Gupta Empire

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Gupta Empire

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  320 CE–550 CE  

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The Gupta Empire at its greatest extent.

Capital Pataliputra

Languages Sanskrit (literary and

academic); Prakrit(vernacula
r)

Religion Hinduism
Buddhism
Jainism

Government Monarchy
 Maharajadhiraj
a

 - 240s–280s Sri-Gupta

 - 319–335 Chandragupta I

 - 540–550 Vishnu Gupta

Historical era Ancient India

 - Established 320 CE

 - Disestablished 550 CE

Area 3,500,000 km²(1,351,358 sq
mi)

Today part of  India

 Pakistan
 Bangladesh
   Nepal

A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha from the Gupta era.

The Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गप्त ु साम्राज्य, Gupta Sāmrājya) was an ancient Indian empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta,
which existed from approximately 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.[1] The peace and prosperity
created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours. [2] This period is called the
Golden Age of India[3] and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science,
technology, engineering, art, dialectic,literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the
elements of what is generally known asHindu culture.[4] Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta, and Chandra Gupta II were the most
notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.[5]The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Guptas with having conquered about
twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located
in the west and east Oxus valleys, theKinnaras, Kiratas etc.[6]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings. [7] The Gupta period produced
scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many
academic fields.[8][9] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. [10] Strong trade ties also
made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions
in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.[11] The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have been written around this
period.
The empire gradually declined because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by
their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Huna peoples from Central Asia.[12] After the collapse of the Gupta
Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to
rule Magadhaafter the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha Vardhana,
who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

Contents
  [hide] 

1 Origin of the Guptas

2 Srigupta and Ghatotkacha
3 Chandragupta I
4 Samudragupta
5 Ramagupta
6 Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"
o 6.1 Chandragupta II's Campaigns against Foreign Tribes
o 6.2 Fa-Hien
7 Kumaragupta I
8 Skandagupta & SidharthaGupta
9 Decline of the empire
10 Military organization
11 Gupta administration
12 Legacy of the Gupta Empire
13 Art
14 Gupta dynasty rulers
15 Timeline
16 See also
17 Notes
18 References
19 Further reading
20 External links

Origin of the Guptas[edit]

Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty

Terracotta figures made during Gupta dynasty

According to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Vaishya dynasty,.[13][14] Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that
the Vaishya Guptas "appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers". [15] A.S. Altekar, a historian and archaeologist, who has
written several books on Gupta coinage,[16] also regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaishya on the basis of the ancient Indian
texts on law, which prescribe the name-ending with Gupta for a member of the Vaishya caste. According to historian Michael C.
Brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India.[14]
There are contradictory theories regarding the original homeland of the Guptas. According to HC Raychoudhuri the Guptas
originated from the Varendri region which is now part of Rangpur and Rajshahi Division of modern day Bangladesh. DC
Ganguly on the other hand considers the surrounding region of Murshidabad as the original home of the Guptas.[17]
Fa Hien was the of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey
from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage
to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu,Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made careful observations about the
empire's conditions. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were
punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the Rome-China trade axis was
broken with the fall of the Han dynasty, the Guptas' did indeed prosper.

Srigupta and Ghatotkacha[edit]

The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240–280 CE. A number of modern historians, which include Rakhaldas
Bandyopadhyayand K. P. Jayaswal, think he and his son were possibly feudatories of the Kushans.[18] His son and
successor Ghatotkacha ruled probably from c. 280–319 CE. In contrast to their successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned
as Maharajadhiraja, he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja[19] At the beginning of the 5th century
the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Bihar. ISTHING also
mentioned about Sri Gupta in his writings.He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I[edit]
Main article: Chandragupta I

Queen Kumaradevi and KingChandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta, 335–380 CE.

Ghatotkacha (reigned c. 280–319 CE), had a son named Chandragupta (reigned c. 320–335 CE) (not to be confused
with Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire.) In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was
married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess—the main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha
(capital Pataliputra) and an alliance with the Licchavis of Nepal, Chandragupta set about expanding his power, conquering
much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganges River to Prayaga (modern-
day Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja. He expanded his empire through marriage
alliances.

Samudragupta[edit]
Main article: Samudragupta
Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar. British Museum.

Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years, until his death in 380 CE. He took
the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas,
the Madurasand the Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty
kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to
the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kingsand World Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian
Napoleon".[20] He performed Ashwamedha yajna in which a horse is sacrificed along with the first wife. The stone replica of the
horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbar’s
Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent.
Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature. The important scholars
present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer
in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's
Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build amonastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi
Sangharama.[21] He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.

Ramagupta[edit]
Main article: Ramagupta
Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary epigraphical evidence, the historicity of
Rama Gupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on three Jaina images, where he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A
large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which
include the Garuda,[22] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early
Gupta style.[23] In opinion of art historian Dr. R. A. Agarawala, D. Litt., Rama Gupta may be the eldest son of Samudra Gupta. He
became king because of being the eldest. It may be a possibility that he was dethroned because of not being the worthy enough
to rule and his younger brother Chandra Gupta II took over.

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"[edit]
Main article: Chandragupta II
According to the Gupta records, amongst his manns, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandra Gupta II, born of queen
Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandra Gupta II,Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 375 until 415. Chandra Gupta II also
married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His
daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan.[24] His son
Kumaragupta I was married to Kadamba princess of Karnataka region. Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm
westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat andSaurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409, but with
his main opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This extended his control from
coast-to-coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.
Gold coins of Chandragupta II.

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature,
culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at
the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements
that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures
as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist
art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and
traveller Faxian (Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards.
The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a
group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works
of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine
exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.
Chandragupta II's ascent to power and rule has been a source of inspiration for many popular stories and books. One of them
being the book Chandragupta Vikramaditya by Prakash Nagayach, prescribed by the ICSE syllabus. [25]

Silver coin of Chandragupta II, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps.
Obv: Bust of king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU".[26][27]
Rev: Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu", around a peacock.
15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 4821–4823.

Chandragupta II's Campaigns against Foreign Tribes [edit]

4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms,
both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded
northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and
east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and
lands into India proper.[6]
The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had "unburdened the
sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating
these sinful Mlecchas completely".[28][29][30]
Fa-Hien[edit]
In 399, Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist, came to India to study the sacred writings of Buddhism. In the 10 years he was there, he
wrote about life under the Gupta emperors. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.
Kumaragupta I[edit]
Main article: Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed
the title, Mahendraditya.[31] He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose
in power to threaten the empire.

Skandagupta & SidharthaGupta[edit]

Main article: Skandagupta

Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I AD (414–455) (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from the Western Satraps).
Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[32][33]
Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.

Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed
the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[34] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with
invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Sweta Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Hunaattack c. 455
CE, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and
was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[35]

Decline of the empire[edit]

Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–
495?),Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalites broke
through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Hun by 500. The empire
disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas,
although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by
Bhanugupta in 510 CE.[36][37] The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition consisting of Gupta
emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman from Malwa.[38] The succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely
clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to
the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise
of Yashodharman in Malwa.[39]

Military organization[edit]
Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow.

The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes through force of arms with an efficient martial system. Historically,
the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a
contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the
military system of the Guptas.
The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The
Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a
metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to warping
in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was reputedly a powerful weapon capable
of great range and penetration and provided an effective counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against
armored elephants and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. India historically has had a prominent reputation for
its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the steel bow was capable of long range and
penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of
noblemen rather than in the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and
longswords. The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines.
The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a main
component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably
better disciplined. Able commanders like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for
combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use of
elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the
Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters.

A Terracotta relief panel depicting a scene from the Rāmāyaṇa, built during the Gupta era.

The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta
army, which after all had initially defeated these people under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability
of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.
During the reign of Chandragupta II, Gupta empire maintained a large army consisting of 500,000 infantry, 50,000 cavalry,
20,000 charioteers and 10,000 elephants along with a powerful navy with more than 1200 ships. Chandragupta II controlled the
whole of the Indian subcontinent; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign, at a time when
the Roman Empire in the west was in decline.

Gupta administration[edit]
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to
bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided
into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha andBhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under
the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of
representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulike and Prathama
Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[40]There were also trade links of Gupta business with the Roman empire;
Legacy of the Gupta Empire[edit]

Later image of Krishna and Radhaplaying chaturanga on an 8 × 8 Ashtāpada

Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero,
postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great
playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point
of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period. The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction
text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.
Chess is said to have originated in this period,[41] where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga, which
translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by the pieces that would
evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and
even performed operations. TheIndian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated
from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta textKama Sutra is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in
Sanskrit literature written by the Indian scholarVatsyayana. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period
proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and
planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary
nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. [42]

Borobudur in Java, Indonesia. The building’s design in Gupta architecture reflects India's influence on the region.[43]

Art[edit]
The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu
Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

Hindu terracotta relief, 5th century CE, ofKrishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of north Indian art for all the major
religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost
all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in
Hindu art, as well as the Buddha figure and Jain tirthankara figures, these last often on a very
large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the
centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India. Unlike
Entry frame of the Dashavatara the preceding Kushan Empire there was no artistic depiction of the monarchs, even in the
Temple. very fine Guptan coinage,[44] with the exception of some coins of the Western Satraps, or
influenced by them.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Guptan style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain)
were in fact produced under later dynasties, but largely reflect the monumentality and
balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most important survivals of painting from
this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature style which had probably had a long
development, mainly in painting palaces.[45] The Hindu Udayagiri Cavesactually record
connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[46] and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is
a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture. [47]

Gupta dynasty rulers[edit]

Vishnu reclining on the
serpentShesha (Ananta), Dashavatara
Temple 5th century.[48]

Vishnu, Gupta Period, National

 Outline of South Asian history
History of Indian subcontinent

Soanian people (500,000 BP)[show]

Stone Age (7000–3000 BC)[show]

Bronze Age (3000–1300 BC)[show]

Iron Age (1200–26 BC)[show]

Classical period (21–1279 AD)[show]

Late medieval period (1206–1596)[show]

Early modern period (1526–1858)[show]

Colonial period (1510–1961)[show]

Other states (1102–1947)[show]

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show]

Nation histories[show]

Regional histories[show]

Specialised histories[show]

 V

 T

 E

The main branch of the Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire in India, from around 320 to 550. This dynasty was founded by
Srigupta. The rulers are:

 Sri Gupta
 Ghatotkacha
 Chandragupta I
 Samudragupta
 Ramagupta
 Chandragupta II
 Kumaragupta I
 Skandagupta
 Purugupta
 Kumaragupta II
 Budhagupta
 Narasimhagupta Baladitya
 Kumaragupta III
 Vishnugupta
 Vainyagupta
 Bhanugupta
 Shashankgupta
 Neeravgupta
 ShivaGupta II
 SidharthaGupta
 Budhha lalJi Gupta
 Shankar Lal Gupta
 Raja Pistam Gupta
 Akhilesh Gupta
 Vishisht Gupta

Timeline[edit]
1. 320 : Chandragupta I founds the Gupta Empire.Chandragupta wins many battles against many northern emperors.
2. 330-376 : Samudragupta expands the empire from the Indus River to the Bay of Bengal, and up into the northern
mountains.
3. 376-415 : Chandragupta II makes the empire secure, and encourages trade.
4. 415-450 : Kalidas composes most of his poetry in the reign of Kumargupta(415-455).
5. 450 : Empire begin to collapse under pressure from invading Huns.
6. 554 : The Gupta dynasty ends when the last emperor Shashakgupta dies.

See also[edit]
 Aulikaras
 Vakataka dynasty
 Tradition of religious freedom in India

Notes[edit]
1. Jump up^ Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.
2. Jump up^ India – Historical Setting – The Classical Age – Gupta and Harsha. Historymedren.about.com (17 June 2010).
Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
3. Jump up^ N. Jayapalan, History of India, Vol. I, (Atlantic Publishers, 2001), 130.
4. Jump up^ Ancient India. The Age of the Guptas. wsu.edu
5. Jump up^ Gupta Empire in India, art in the Gupta empire, Indian history – India. Indianchild.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75
7. Jump up^ Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty). Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
8. Jump up^ Mahajan, p. 540
9. Jump up^ Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
10. Jump up^ The Gupta Empire of India | Chandragupta I | Samudragupta. Historybits.com (11 September 2001). Retrieved on
2011-11-21.
11. Jump up^ Trade | The Story of India – Photo Gallery. PBS. Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
12. Jump up^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 81-208-0592-5,
pp.264–9
13. Jump up^ Nehra, R.K. Hinduism and Its Military Ethos. Lancer Publishers,2010. Retrieved2012-08-25.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Brannigan, Michael C. Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values. Rowman & Littlefield, 2010.
Retrieved 2012-08-25.
15. Jump up^ Sharma, R.S. Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation. Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 2012-06-06.
16. Jump up^ List of Altekar's publications in the Open Library.
17. Jump up^ http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/G_0243.htm
18. Jump up^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 81-208-0592-5,
pp.84–7
19. Jump up^ Majumdar, p. 474
20. Jump up^ Smith, Vincent A. (1999). The Early History of India: From 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan Conquest. Atlantic.
p. 289. ISBN 81-7156-618-9.
21. Jump up^ Mahajan, p. 487
22. Jump up^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 153–9. ISBN 81-
208-0592-5.
23. Jump up^ Bajpai, K.D. (2004). Indian Numismatic Studies. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. pp. 120–1. ISBN 81-7017-035-
4.
24. Jump up^ Raychaudhuri, p. 489
25. Jump up^ http://www.cisce.org/UploadedFiles/2013110313131424471413637.Appendix%20I%20-%20List%20of
%20Prescribed%20Books%20-%20Languages%20-%20ICSE%202014.pdf ICSE Syllabus 2015
26. Jump up^ "The conquest is indicated by the issue of the new Gupta silver coinage modelled on the previous Saka coinage
showing on observe the King's head, Greek script, and dates as on Saka coins" in Early history of Jammu region: pre-historic
to 6th century A.D. by Raj Kumar p.511
27. Jump up^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins
which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek
characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson
"A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli
28. Jump up^ ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara.
Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha,
10/1/285-86, Kshmendra).
29. Jump up^ Kathasritsagara 18.1.76–78
30. Jump up^ Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous
tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on
Recreational Reading – Sanskrit language.
31. Jump up^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 81-208-0592-5,
pp.191–200
32. Jump up^ Prasanna Rao Bandela (1 January 2003). Coin splendour: a journey into the past. Abhinav Publications.
pp. 112–. ISBN 978-81-7017-427-1. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
33. Jump up^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be see n in his rare silver coins
which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek
characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya wit crescent and star." in Rapson
"A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli
34. Jump up^ Raychaudhuri, p. 510
35. Jump up^ Raychaudhuri, p. 516
36. Jump up^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.220
37. Jump up^ Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates by S. B. Bhattacherje p.A15
38. Jump up^ Columbia Encyclopedia
39. Jump up^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century.
New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 480. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
40. Jump up^ Mahajan, pp. 530–1
41. Jump up^ Murray, H.J.R. (1913). A History of Chess. Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University
Press). ISBN 0-936317-01-9. OCLC 13472872.
42. Jump up^ Thomas Khoshy, Elementary Number Theory with Applications, Academic Press, 2002, p. 567. ISBN 0-12-
421171-2.
43. Jump up^ "Wonderful Indonesia - Borobudur: A Wonder of Indonesia History". Indonesia.travel. 26 September 2012.
Retrieved 2013-01-26.
44. Jump up^ Harle, 87-89
45. Jump up^ Harle, respectively 118-122, 123-126, 129-135
46. Jump up^ Harle, 92-97
 47. Jump up^ Harle, 113-114
48. Jump up^ "Hindu Art;Vishnu". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-03-25.

References[edit]
Wikisource has the text of
the1911 Encyclopædia
Britannica article Gupta.

 Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of
Art, ISBN 0300062176
 Majumdar, R.C. (1977). Ancient India, New Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0436-8
 Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta ISBN 1-4400-5272-7
 Shiv Chhatrapati 14 February 2013 @ 5:43 pm
 Tej Ram Sharma (1978). Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. Concept Publishing Co., Delhi.

Further reading[edit]
 Andrea Berens Karls & Mounir A. Farah. World History The Human Experience.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Gupta
Empire.

 Frontline Article on Gupta Period Art

 Regents Prep:Global History:Golden Ages:Gupta Empire
 Inscriptions of the Guptas and their contemporaries
 Coins of Gupta Empire
 Photo Feature on Gupta Period Art

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