DESERTIFICATION:

Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions,

particularly drought. It is also caused by human activities that pollute or degrade the quality of
soils and land utility.

Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity

is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas
become increasingly arid.
CAUSES:

Water shortage: The deficit of water resources for crops and other vegetation affects their
normal growth and eventually destabilizes other ecological processes.

Draught: The lack of precipitation under high air temperature causes droughts and water
scarcity increases.

Climate dryness: Arid climate strengthening due to an increase in air temperature, along with
a decrease in vaporability and precipitation.

Deforestation: Felling trees leads to an imbalance in the ecology and leads to soil erosion.

Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by domestic animals increases the loss of vegetation and
reduces the soil’s ability to hold moisture.

Vegetation loss: The death of vegetation occurs due to the unavailability of water demand and
toxic matters concentration in soil and atmosphere increase.

Water erosion: It results in badland topography, the initial stage of desertification.

Wind erosion: This type is created due to the wind transfer of different kinds of dust and salt.
Sources of this can be salt deserts, semi-deserts, dried sea beds, and salts within irrigated lands.

Decreasing Groundwater table: Groundwater table lowering due to overexploitation of water

resources

IMPACT:

Economic impact: The decreasing agricultural productivity affects the livelihood of a major
population. The increasing global population will add more strain to land and cause food
shortages.

Climate change: Degraded land loses its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2), a
greenhouse gas (GHG) that is the biggest factor in worsening global warming.
Water scarcity: Land degradation has resulted in deterioration in the quantity and quality of
both surface and groundwater resources.

Ecological threat: The increasing desertification is threatening the flora and fauna of the
regions.

Impact on human health:

 Malnutrition from reduced food and water supplies;

 Water and food-borne diseases due to poor hygiene and a lack of clean water
 Respiratory diseases caused by atmospheric dust from wind erosion and other air
pollutants

PREVENTION:

Salt traps involve the creation of empty layers of gravel and sand at certain depths in the soil.
Salt traps prevent salts from reaching the surface of the soil and also help to inhibit water loss.

Irrigation improvements can inhibit water loss from evaporation and prevent salt
accumulation. This technique involves changes in the design of irrigation systems to prevent
water from pooling or evaporating easily from the soil.

Cover crops prevent soil erosion from wind and water. They can also reduce the local effects
of drought.

Crop rotation involves the alternation of different crops on the same plot of land over different
growing seasons. This technique can help maintain the productivity of the soil by replenishing
critical nutrients removed during harvesting.

Rotational grazing is the process of limiting the grazing pressure of livestock in a given area.
Livestock is frequently moved to new grazing areas before they cause permanent damage to
the plants and soil of any one area.

Terracing is the creation of multiple levels of flat ground that appear as long steps cut into
hillsides. The technique slows the pace of runoff, which reduces soil erosion and retards overall
water loss.

Windbreaks are the placing of lines of fast-growing trees planted at right angles to the
prevailing surface winds. They are primarily used to slow wind-driven soil erosion but may be
used to inhibit the encroachment of dunes.
DEFORESTATION

Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost for other uses
such as agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities. The primary anthropogenic
activities (human activities) that contribute to deforestation include:

 Agriculture – small-scale and large-scale farming

 Logging – cutting of trees for use as raw material
 Mining and urban expansion – clearing of forest area for the construction of
infrastructure.

EFFECTS:

Loss of Habitat

One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of deforestation is the loss of animal and plant
species due to their loss of habitat.The trees of the rainforest that provide shelter for some
species also provide the canopy that regulates the temperature. Deforestation results in a more
drastic temperature variation from day to night, much like a desert, which could prove fatal for
many inhabitants.

Increased Greenhouse Gases

In addition to the loss of habitat, the lack of trees also allows a greater amount of greenhouse
gases to be released into the atmosphere. Healthy forests absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, acting as valuable carbon sinks. Deforested areas lose that ability and release more
carbon.

Water in the Atmosphere

Trees also help to control the level of water in the atmosphere by helping to regulate the water
cycle. In deforested areas, there is less water in the air to be returned to the soil. This then
causes dryer soil and the inability to grow crops.

Soil Erosion and Flooding

Further effects of deforestation include soil erosion and coastal flooding. Trees help the land
to retain water and topsoil, which provides the rich nutrients to sustain additional forest life.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high concentrations of
ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun.

Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from
industries or other human activities.

CAUSES OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION :

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main
causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released
by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of the
ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone
layer by the year 2050.
Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion of
the ozone layer.
Natural Causes

The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-cleaning agents, etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

Effects on Human Health

Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as
skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants.
The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.
Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in
the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain
are also affected.

SOLUTIONS TO OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

Avoid Using ODS

Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and
air conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.
Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way
into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.
Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual
level as well.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW):

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)—more commonly known as trash or garbage—consists of
everyday items we use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings,
furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This
comes from our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.
Composition of Municipal Solid Waste
Solid waste in Indian cities consists mainly of three types of components:
1. Recyclables such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, leather, rubber, etc., ranging between 15%
and 23%.
2. Compostable or combustible material such as kitchen waste, vegetable and fruit waste, dry
grass, mutton and fish waste, dry leaves, etc., ranging between 31% and 56%.
3. Inert matter or material, i.e. construction, demolition, road dust, ash, etc., ranging between
40% and 54%.

Wastes management involves the following steps:

1. Reduction of Wastes:
The first concept of waste management involves the reduction in the quantity of wastes. In this
the industrial processes are modified in such a way that there is optimum use of raw materials
and the amount of hazardous wastes generated is reduced to a bare minimum.

2. Reuse:
This refers to the case where certain wastes can be again used with very little reprocessing. For
example, discarded bottles and containers, certain chemicals, lubricants, etc. can be put to
further use with minimum processing.

3.Recycling:
It differs from reuse in the sense that the wastes must be thoroughly treated and re-processed
before it can be used again. Some recycling processes use materials for the same purposes; for
example, metal scraps, cans, bottles, etc. are usually melted and recast into the original
material. Other recycling processes turn old materials into entirely new products for example,
wood remains are used in the paper industry. Recycling encourages awareness and
responsibility for waste management. .
4.Treatment of Wastes:
Hazardous wastes can be treated by a number of processes to change the physical and chemical
composition of the wastes so as to reduce and neutralize their toxicity. The treatments vary
depending on the physical state and chemical nature of the hazardous wastes.

5. Disposal of Wastes:
The final step in hazardous waste management involves the safe disposal of wastes.

The common methods of solid waste disposal include:

1. Open dumps 2. Sanitary landfills 3. Ocean dumping 4. Drainage 5. Incineration

6. Composting

E-WASTE:

Electronic Waste or E-Waste describes rejected electrical or electronic devices. All items of
electrical and electronic equipment and its parts that have been discarded by the user as waste
without the purpose of re-use or re-cycle is called Electronic Waste.Stored used electronics are
also considered E-Waste. Improper processing of E-Waste can lead to dangerous human health
effects and environmental pollution

COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE:

Composition of E-Waste includes materials like:

 Valuable metals like gold, platinum, silver and palladium.

 Useful metals like copper, aluminium, iron etc.
 Hazardous substances like radioactive isotopes and mercury.
 Toxic substances like PCB’s and Dioxins.
 Plastic like High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
(ABS), Polycarbonate (PC), Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) etc.
 Glass material like Cathode Ray Tube glass made up of SiO2, CaO, Na.
For instance, a mobile phone contains more than 40 elements, base metals such as
Copper (Cu) and Tin (Sn), special metals such as Lithium (Li), Cobalt (Co), Indium
(In) and Antimony (Sb) and precious metals such as Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), and
Palladium (Pd).
 COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE

EFFECTS OF E-WASTE:

The effects of improper disposal of E-waste on the environment pose very real threats and
dangers to the global environment at large. Improper disposal of these wastes affect the soil,
air and water components of the environment.

 Effects of E-Waste on Air: Most common result of E-waste on air is through air
pollution. Burning of e waste can release hydrocarbons within the atmosphere that
pollutes the air.
 E-Waste Negatively Impacts Soil: E-waste can have a negative effect on the soil.
As e-waste breaks down, it releases toxic heavy metals. Such heavy metals include
lead, arsenic, and cadmium. When these toxins penetrate the soil, they influence the
plants and trees. Thus, these toxins can enter the human food supply, which can lead
to birth defects as well as a number of other health complications.
 Effects of E-Waste on Water: Heavy metals like mercury, lithium, lead present in
electronics (found in mobile phone and computer batteries), etc., when not disposed
properly, these heavy metals penetrate from soil to groundwater which then run to
the surface as streams or small ponds of water.