose, sorbitol glycerine
 artificial sweetening agents
 Use : - mask unwanted taste
 Commonly used - sucrose
Considerations in selecting preservative in

pharmaceutical preparations:
1. prevents the growth of the type of microorganisms (contaminants of the preparations)
2. soluble enough in water to achieve adequate concentrations in aqueous phase with two or more
phase systems

3. Proportion of preservative remaining undissociated at the pH of preparation (can penetrate the
microorganism &destroy its integrity Preservative Selection
4. Concentration of the preservative does not affect the safety/comfort of the patient
5with adequate stability and not reduced in concentration by chemical decomposition/volatilization
Mechanisms preservative interfere with microbial

growth, multiplications, and metabolism
1. Modifications of cell membrane permeability and leakage of cell constituents (partial lyses)
2. Lyses and cytoplasmic leakage
3. Irreversible coagulation of cytoplasmic constituents
4. Inhibition of cellular metabolism by interfering with enzyme systems/inhibition of cell wall

synthesis
5. Oxidation of cellular constituents
6. Hydrolysis
PRESERVATIVES:
 suitable substances added to enhance its permanency or usefulness
Examples: commonly employed:
 benzoic acid, alcohol sodium benzoate, phenyl mercuric nitrate and acetate phenol,
benzalkonium chloride
 preparation in large volumes as blood replenishes/nutrients
 no bacteriostatic additives
 Injectable prepns in small volumes
 Can be preserved with suitable preservatives.

Types of dosage forms
1. Liquid pharmaceutical dosage forms
 Solutions
 Suspensions
 Emulsions
2. Semisolid pharmaceutical dosage forms
 Ointments
 Creams
 Jellies
 Pastes
 Plasters
 Glycerogelatins
3. Solid pharmaceutical dosage forms
 Powder
 Granules
 Tablets
 Capsules
4. Miscellaneous pharmaceutical dosage forms
 Aerosols

 Sprays
 Suppositories, pessaries
1. Liquid pharmaceutical dosage forms
 Solutions
 Suspensions
 Emulsions
Solutions
 In physicochemical terms, solutions may be prepared from any

combination of solid, liquid and gas, the three state of matter. For
example a solid solute may be dissolved in another solid, a liquid or gas
and the same being true for a liquid solute and for a gas, nine types of
homogeneous mixtures are possible.
 In pharmacy, however, interest in solution is for the most part limited to
preparations of a solid, a liquid and less frequently a gas solute in a liquid
solvent.
 In pharmaceutical terms, solutions are homogenous liquid preparations
that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved in a suitable
solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents.
It is represented by a true solution. They are known or molecular dispersion.
Suspension (Coarse Dispersions)
 Many pharmaceutical preparations are dispersed systems, i.e. systems in

which one substance (the dispose phase) is distributed in particular from
throughout another (the dispersion medium or continuous phase). Together,
they produce a dispersed system.
Suspensions

A pharmaceutical suspension may be defined as a coarse dispersion
containing finally divided drug particles (Insoluble materials) i.e. the
suspension distributed uniformly throughout the vehicle in which the drug
exhibits a minimum degree of solubility.
 Some suspensions are available in ready to use the, that is already distributed
through a liquid vehicle with or without stabilizers and other additives.
 Other preparations are available as dry powders intended for suspension in
liquid vehicles. This type of product generally is a powder mixture
containing the drug and suitable suspending and dispensing agents to be
diluted and agitated with a specified quantity of vehicle, generally purified
water.
Comparison between flocculated and non-flocculated suspensions
S.no Flocculated suspension Non flocculated suspension
1. Particles form loose aggregates and form a - Particles exist as separate entities
network like structure
2. The rate of sedimentation is high - The rate of sedimentation is slow
3. Sediment is rapidly formed - Sediment is slowly formed
4. Sediment is loosely packed and does not form a - Sediment is very closely packed and a
hard cake hard cake is formed
5. Sediment is easy to redisperse - Sediment is difficult to redisperse
6. Supernatant liquid is clear - Supernatant liquid is not clear
The drug particles (dispersed phase) in suspensions could be
1. Diffusible solids
2. In diffusible solids or
3. Poorly wet table solids

1. Suspensions Containing Diffusible solids
 Some insoluble powders are light and easily wettable, hence, they readily
mix with water and, on shaking diffuse evenly through the liquid for long
enough to ensure even distribution in each dose. Such substances are known
as diffusible or dispersible solids.
Examples of diffusible solids are light kaolin, magnesium trisilcate, light

magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate.
2. Suspension containing in diffusible solids
In diffusible solids will not remain evenly distributed in a vehicle long enough
to ensure uniformity of dose. The simplest way of correcting this problem is to
increase the viscosity of the vehicles by adding as thickening agent which
delays sedimentation by impending fall of the particles under gravity and by
obstruction particles collision, which leads to the formation of particles that
settle rapidly.
Examples of diffusible solids are Calamine
3. Suspensions Containing Poorly Wettable Solids
 Some substances are both insoluble in water and poorly wetted by it. When
dispersion in water is prepared, it is difficult to disperse clumps and the foam
produced by shaking tends to persist because it is stabilized by the film of
unwettable solids at the liquid/solid interface.
 To ensure satisfactory wetting the interfacial energy between the solid
particles and the liquid must be reduced. This may be achieved by adding a
suitable wetting agent which is absorbed at the solid/Liquid interface in such
a way that the affinity of the particles for the surrounding medium is
increased while the inter particular forces are decreased, i.e. deflocculating
occurs.

 Surface–active agents such as wetting agents for external application
includequillia tincture and sodium lauryl sulphate.
For oral administration, the less toxic polysorbets and sorbitol esters are
preferred. Hydrophilic colloids such as acacia, tragacanth and the alginates
will also act as wetting agents by coating solid hydrophobic particles and
imparting a hydrophilic character. These substances also cause
deflocculating of particles and imparting a hydrophilic character. These
substances also cause deflocculating of particles in suspension especially
at low concentration
Emulsions
 An emulsion is a dispersion in which the dispersed phase is composed of

small globules of a liquid distributed throughout the vehicle (dispersion
medium, external phase or continuous phase) in which it is immiscible with
the help of a third agent called emulgent (emulsifying agent.
 Normally, two immiscible liquids cannot be dispersed for a long period. So,
an emulsifying agent is added to the system. It forms around the globules in
order to scatter them indefinitely in the continuous phase, so that a stable
emulsion is formed.
Advantage of Emulsions
1. Medicines having unpleasant taste and odour can be made more palatable for
oral administration in the form of an emulsion.
E.g. Castor oil, Cod-liver oil etc
2. Emulsion provides protection against drugs which are prone to oxidation

or hydrolysis
3. Various external preparations such as creams lotion and foam aerosols are
formulated in emulsion.

Determination of Emulsion Type
 Several tests are available for distinguishing between O/W and W/O
emulsions. They include dilution with water, staining techniques and
conductivity measurements
1. Dilution test: the emulsion is diluted with water. In case the emulsions
remains stable after its dilution, it is O/W emulsions breaks on its dilution
with water but remains stable when dilution with oil.
2. Dye test: The scarlet red- dye is mixed with the emulsion. Place a drop of
the emulsion on a microscopic slide. Cover it with a cover-lip, and
examine it under a microscope. If the disperse globules appear red and
the ‘ground’ colourless, the emulsion is O/W type. The reverse condition
occurs in W/O type emulsion i.e. the disperse globules appear colourless
in the red ‘ground’
3. Conductivity test:-Water conduct electricity; hence an emulsion in

which water forms the continuous phase act as a conductor. Oil is a non-
conductor hence an emulsion in which oil forms the continuous phase
acts as a non-conductor.
The emulsions are of two types
1. Oil in water type (O/W)
2. Water in oil type (W/O)
 In oil in water type emulsion, the oil is in dispersed phase where as water
is in the continuous phase.
 In these emulsion, gum acacia, tragacanth, methyl cellulose, saponins
synthetic substances and soaps formed from monovalent bases like Na+,
K+ and NH+4 are used as emulsifying agents

 Pharmaceutical emulsions may be prepared as liquids or semisolids.
Based on the constituents and the intended application, liquid emulsions
may be employed orally topically.
 In water – in oil type emulsion, the water is in the dispersed phase where
as oil is the continuous phase.
 Emulsions to be applied to the skin may be O/W or W/O, depending on
such factors as the
SEMI SOLID DOSAGE FORMS
 Semisolid dosage forms are products of semisolid consistency and applied

to skin or mucous membranes for therapeutic or protective action or
cosmetic function.
Semi-solid dosage forms may be:-
A. Medicated:- are semi-solid dosage forms that contain a therapeutic agent

and they are mostly used to treat skin conditions
B. Un-medicated:-are those semi-solid preparations which are used for their

physical effect, that is, for their ability to act as skin protectant, lubricant,
emollient or drying agents.
• Topical applications can be designed for either local effects or systemic

absorption.
• A local dermatological product is designed to deliver drug into the skin

in treating dermal disorders, with the skin as a target organ.
SOLID DOSAGE FORMS
1. Tablets
 TABLETIs solid pharmaceutical dosage forms containing drug
substances with or without suitable diluents and prepared either by
compression or moulding methods.

Advantages of tablets
1- Compared to liquid dosage forms tablets possess more chemical and physical
stability
2- Packaging in blister packs can also enhance the stability of tablets.
3- They provide an accurately measured dose and low content variability of the
unit dose.
4- Low manufacturing cost.
5- Easy to package and ship.
6- Simple to identify. (Coatings can be colored or stamped to aid tablet

recognition
7- Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets special

properties for example enteric coatings or sustained release formulations.
Disadvantages of tablets as a dosage form
1- Poor bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs or poorly absorbable drugs.
2- Some drugs may cause local irritation effect and harm GI mucosa.
3- Some drugs resist compression into tablet.
4- Difficulty in swallowing in some patients; paediatrics and geriatrics.
5- In emergency cases, intravenous or intramuscular injections are more effective.
Classification of tablets
I- According to drug release rate from the tablet (USP classification):

a- Immediate release (Conventional) tablet
b- Modified release tablet (Extended and Delayed release tablet).
II- According to method of manufacturing:
a- Compressed tablet
b- Molded tablet.
I- According to drug release rate from the tablet (USP

classification):
a- Immediate release (Conventional) tablet:
 The tablet is intended to be released rapidly after administration, or the

tablet is dissolved and administered as solution.
It is the most common type and includes
 Disintegrating tablet
 Chewable tablet
 Sublingual tablet
 Buccal tablet
 Effervescent tablet
b- Modified-release tablet:
 They have release features based on; time, course or location. They must
be swallowed intact.
1-Extended-release tablet
 Allowing the reduction in dosing frequency.
2- Delayed-release tablet
 Drug release is delayed due to physiological conditions e.g. pH (a lag period

followed by normal release).
The best example is enteric coated tablets; the drug is released in the upper part
of the small intestine after which the preparation has passed the stomach.
If the drug is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric

coating can be used.

II- According to method of manufacturing:
a- Compressed tablet: It is obtained by compressing uniform volume of

particles using "Tablet compression machine". It's used for large scale
production.
b- Molded tablet: Molding means shaping and hardening of semi-solid mixture

of drug and excipient. It is obtained using "tablet mould". It is restricted for
small-dose tablet and small-scale production.
Tablets may differ greatly in size and weight depending on the amount of drug
substance present and the intended method of administration.
They are divided into two general classes, whether they are made by
compression or moulding.
1. Compressed Tablets (CT)
 Are formed by compression and contain no special coating.

 They are made from powdered, crystalline or granular materials,
alone or in combination with binders, disintegrates, controlled-
release polymers, lubricants, diluents and, in many cases, colorants
Sugar-Coated Tablets (SCT) –
 These are compressed tablets containing a sugar coating. Such

coatings may be coloured and are beneficial in covering up drug
substances possessing objectionable tastes or odours, and in
protecting materials sensitive to oxidation.
Film-Coated Tablets (FCT) –

 These are compressed tablets which are covered with a thin layer
or film of a water-soluble material. A number of polymeric
substances with film-forming properties may be used. Film coating
imparts the same general characteristics as sugar coating with the
added advantage of a greatly reduced time period required for the
coating operation.
Enteric-Coated Tablets (ECT) –
 These are compressed tablets coated with substances that resist solution in
gastric fluid but disintegrate in the intestine. It can be used for tablets
containing drug substances which are inactivated or destroyed in the
stomach, for those which irritate the mucosa or as a means of delayed release
of the medication.
Multiple Compressed Tablets (MCT) –
 These are compressed tablets made by more than one compression cycle.
Tablet preparations
There are three general methods of tablet preparation:
1-The wet-granulation method
2- The dry-granulation method and
3- Direct compression.
 After compression, the tablets must have a number of additional attributes

such as
-Appearance,
-Hardness,
-Disintegration ability

-Appropriate dissolution characteristics and
-Uniformity which also are influenced both by :
-The method of preparation and by
-The added materials present in the formulation.
1. CAPSULES
(Capsule: small box)
 Capsules are solid dosage forms in which medicinal agents and /or inert
substances are enclosed within a small shell of gelatine.
Advantage of encapsulation:

 Taste concealment (unpleasant taste)

 Elegance, smooth slippery, easily swallowed shell
 Nice presentation of the drug
 Portability, convenient
 Light weight
 Rapid drug release
 Can be used for the extemporaneous compounding of prescriptions.
Capsules are made of hard or soft gelatine shell

1. Hard gelatine capsules
 The empty capsule shells are made from a mixture of gelatine, plasticizer,
sugar and water (and may contain FD&C dyes and / or opacifying agent,
preservative, enteric agent, flavour).
Capsules are not suitable:
1. For drugs that are very soluble: as salts (potassium chloride, pot. bromide,
ammonium chloride).

2. for efflorescent or deliquescent materials.
Gelatine: is obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen obtained from bones,

skin, and connective tissue of animals.
 Non-toxic, used in food stuff.
 Readily soluble in biological fluid at body temperature
 Good film forming material
 Undergoes a reversible phase change at a little high temp.
 Viscosity of gelatine also determined on a 6.66% conc. of gelatine in

water, is a measure of the molecular chain length and determines the
manufacturing characteristics of the gelatine film.
 Iron is always present in the raw gelatine, gelatine used in the
manufacturing of soft gelatine capsules should not contain more than
15% of this element, because its effect on FD&C dyes and possible
colour reactions with organic compounds.
Plasticizers:Glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol.
The ratio by weight of dry plasticizer to dry gelatin determines the hardness of
the gelatine shell.
All formulations for filling into capsules must:
 Be able to accurately dosed into the capsule shell(accurate, ease of filling, elegance).
 Release their contents in an available form to the patient (good bioavailability).
Types of materials for filling into hard gelatine capsules:
 Dry solid: powders, granules, tablets, pellets

 Semisolids: pastes, thermo softening
Steps for preparation of filled hard gelatine capsules:
1- Developing the formulation and selecting the size capsule.

2- Filling the capsule shells.
3- Capsule sealing (optional).
4-Cleansing and polishing the filled capsule
2. Soft Gelatine Capsules(SGC) or
Soft elastic gelatine (SEG)
Pharmaceutical applications:
1-As an oral dosage form for human or veterinary
2-As a suppository dosage form for rectal or vaginal use
3-As a specialty package in tube form, for single dose application of topical and
ophthalmic preparations; rectal ointments; ear and nose drops.

Rotary die process machine (Scherer), Iron mold was used for shaping the
capsule.
 SGC are used to hermetically seal and encapsulate liquids, suspensions,

pasty materials and dry powders.
Advantages of SGC as a dosage form:
1. -A compression stage is not included.

2. -The dose content uniformity is optimized, with reduction of the cost
through the use of smaller averages.
3. -Protection of sensitive drug from oxidation and hydrolysis.
4. -The drug is dissolved or dispersed in vehicle which provides high
surface area and good bioavailability.
The nature of the capsule contents:
Liquid vehicles:
1. -water-immiscible, volatile and non-volatile liquids as vegetable and

aromatic oils, chlorinated hydrocarbons, ethers
2. .water-miscible, non-volatile liquids as PEG, and non-ionic surfactants
3. .water-miscible and relatively non-volatile liquids: alcohol (isopropyl
alcohol), propylene glycol and glycerol, polglycerols, sugar esters, glycerol
esters.
3. Powders and Granules
 Most active and inactive pharmaceutical ingredients occur in a solid state
as amorphous powders or as crystals of various morphological structures.
 The term powders have more than one connotation in pharmacy. It may
be used to describe the physical form of a material, that is, a dry
substance composed of finely divided particles. Or it may be used to
describe a type of pharmaceutical preparation, that is a medicated powder

intended for internal (i.e., oral powders) or external (i.e., topical powder)
use.
Powders are intimate mixtures of dry, finely divided drugs and/or chemicals
that may be intended for external or internal use.
 As pharmaceutical preparations, a powder is a mixture of finely divided

drugs and/or chemicals in dry form.
Granules which are prepared agglomerates of powder material, may be used

for the medicinal value of their content or they may be used for pharmaceutical
purpose, as in making tablets.
Medicated Powders
Some medicated powders are intended to be used internally; others, externally.

Most powders for internal use are taken orally after mixing with water. Some
powders are intended to be inhaled for local and systemic effects.
Bulk and Divided Powders
Medicated Powders may be provided to the patient in bulk and divided. Some
powders are packaged by manufacturers, whereas others are prepared and
packaged by the pharmacist.
Bulk powders
 The substance prescribed in this form is bulky powder. Such as light and
heavy magnesium carbonate, magnesium trisilicate, etc.
Among the bulk powders available in pre-packaged amount are
a. Antacids (e.g. sodium bicarbonates) and laxatives (e.g. psyllium) which the
patients take by mixing with water or other beverages.
b. Douche powders (e.g. massengil powder), dissolved in warm water by the
patient for vaginal use.

Divided Powders
 This form of powder may contain one or more drugs together, it may be
divided in to individual dosing units based on the amount to be taken or
used at a single time. Divided powders are prepared by geometric dilution
techniques.
Compounding of powders
 The basic techniques for the compounding of powder are:-

 Size reduction
 Weighing and
 Mixing (blending)
On a small scale the powdered ingredients may be mixed with mortar and pestle
1. Suppositories
 Solid or semi-solid dosage forms intended for insertion into body orifices
 Melt, soften, or dissolve
Exert local or systemic effects
 Suppositories are conical or ovoid formulations intended to be
administered through rectal route.

Why do need suppositories
1. To provide local effect on the rectum.
Example: - Antinflamatory agent for treatment of hemorage.
2. To provide systemic effect.
3. To promote evacuation
4. For patients who are unconscious, mentally disturbed, unable to
tolerate oral medication b/s of vomiting and GIT problem
5. For gastric irritant drug
6. To treat infants
7. To avoids gastric environment and by pass portal circulation
8. Good absorption of rectal cavity than oral
Disadvantage of Suppositories
1. Psychological barrier/pt inconvenience
2. Inflammation of rectum and anal area
The properties of an ideal suppository base are :-
• Melts at body temperature or dissolves in body fluids.
• Non-toxic and non-irritant.
• Compatible with any medicament.
• Releases any medicament readily
• Easily moulded and removed from the mould
• stable to heating above the melting point
• Resistant to handling
• Stable on storage
Preparation of suppositories:- suppositories are prepared by suppositories Molds and

contains drug substances and Suppositories bases.
 Base + drug substance

Suppository mold

• There are two main classes of suppository base.
• Fatty bases designed to melt at body temperature.
• Water-soluble or water-miscible bases designed to

dissolve or disperse within the body
Example of base: - Theobroma oil

Theobroma oil (cocoa butter)
• This is a yellowish-white solid with an odour of chocolate and is a
mixture of the glycerol esters of stearic, palmitic, oleic and other fatty
acids.
Advantages of Theobroma oil include:
1. A melting point range of 30-36OC (i.e solid at normal room temperatures but
melts in the body)
2. Readily melted on warming, rapid setting on cooling
3. Miscible with many ingredients.
4. Non-irritating
Disadvantages of Theobroma oil include
1. Adherence to the mould.
2. Softening point too low for hot climates

3. Melting point reduced by soluble ingredients
4. Rancidity on storage
5. Poor water-absorbing ability
6. Leakage from the body.
7. Expensive
2. Pessaries
 Pessaries are formulations intended through vaginal route.

 Vaginal dosage forms may be successfully employed to provide a local
effect for the treatment of infection (fungal and bacterial) and for the
treatment of hormone deficiency (topical hormone replacement therapy
for the treatment of vaginal atrophy).
 Vaginal dosage forms may be employed to provide systemic drug
absorption of certain therapeutic agents.
 prostaglandins (for cervical ripening)
Types of Vaginal preparations

 There are several types of dosage forms that are administered to the vagina.
 The main types of dosage forms that are administered via the vagina to achieve a local
or systemic effect are:
1) Semisolid formulations;
2) Tablets and capsules;
3) Pessaries (vaginal suppositories); and
4) Vaginal implants.

Intrauterine devices (IUDS)are small flexible devices made of metal or plastic

that prevents pregnancy when inserted into a woman’s uterus.
• The most widely used IUDs are copper-bearing IUDs.

• IUDs are a safe and effective method of reversible, long-term
contraception for most women. .
Special labels and advice for suppositories and pessaries
 Store in a cool place
 For rectal use only
 For vaginal use only
MISELLINOUS (GASE DOSAGE FORM)
2. Aerosols
 Aerosols are colloidal system very fine drug particles or
droplets dispersed (dissolved).

Example:- Perfumes, Deodorant, Insecticides, drugs like-

Salbutamol, hydrocortisone
Advantage of Aerosols
1. Less risk of contamination
2. Tamper proof- difficult to alter the content of an Aerosol.
3. They are hermetically sealed. Especially for volatile substance,
liquids, oxidizable.
4. Thin layer application to skin without touching.
Example: - inflamed skin treatment
5. Accurate of dosage is mo
Medical abbreviations
a. Abbreviations found in instruction to patients found in prescriptions

include:
i. AC – Before Meal
ii. PC – After Meal
iii. PO – Per Orem, Oral
iv. NPO – Non Per Orem
v. AQ – Aqueous – Water
vi. BID – twice a day
vii. TID – thrice a day
b. Abbreviations used in dosage forms include:
i. tablet – tab
ii. capsule – cap
iii. suspension - susp

iv. Modified Release – MR
v. intravenous – IV
vi. intramuscular – IM
 Abbreviations used for medical terminologies include:
 BMI – Body Mass Index
 N/V – Nausea and Vomiting
I. BP – Blood Pressure
II. TB – tuberculosis
III. HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
 Abbreviations in medications include:
 ASA – aspirin
 INH – isoniazid
 Abbreviations used in practice include:
 DOTS – Direct observed therapy short-course
 Medical term
 Condition may be:
 Indication
 Adverse drug reaction
 Contraindication
 Drug interaction
 Fever
 Diarrhea
 Nausea and vomiting

May include, but not limited to:
 Solid may be:
 Tablet
 Modified-extended release
 Immediate release
 Capsule
 Liquid may be:
 Syrup
 Suspension
 Emulsion
 Parenteral may be:
 Intravenous
 Intramuscular
 Subcutaneous
 Semi-solid may be:
 Gel
 Ointment
 Suppository
 Cream
 Paste
Abbreviation with meaning

EOD Every other day PO By mouth, Per Orem

SID Once daily SQ, SC, Subc, subq Subcutaneously
BID Twice daily IM Intramuscular
TID Three times daily IV Intravenously
QID Four times daily OD Right eye
PRN As needed OS Left eye
Qh Every hour OU Both eyes
q4h Every four hour AD Right ear
q30min Every 30 minutes AS Left ear
Qd Every day AU Both ear
Ad lib Freely as wanted ID Intradermal
h.s At bed times
Ib (or Ibs) Pounds BMI Body Mass Index
mg milligrams N/V Nausea and Vomiting
G Gram BP Blood Pressure
Kg kilograms TB Tuberculosis
U Unit HIV Human Immunodeficiency

Virus
gr grain ASA Aspirin
mEq milliequivalent INH Isoniazid

ml milliliter DOTS Direct observed therapy
Oz ounce
Qs Quantity sufficient
Tbsp. tablespoon
Tsp teaspoon

Other Abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
Sig Signature
Stat Immediately
Susp Suspension
Tab Tablet
Syr Syrup
Cap Capsule
Amp Ampoule
DAW Dispense as written
MR Modified Release
AC Before Meal
PC After Meal
NPO Non Per Orem
AQ Aqueous – Water
LO3:- Use of equipment, glassware, and tools
Conical Graduate

Cylindrical Graduates
Suspension preparation
 A dispersion system where solid particles (dispersed phase) are dispersed in liquid phase
(dispersion medium)

Paste formulation
 Semisolid dispersion system, where a solid particles (> 25%) are dispersed in ointments –
mostly oleaginous (Petrolatum)
Suppository
Triple beam balance

. Reading scale of a triple beam balance
Spatula
Watch glass
Conical flasks

Amber colored dispensing bottle
Droppers
Ointment slab

 Mortar and pestle
Water bath
 Ointment Jars

Suppository moulds

Sample compounding Labortory

Use Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies

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HARAMBEE UNIVERSITY TVET PHARMACY LEVEL III

Based on Ethiopian Occupational Standard

1. Unit of Competences: Use Pharmaceutical

LO1:- Use dimensional analysis to convert one unit to another

1. Measuring Pharmaceutical quantities

2. Described the pharmaceutical terminology and dosage forms

3. Understand pharmaceuticals preparations

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 2

At the end of this module the trainers are able to:-

LO1:- Use dimensional analysis to convert one unit to another

1.1. Mathematical Review

 By what area the pharmacy studied or applied

Ceutics: - Technique, Dosage design or formulation of drugs.

Pharmaceutics: - is the science of dosage form design or preparation.

 It deals about drug dosage design or drug formulation

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 3

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 4

a) Define the concentration or strength of a pharmaceutical preparation (e.g., a 10%

During a clinical study involving 2430 subjects, 2% of the subjects developed a

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 5

1. If a = c a=bc b= a d c=ad and d = b c

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 6

If 3 tablets contain 975 milligrams of aspirin, how many milligrams should be

3(tablets) = 975 (milligrams)

X (milligrams) = 12 (tablets) x 975 (milligrams) = 3900 milligram

3 (tablets) = 975 (milligrams)

X (tablets) 3900 (milligrams)

X (tablets) = 3 (tablets) x 3900 (milligrams) = 12 tablets

If 12 tablets contain 3900 milligrams of aspirin, how many milligrams should 3

12 (tablets) = 3900 (milligrams)

X (milligram) = 3 (tablets) x 3900 (milligrams) = 975 tablets

12 (tablets) = 3900 (milligrams)

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 7

X (tablets) = 12 (tablets) x 975 (milligrams) = 3 tablets

1/6 = 0.167 and ¼= 0.25

0.167(volume) = 30 (milliliters) = X= 44.91 or ≈ 45 milliliters

0.25 (volume) X (milliliters)

1.2. Metric System

Measure of Length and Volume

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 8

1 kilometer (km) = 1,000,000 meters 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000,000

1 hectometer (hm) = 100,000 meters liters 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100,000 liters

Measure of length 1 gallon, United States (128 fl. oz.) = 3785

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 9

1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000,000 grams

1 hectogram (hg) = 100,000 grams

1 dekagram (dag) = 10,000 grams 1 gram (g)

1 decigram (dg) = 0.100 gram

1 centigram (cg) = 0.010 gram

1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 gram

1 microgram (mg or mcg) = 0.000,001 gram

1 nanogram (ng) = 0.000,000,001 gram

1 picogram (pg) = 0.000,000,000,001 gram

1 femtogram (fg) = 0.000,000,000,000,001 gram

1 gram = 0.001 kilogram

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 10

Examples of the use of linear measurement in pharmacy include the dimensions of

As a point of reference, 1 inch is equivalent to 2.54 centimetres or 25.4 millimetres

Examples of unit conversions

1. How many milligrams are in 4 grams?

2. How many milligrams are in 5 grains?

4. How many kilograms does a 154-pound person weigh?

Using Pharmaceutical Calculation Techniques and Terminologies Hand out Page 11

 Did you know? Most pharmacokinetic calculations—those used by