Tortora Microbiology CH 17 Study

Science Biology Immunology

Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Leave the first rating

Textbook solutions for Tortora Microbiology CH 17

Solve tough problems on your own with the help of expert-written solutions

Human Resource Management

15th Edition
John David Jackson, Patricia Meglich, Robert Mathis, Sean Valentine

249 solutions

Search for a textbook or question

Terms in this set (146)

Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Adaptive immunity consists of two parts:
Humoral immunity
cellular immunity
Effector cells
Effector cells
secondary response
Is vaccination an example of innate or
adaptive immunity?
humoral immunity and cellular immunity.
adaptive immunity also includes a memory component.
Both parts of adaptive immunity involve the recognition of specific
antigens, followed by activation and clonal expansion of the immune
cells, and result in the production of effector and memory cells.
the adaptive immune system defenses are acquired through infection or
vaccination and are highly specific.but slower
involves antibodies produced by B cells
involves T cells.
Effector cells in humoral immunity target antigens outside cells, such as
bacteria replicating in the extracellular spaces of the host.
Effector cells in cellular immunity, by contrast, target antigens inside the
cells, for example, a virus-infected cell.
which will be faster and more effective as a result of a "memory" of the
first infection.
Adaptive immunity
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
bursa of Fabricius
septic shock.
T lymphocytes, or T cells
T cells are formed and mature where
Differentiation of T cells and B cells.
B cells produce?
(Latin: Bursa cloacalis or Bursa fabricii) is the site of hematopoiesis, a
specialized organ that, as first demonstrated by Bruce Glick and later by
Max Cooper and Robert Good, is necessary for B cell (part of the
immune system) development in birds.
Septic shock is a serious medical condition that occurs when sepsis,
which is organ injury or damage in response to infection, leads to
dangerously low blood pressure and abnormalities in cellular
metabolism.
are the basis of cellular immunity, also called cell-mediated immunity
formed in the bone marrown and migrate to the thymus where they
mature
Both B cells and T cells originate from stem cells in adult red bone
marrow or in the fetal liver. Some cells pass through the thymus and
emerge as mature T cells. Other cells probably remain in the red bone
marrow and become B cells. Both types of cells then migrate to
lymphoid tissues, such as the lymph nodes or spleen.
antibodies
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 center on attacking antigens that make their way inside cells
Because humoral immunity fights invaders outside cells, its efforts tend
cellular immunity
to focus on bacteria and their toxins, as well as viruses before they
penetrate the target cells.

responses are directed at antigens that are extracellular (such as in

blood or other body fluids). This means that cellular immunity is
humoral immunity generally best at fighting viruses that have infected a cell, as well as
some fungal and parasitic infections, which generally involve pathogens
much larger than bacteria and viruses.

are produced ny T cells when stimulated when become in contact with

cytokines production
antigens by means of receptors on their surface

are chemical messengers,soluble proteins or glycoproteins that are

Cytokines produced by practically all cells of the immune system in response to a
stimulus. A cytokine acts only on a cell that has a receptor for it.

Cytokines that serve as communicators interleukins

between leukocytes are now known as

A family of small cytokines that induces the chemokines

migration of leukocytes into areas of from chemotaxis. These are especially important for infections by HIV
infection or tissue damage is called
Tortora Microbiology
Another family of cytokines is the CH 17
interferons interfering with viral infections in host cells.
(IFNs)

tumor cells is one of the targets

are a strong factor in inflammatory reactions of autoimmune diseases
tumor necrosis factor (TNF) cytokines
such as rheumatoid arthritis. Monoclonal antibodies that block the
action of TNF are an available therapy for some of these conditions.

function in controlling the pathways by which stem cells develop into

different red or white blood cells
interleukins such as IL-1; others are termed colony stimulating factors
(CSF). An example is granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF). This
hematopoietic cytokines
particular CSF stimulates the production of neutrophils from the
granulocyte monocyte precursors. Another, GM-CSF, is used
therapeutically to increase the numbers of protective macrophages and
granulocytes in patients undergoing red bone marrow transplants.

cytokines provoking more production of cytokines

do significant damage to tissues, which appears to be a factor in the
cytokine storm
pathology of certain diseases and conditions such as influenza, Ebola
hemorrhagic fever, graft-versus-host disease and sepsis

antigen anything that causes sntibody formation

Tortora Microbiology CH 17 Antigens provoke a highly specific immune response that, in humoral
immunity, results in the production of antibodies that are capable of
immunogens. recognizing the antigen that gave rise to them. Antigens that cause such
a response are, therefore, often more descriptively known as
immunogens.

antibodies recognize and interact with specific regions on antigens

called epitopes or antigenic determinants
Each antigen carries more than one epitope. Each Y-shaped antibody
molecule has two binding sites that can attach to a specific epitope on
an antigen. An antibody can also bind to identical epitopes on two
epitopes different cells at the same time, which can cause neighboring cells to
aggregate.

Which would have more epitopes: a protein proteins, because a lipid is not a good antigen
or a lipid? Why?

low-molecular-weight compounds that does A hapten is a molecule too small to stimulate antibody formation by
not cause the production of antibodies by itself. However, when the hapten is combined with a larger carrier
itself but it does so when combined with a molecule, usually a serum protein, the hapten and its carrier together
carrier form a conjugate that can stimulate an immune response.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 is a good example of a hapten. This drug is not antigenic by itself, but
some people develop an allergic reaction to it. (Allergic reactions are a
type of immune response.) In these people, when penicillin combines
with host proteins, the resulting combined molecule initiates an immune
Penicillin response.

or globulin proteins that is also called

immunoglobulins (Ig)
Antibodies
Antibodies are made in response to an antigen and can recognize and
bind to the antigen.

Each antibody has at least two identical antigen-binding sites that bind
to epitopes
The Y-shaped molecule is composed of two light chains and two heavy
chains linked by disulfide bridges (S—S). Most of the molecule is made
up of constant regions (C), which are the same for all antibodies of the
Antibody Structure same class. The amino acid sequences of the variable regions (V), which
form the two antigen-binding sites, differ from antibody to antibody.
Tortora Microbiology
What is responsible CHof17
for the specificity Each antibody has a unique variable region, which is responsible for
each different antibody? antigen detection

Monomer
Percentage of Total Serum Antibody 80%
In regions of inflammation, these monomer antibodies readily cross the
walls of blood vessels and enter tissue fluids. Maternal IgG antibodies,
for example, can cross the placenta and confer passive immunity to a
fetus. IgG antibodies protect against circulating bacteria and viruses,
IgG
neutralize bacterial toxins, trigger the complement system, and, when
bound to antigens, enhance the effectiveness of phagocytic cells.

Pentamer
make up 6% of the antibodies in serum.
Especially effective against microorganisms and agglutinating antigens;
first antibodies produced in response to initial infection
IgM
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 Dimer (with secretory component)
Secretions (tears, saliva, mucus, intestine, milk), blood, lymph
Localized protection on mucosal surfaces
most common in mucous membranes
IgA

antibodies make up only about 0.02% of the total serum antibodies.

Their structure resembles that of IgG molecules. IgD antibodies are
found in blood, lymph, and particularly on the surfaces of B cells.
Serum IgD has no well-defined function; on B cells it assists in the
IgD immune response.

Monomer
IgE Bound to mast and basophil cells throughout body, blood
Allergic reactions; possibly lysis of parasitic worms

most common imuglobulins on the surface IgM and IgD

of B cell
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
how a B cell becomes activated?
When a B cell's immunoglobulins bind to the epitope for which they
become specific, the B cell is activated.

what happens when a B cell is activated? The B cells undergoes clonal expansion or proliferation

what cells assist B cells for activation T helper cell

the B cell is producing antibodies against a T-dependent antigen.

Activation of B cells to produce antibodies.

is a collection of genes that encode molecules of genetically diverse

MHC
glycoproteins (that is, part carbohydrate and part protein).

are found on the plasma membranes of mammalian nucleated cells.

I MHC They identify "self," preventing the immune system from making
antibodies that would be harmful to the host.

molecules exist only on the surface of antigen-presenting molecules

Class II MHC
(APCs)—including B cells.
Tortora Microbiology
T helper cell
CH 17 produce cytokines after contact with the antigenic fragment presented
on the surface of the B cell

The B cell proliferates into a large clone of cells. Some of these cells
differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells. Other clones
B cell differentiate into
become long-lived memory cells that are responsible for the enhanced
secondary response to an antigen.

The binding of antibodies to antigens to form antigen-antibody

complexes tags foreign cells and molecules for destruction by
phagocytes and complement
agglutination, opsonization, neutralization, antibody-dependent cell-
mediated cytotoxicity, and the activation of complement leading to
The results of antigen-antibody binding.
opsonization, inflammation, and cell lysis
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 antibodies cause antigens to clump together. For example, the two
antigen-binding sites of an IgG antibody can combine with epitopes on
two different foreign cells, aggregating the cells into clumps that are
more easily ingested by phagocytes. Because of its more numerous
binding sites, IgM is more effective at cross-linking and aggregating
agglutination
particulate antigens

the antigen, such as a bacterium, is coated with antibodies, or

complement proteins, that enhance its ingestion and lysis by phagocytic
cells
opsonization

IgG antibodies inactivate microbes by blocking their attachment to host

neutralization
cells, and they neutralize toxins in a similar manner.

what two antibodies may trigger activation IgG or IgM

of the complement system.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 in B cells

clonal deletion

Most immature T cells, an estimated 98%, are eliminated in the thymus

T cells that will not recognize MHC molecules of the host and T cells
thymic selection
that will attack host cells. This is important in preventing the body from
attacking its own tissues.

thymus where by way of the blood and lymphatic system to various

T cells mature in the ?
lymphoid tissues , where they are most likely to encounter antigens.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 called microfold cells
M cells are located over Peyer's patches, which are secondary
lymphoid organs located on the intestinal wall. M cells are well adapted
to take up antigens from the intestinal tract and allow their transfer to
the lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells of the immune system
found throughout the intestinal tract, just under the epithelial-cell layer
M cells but especially in the Peyer's patches. It is also here that antibodies,
mostly IgA essential for mucosal immunity, are formed and migrate to
the mucosal lining.

Their function is to transport antigens encountered in the digestive tract

to contact lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells

microfold cells

...
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 B cells are a form of antigen-presenting cell (APC) that we have already
discussed in the context of humoral immunity.
APCs associated with cellular immunity. These APCs are the dendritic
cells and the activated macrophages.
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)

the principal APCs to induce immune responses by T cells. The dendritic

cells in the skin and genital tract are still called Langerhans cells, or
Langerhans DCs.
are found in the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, blood, and various
tissues—except the brain. Dendritic cells that act as sentinels in these
Dendritic Cells tissues engulf invading microbes, degrade them, and transfer them to
lymph nodes for display to T cells located there.

What is the role of dendritic cells in

...
immunity?
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 ussually found in resting state
portant for innate immunity and for ridding the body of worn-out blood
cells
nd other debris, such as cellular remnants from apoptosis
Their phagocytic capabilities are greatly increased when they are
stimulated to become activated macrophages
This activation can be initiated by ingestion of antigenic material.
Macrophages
Other stimuli, such as cytokines produced by an activated T helper cell,
can further enhance the capabilities of macrophages. Once activated,
macrophages are more effective as phagocytes and as APCs. Activated
macrophages are important factors in the control of cancer cells, virus-
infected cells, and intracellular pathogens such as the tubercle bacillus.
Their appearance becomes recognizably different as well—they are
larger and become ruffled.

When activated, macrophages become larger and ruffled.

Activated macrophages.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 tend to migrate from their locations in virtually all tissues to lymph
nodes or other lymphoid centers on the mucosa, where they present
the antigen to T cells located there. T cells carrying receptors that are
APCs
capable of binding with any specific antigen are present in relatively
limited numbers. Migration of APCs increases the opportunity for these
particular T cells to encounter the antigen for which they are specific.

T helper inetracts with B cells to produce antibodies mainly through

cytokine signaling.
Classes of T Cells
precursor T cytotoxic cells (CTLp). A CTLp cell can differentiate into an
effector cell called a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL).
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 large granular leukocytes (10-15% of circulating lymphocytes)
Natural kiler cell from innate immune system
destroy certain virus-infected cells and tumor cells.
can also attack parasites, which are normally much larger than bacteria
This cells are not specific and do not deen to be stimulated by antigens
distinguish normal cells from transformed cells, or cells infected with
intracellular pathogens
NK cell NK cells first contact the target cell and determine whether it expresses
MHC class I self-antigens
NK cells cause pores to form in the target cell, which leads to either
lysis or apoptosis.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
.Antibody-dependent cell-mediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC).
T Helper (TH1) Cell
T Helper (TH2) Cell
T Helper (TH17) Cell
Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL)
f an organism, such as a parasitic worm, is too large for ingestion and
destruction by phagocytosis, it can be attacked by immune system cells
that remain external to it.
1. The target cell is first coated with antibodies.
2. Cells of the immune system, such as eosinophils, macrophages, and
NK cells (not shown), bind to the Fc regions of the attached antibodies.
3. The target cell is then lysed by substances secreted by the cells of
the immune system.
Activates cells related to cell-mediated immunity: macrophages, Tc
cells, and natural killer cells
Stimulates production of eosinophils, IgM, and IgE
Recruits neutrophils; stimulates production of antimicrobial proteins
Destroys target cells on contact; generated from T cytotoxic (Tc) cell
TortoraT Microbiology
Regulatory (Treg) CellCH 17 Regulates immune response and helps maintain self-tolerance

Activated Macrophage Enhanced phagocytic activity; attacks cancer cells

Attacks and destroys target cells; participates in antibody-dependent

Natural Killer (NK) Cell
cell-mediated cytotoxicity

How does the natural killer cell respond if NK cells cause pores to form in the target cell, which leads to either
the target cell does not have MHC class I lysis or apoptosis.
molecules on its surface?

With the help of antibodies produced by the humoral immune system,

the cell-mediated immune system can stimulate natural killer cells and
cells of the innate defense system, such as macrophages, to kill
targeted cells
an organism such as a protozoan or a
This process is called antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity
helminth that is too large to be
(ADCC)
phagocytized can be attacked by
the target cell is first coated with antibodies. A variety of cells of the
immune system bind to the Fc regions of these antibodies and, thus, to
the target cell. The attacking cells secrete substances that then lyse the
target cell.

What makes a natural killer cell, which is not Destroy cells that don't express much MHC I. They don't require
immunologically specific, attack a particular activation, kill virus-infected and tumor cells, which are often missing
target cell? MHC antigens. Self vs. non-self discrimination: kills things that aren't self.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
secondary response is also called the
memory (anamnestic) response
B cells become ?
The primary and secondary immune
responses to an antigen.
Why do many diseases, such as measles,
occur only once in a person, yet others,
such as colds, occur more than once?
antibody-mediated immune responses of the host intensify after a
second exposure to an antigen.
this response is comparatively more rapid, reaching a peak in only 2 to 7
days, lasts many days, and is considerably greater in magnitude
antibody-producing plasma cells or memory cells Years, or even
decades later, if these cells are stimulated by the same antigen, they
very rapidly differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells.
IgM appears first in response to the initial exposure. IgG follows and
provides longer-term immunity. The second exposure to the same
antigen stimulates the memory cells (formed at the time of initial
exposure) to rapidly produce a large amount of antibody. The
antibodies produced in response to this second exposure are mostly
IgG.
B cells recognize those specific cells and fights them off - clones itself /
remains in your body for years
viruses like flu mutate every year
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 secondary response
anamnestic or memory response. subsequent contact with same
antigen by memory cells result in much stronger response
Is the anamnestic response primary or
-Primarily IgG antibody
secondary?
-Titer much higher
-long-lived antibody response
latent period: hours to days

Immunity is acquired actively when a person is exposed to

Active immunity microorganisms or foreign substances and the immune system
responds.

immunity is acquired passively when antibodies are transferred from one

person to another. Passive immunity in the recipient lasts only as long as
passive immunity the antibodies are present—in most cases, a few weeks. Both actively
acquired immunity and passively acquired immunity can be obtained by
natural or artificial means

Naturally acquired active immunity

Naturally acquired passive immunity
the four types of adaptive immunity
Artificially acquired active immunity
Artificially acquired passive immunity

Which type of immunity, active or passive, active

lasts longer?
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Naturally acquired active immunity
Naturally acquired passive immunity
develops when a person is exposed to antigens through everyday life,
becomes ill, and then recovers. Once acquired, immunity is lifelong for
some diseases, such as measles. For certain other diseases, especially
intestinal diseases, the immunity may last for only a few years.
Subclinical infections or inapparent infections (those that produce no
noticeable symptoms or signs of illness) can also confer immunity.
involves the natural transfer of antibodies from a mother to her infant.
Antibodies in a pregnant woman cross the placenta to her fetus—
transplacental transfer. If the mother is immune to diphtheria, rubella, or
polio, for example, the newborn will be temporarily immune to these
diseases as well. Certain antibodies are also passed from the mother to
her nursing infant in breast milk, especially in the first secretions, called
colostrum. In the infant, this passive immunity generally lasts only as
long as the transmitted antibodies persist—usually a few weeks or
months. These maternal antibodies are essential for providing immunity
to the infant until its own immune system matures. Colostrum is even
more important to some other mammals; calves, for example, do not
have antibodies that cross the placenta and rely on colostrum ingested
during the first day of life. Researchers often specify fetal calf serum for
certain experimental uses because it does not contain maternal
antibodies.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 is the result of vaccination—which will be discussed in Chapter 18.
Vaccination, also called immunization, introduces vaccines into the
Artificially acquired active immunity
body. These are antigens, such as killed or living microorganisms or
inactivated bacterial toxins.

involves the injection of antibodies (rather than antigens) into the body.
Artificially acquired passive immunity These antibodies come from an animal or a human who is already
immune to the disease.

What type of adaptive immunity is involved passive immunity

when gamma globulin is injected into a
person?

Adaptive immunity is the body's ability to react specifically to a

microbial infection.
The body's response to the first contact with an antigen is called the
The Adaptive Immune System
primary response.
Subsequent contact with the same antigen results in a secondary or
memory response to that antigen.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 Humoral immunity involves antibodies, which are found in serum and
lymph and are produced by B cells.
Lymphocytes that mature in red bone marrow become B cells.
Cellular immunity involves T cells.
Dual Nature of the Adaptive Immune System
Lymphocytes that migrate through the thymus become T cells.
T cell receptors recognize antigens presented on MHC.
Cellular immunity responds to intracellular antigens; humoral immunity
responds to antigens in body fluids.

Cells of the immune system communicate with each other by means of

chemicals called cytokines.
Interleukins (IL) are cytokines that serve as communicators between
leukocytes.
Chemokines cause leukocytes to migrate to an infection.
Cytokines: Chemical Messengers of Immune
Some interferons stimulate the immune response; others protect cells
Cells
against viruses.
Tumor necrosis factor promotes the inflammatory reaction.
Hematopoietic cytokines promote development of white blood cells.
Overproduction of cytokines leads to a cytokine storm, which results in
tissue damage.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 An antigen (or immunogen) is a chemical substance that causes the
body to produce specific antibodies.
As a rule, antigens are proteins or large polysaccharides. Antibodies are
formed against specific regions on antigens called epitopes, or
Antigens antigenic determinants.
A hapten is a low-molecular-weight substance that cannot cause the
formation of antibodies unless combined with a carrier molecule;
haptens react with their antibodies independently of the carrier
molecule.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 An antibody, or immunoglobulin, is a protein produced by B cells in
response to an antigen and is capable of combining specifically with
that antigen.
Typical monomers consist of four polypeptide chains: two heavy chains
and two light chains. They have two antigen-binding sites.
Within each chain is a variable (V) region that binds the epitope and a
constant (C) region that distinguishes the different classes of antibodies.
An antibody monomer is Y-shaped or T-shaped: the V regions form the
tips, and the C regions form the base and Fc (stem) region.
The Fc region can attach to a host cell or to complement.
Antibodies recap IgG antibodies are the most prevalent in serum; they provide naturally
acquired passive immunity, neutralize bacterial toxins, participate in
complement fixation, and enhance phagocytosis.
IgM antibodies consist of five monomers held by a joining chain; they
are involved in agglutination and complement fixation.
Serum IgA antibodies are monomers; secretory IgA antibodies are
dimers that protect mucosal surfaces from invasion by pathogens.
IgD antibodies are on B cells; they may delete B cells that produce
antibodies against self.
IgE antibodies bind to mast cells and basophils and are involved in
allergic reactions.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Humoral Immunity Response Process
Antigen-Antibody Binding and Its Results
B cells have antibodies on their surfaces, which recognize specific
epitopes.
For T-independent antigens: a clone of B cells is selected by free
antigens.
For T-dependent antigens: the B cell's immunoglobulins combine with
an antigen, and the antigen fragments, combined with MHC class II,
activate TH cells. The TH cells activate a B cell.
Activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.
Plasma cells produce IgM antibodies and then produce other classes,
usually IgG.
B cells that recognize self are eliminated by clonal deletion.
Immunoglobulin genes in B cells recombine so that mature B cells each
have different genes for the V region of their antibodies.
An antigen-antibody complex forms when an antibody binds to its
specific epitopes on an antigen.
Agglutination results when an antibody combines with epitopes on two
different cells.
Opsonization enhances phagocytosis of the antigen.
Antibodies that attach to microbes or toxins and prevent them gaining
access to the host or performing their action cause neutralization.
Complement activation results in cell lysis.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Cellular Immunity Response Process
(APCs)Antigen-Presenting Cells
T Cells
T cells mature in the thymus gland. Thymic selection removes T cells that
don't recognize MHC molecules of the host and T cells that will attach
host cells presenting self proteins in MHC.
Helper T cells recognize antigens processed by antigen-presenting
cells and presented in MHC II.
Cytotoxic T cells recognize antigens processed by all host cells and
presented in MHC I.
APCs include B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages.
Dendritic cells are the primary APCs.
Activated macrophages are effective phagocytes and APCs.
APCs carry antigens to lymphoid tissues where T cells that recognize
the antigen are located.
T cells are classified according to their functions and cell-surface
glycoproteins called CDs.
T helper (CD4+ T) cells differentiate into TH1 cells, which are involved in
cellular immunity; TH2 cells, which are involved in humoral immunity and
are associated with allergic reactions and parasitic infections; and TH17
cells, which activate innate immunity.
T regulatory cells (Treg) suppress T cells against self.
Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs), or CD8+ cells, are activated by
endogenous antigens and MHC class I on a target cell and are
transformed into effector and memory CTLs.
CTLs lyse or induce apoptosis in the target cell.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Extracellular Killing by the Immune System
Natural killer (NK) cells lyse virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and
parasites. They kill cells that do not express MHC class I antigens.

Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated In antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), NK cells

Cytotoxicity and macrophages lyse antibody-coated cells.

The relative amount of antibody in serum is called the antibody titer.

The peak IgG titer in the primary response occurs 10-17 days after
Immunological Memory exposure to an antigen.
The peak titer in the secondary response occurs 2-7 days after
exposure.

Immunity resulting from infection is called naturally acquired active

immunity; this type of immunity may be long-lasting.
Antibodies transferred from a mother to a fetus (transplacental transfer)
or to a newborn in colostrum results in naturally acquired passive
immunity in the newborn; this type of immunity can last up to a few
months.
Immunity resulting from vaccination is called artificially acquired active
Types of Adaptive Immunity
immunity and can be long-lasting.
Artificially acquired passive immunity refers to humoral antibodies
acquired by injection; this type of immunity can last for a few weeks.
Serum containing antibodies is often called antiserum.
When serum is separated by gel electrophoresis, antibodies are found
in the gamma fraction of the serum and are termed immune serum
globulin, or gamma globulin.
Tortora
The type of Microbiology CH
protection provided by the17 artificially acquired active immunity
injection of diphtheria toxoid.

The type of protection provided by the e. Artificially acquired passive immunity.

injection of antirabies serum.

The type of protection resulting from b. Naturally acquired active immunity.

recovery from an infection.

a. Innate resistance.
b. Naturally acquired active immunity.
c. Naturally acquired passive immunity.
d. Artificially acquired active immunity.
e. Artifically acquired passive immunity.

A newborn's immunity to yellow fever. c. Naturally acquired passive immunity.

a. Innate resistance.
b. Naturally acquired active immunity.
c. Naturally acquired passive immunity.
d. Artificially acquired active immunity.
e. Artifically acquired passive immunity.
Tortora Microbiology
Antibodies that CH 17
protect the fetus and d. IgG
newborn.

a. IgA
b. IgD
c. IgE
d. IgG
e. IgM

The first antibodies synthesized; especially e. IgM

effective against microorganisms.

a. IgA
b. IgD
c. IgE
d. IgG
e. IgM

Antibodies that are bound to mast cells and c. IgE

involved in allergic reactions.

a. IgA
b. IgD
c. IgE
d. IgG
e. IgM
Tortora Microbiology
Put the following CH 17to
in the correct sequence d. 2,3,4,1,5
elicit an antibody response: 1. Th cell
recognizes B cell; 2. APC contacts antigen;
3. antigen fragment goes to surface of APC;
4. Th recognizes antigen digest and MHC; 5.
B cell proliferates.

a. 1,2,3,4,5
b. 5,4,3,2,1
c. 3,4,5,1,2
d. 2,3,4,1,5
e. 4,5,3,1,2

A kidney-transplant patient experienced a c. 4,2,5,3,1

cytotoxic rejection of his new kidney. Place
the following in order for that rejection:
1. Apoptosis occurs; 2. CD8+ T cell becomes
CTL; 3. Granzymes released; 4. MHC class I
activates CD8+ T cell; 5. Perforin released.

a. 1,2,3,4,5
b. 5,4,3,2,1
c. 4,2,5,3,1
d. 3,4,5,1,2
e. 2,3,4,1,5
Tortora
Patients withMicrobiology CH 17
Chediak-Higashi syndrome d. NK cells
suffer from various types of cancer. These
patients are most likely lacking which of the
following:

a. Tr cells
b. Th1 cells
c. B Cells
d. NK cells
e. Th2 Cells

~ Innate immunity: Defenses against any pathogen.

Differentiate innate from adaptive immunity
~Adaptive immunity: Induced resistance to a specific pathogen

~Humoral immunity
-B cells mature in the bone marrow
*Chickens: Bursa of Fabricius
- Due to antibodies
Differentiate humoral from cellular immunity. ~Cellular immunity
- Due to T cells
- T cells mature in the thymus

(T and B cells develop from stem cells in red bone marrow)

Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Define antigen.
Define epitope.
Explain the function of antibodies, and
describe their structural and chemical
characteristics.
~ Antigen (Ag): A substance that causes the body to produce specific
antibodies or sensitized T cells.
- Antibodies (Ab) interact with epitopes or antigenic determinants.
The part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself.
An antibody is a protein that your body produces which binds to the
surface of a foreign body, like a bacteria or virus, and prevents it from
actively damaging your body. Antibodies, generally bind other proteins,
and they will bind to specific portions of the proteins. Antibodies have a
number of functions, they can directly kill the invader, or they can recruit
cell to the infection.
Structure:
~Proteins = Immunoglobulins (Ig)
~ Monomeric Unit composed of:
- Light Chain
- Heavy Chain
- FC end - binds to cells
- FAB end - epitope binding site
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 - IgG - monomer: Enhances phagocytosis; neutralizes toxins and
viruses; protects fetus and newborn
- IgM - pentamer: Effective against microorganisms and agglutinating
antigens; first antibodies produced in response to initial infection.
Name one function for each of the five
- IgA - Dimer with secretory component: Localized protection on
classes of antibodies.
mucosal surfaces.
- IgD - monomer: Presence on B cells functions in initiation of immune
response.
- IgE - monomer: Allergic reactions; lysis of parasitic worms.

Does an antibody react with a bacterium as Antibodies react with epitopes on the antigen
an antigen or as an epitope?

Which class of antibody is most likely to IgA

protect you from a common cold?

~ T-dependent antigens
- Ag presented with (self) MHC to TH cell.
Compare and contrast T-dependent and T-
- TH cell produces cytokines that activate the B cell.
independent antigens.
~ T-independent antigens
- Stimulate the B cell to make Abs.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
Differentiate plasma cell from memory cell.
Describe clonal selection.
Describe how a human can produce
different antibodies.
Memory b cells are those cells that are not active in producing
antibodies during infection, they are used when another attack of the
same antigen enter the body
plasma b cells are those cells that produce antibodies during the
infection.
Activates a small number of lymphocytes with complementary
receptors, those lymphocytes multiply into effector cells (primary
immune response) which fight specific antigen, and memory cells build
long term immunity (secondary immune response)
A foreign substance that invades the body is called an antigen. When an
antigen is detected, several types of cells work together to recognize
and respond to it. These cells trigger the B lymphocytes to produce
antibodies. Antibodies and their responding antigens fit together like a
key and a lock.
Once the B lymphocytes have produced antibodies, these antibodies
continue to exist in a person's body. If the same antigen is presented to
the immune system again, the antibodies are already there to do their
job. This principle forms the basis of immunizations. The immunization
introduces the body to the antigen in a way that does not make a
person sick, but it does allow the body to produce antibodies that will
then protect that person from future attack.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 1) Agglutination:
Causes antigens to clump
together - more easily
digested by phagocytes e.g.
2) Opsonization:
(from greek to cater)
Coat bacteria with
antibodies that enhance
Describe four outcomes of an antigen-
ingestion and lysis by
antibody reaction.
phagocytes
3) Neutralization:
Block viruses from attaching to host receptors -
can neutralize toxins in a similar manner
4) Activation of Complement system:
IgG and IgM bind and allow C1 to bind and start
complement cascade. Lysis of the microbe
attracts phagocytes to the site of infection
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
antigen-antibody reaction.
On what part of the antibody molecule do
we find the amino acid sequence that makes
the huge genetic diversity of antibody
production possible?
1) Agglutination:
Causes antigens to clump
together - more easily
digested by phagocytes e.g.
2) Opsonization:
(from greek to cater)
Coat bacteria with
antibodies that enhance
ingestion and lysis by
phagocytes
3) Neutralization:
Block viruses from attaching to host receptors -
can neutralize toxins in a similar manner
4) Activation of Complement system:
IgG and IgM bind and allow C1 to bind and start
complement cascade. Lysis of the microbe
attracts phagocytes to the site of infection
W/I Epitopes
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 ~ M cells: Gateway that pathogens can pass barrier in the
gastrointestinal or respiratory tract.
~ TH cells: TH cell produces cytokines that activate the B cell
Describe at least one function of each of the
~ TC cells: Target cells are self-cells carrying endogenous
following: M cells, TH cells, TC cells, Treg
antigens
cells, NK cells.
~ Treg cells: (CD4 and CD25 on surface) Suppress T cells against self
~ NK cells: (natural killer cells) Granular leukocytes destroy cells that
don't express MHC I Kill virus-infected and tumor cells, Attack parasites

T helper: produces cytokines

Differentiate T helper, T cytotoxic, and T T cytotoxic: Type of cell that directly attacks infected cells.
regulatory cells. T regulatory: essential for maintaining peripheral tolerance, preventing
autoimmune diseases and limiting chronic inflammatory diseases.

Which T cell type is generally involved when T helper cells

a B cell reacts with an antigen and produces
antibodies against the antigen?

Explain the function of antibodies, and The Y structure=antigen binding cites (variable regions) that bind
describe their structural and chemical epitopes.
characteristics. What is the primary
advantage of the Y-shaped structure?

Define antigen-presenting cell. A cell that can "present" antigen in a form that T cells can recognize it.
Tortora
Describe theMicrobiology CHcells
function of natural killer 17 Police body in blood & lymph; lymphocyte that causes an infected or
(aka NK cells). cancerous cell to burst.

Describe the role of antibodies and natural Antibodies can link target cells to natural killer cells, which then kill the
killer cells in antibody-dependent cell- targets directly by secreting toxic chemicals. killing is done by the
mediated cytotoxicity. natural killer cells, but is dependent on the presence of the antibody.

~ Cytokines: Chemical messengers.

~ Interleukins: cytokins that serve as communicators b/t leukocytes
Identify at least one function of each of the
(WBC) .
following: cytokines, interleukins,
~ Chemokines: Induce the migration of leukocytes (WBC).
chemokines, interferons, TNF, and
~ Interferons: cytokines that protect cells from viral infections.
hematopoietic cytokines.
~ TNF-α: Promotes inflammation.
~ Hematopoietic cytokines: Influence differentiation of blood stem cells.

Dendritic cells considered primarily part of Cellular immune system

the humoral or the cellular immune system?

Cytokines are a large group of proteins, peptides or glycoproteins that

are secreted by specific cells of immune system. Cytokines are a
What is the function of cytokines?
category of signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity,
inflammation and hematopoiesis.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 Host cells have multiple PRRs including TLRs, RIG-I, MDA5 that
recognize viral products.

This triggers a signaling cascade involving phosphorylation through

several kinases, which ultimately leads to phosphorylation of latent
transcription factors (always produced) in the cytoplasm, IRF3/7 and
NFκB.

These activated transcription factors translocate to the nucleus, and

bind to the promoter of IFN-β.

Other transcription factors must also bind, allowing chromatin

IFN Production
remodeling, including a change in the promoter structure. This leads to
rapid formation of the pre-initiation complex & transcription.

As Type I genes have no introns, IFN-β transcript can be rapidly

translated & carry out its functions.

THIS IS A RAPID PROCESS and allows for tight regulation of IFN

expression/function.
Tortora Microbiology CH 17
What is a complement?
Major functions of Complement
First Complement pathway to be activated
Second Complement pathway to be
activated
- A group of proteins (~30) whose functions "complement" the antigen-
binding function of antibodies
- Essentially a proteolytic cascade
→ Many complement components exist in plasma in zymogen form
- When activated (usually by proteolytic cleavage), cleaves the next
component in the cascade
- Leads to the deposition or "fixing" of complement components to the
pathogen surface
Major functions of Complement
- Alternative pathway:
- This pathway does not involve immunoglobulin deposition on a
pathogen surface.
- It is triggered at sites of microbial infection
- innate immunity
- Lectin pathway:
- This pathway also does not involve immunoglobulin deposition on a
pathogen surface.
- It is activated by binding of a plasma protein to mannose-containing
peptidoglycans on microbial surfaces
- innate immunity
Tortora Microbiology CH 17 - Classical pathway:
- triggered as an effector mechanism when certain isotypes of
Last Complement pathway to be activated
immunoglobulin or C-reactive protein bind to a pathogen
- innate and some active immunity