Floors

Floors: Various types, suitability for various purposes, construction details, floor finishes,
composite floors, precast beam floors etc.
Floors: Floors divides a building into different levels, one above the other for the purpose to
creating accommodation within restricted space. Bottom most floor of a building is called ground
floor unless it is below to the surrounding ground level when it is termed basement, while the
floors situated above the ground level are known as upper floors.
A floor consist of the following two components:
1) A sub-floor (or Base Course or Sub-grade): The purpose of this component is to impart
strength and stability to support floor covering and all other superimposed loads.
2) Floor covering (or paving or flooring): This is the covering over the sub-floor and is
meant to provide hard, clean, smooth, impervious, durable and attractive surface to the
floor.
The materials used for ground floor construction:
1) Bricks
2) Stones
3) Concrete (cement concrete and lime concrete)
4) Wooden blocks (for timber flooring only)
The sub-floor or base course for solid ground floor is shown in above figure.
Fig. 1 Solid Ground Floor

- The lowest layer just above ground surface is that of compacted earth fill.
- The second layer may either of lean concrete or lime concrete or sometimes broken brick
bats or stones rammed properly.
Mr. S. Meena, Assistant Professor (Department of Civil Engg, M.B.M. Engg College Jodhpur)
- The third course may be either of cement concrete or of broken bricks or stones arranged
and packed properly. The third layer of cement concrete is more common since it gives
proper rigidity to the floor base.
- Over the third layer of base course, floor finish or flooring is laid.
The materials used for the finishes of ground floor are:
1) Mud and Muram

2) Bricks
3) Stones
4) Concrete
5) Tiles
6) Wood
7) Terrazzo (flooring material consisting of chips of marble or granite set in concrete and
polished to give a smooth surface)
8) Mosaic
9) Asphalt
10) Rubber
11) Linoleum
12) Cork
13) Magnesite
14) Glass
15) Marble
16) Plastic or P.V.C.
The various types of flooring used in ground floor constructions, on the basis of materials used in
their formation.
1) Mud-flooring and Muram Flooring

- Mud floors are generally used for unimportant buildings, particularly in villages.
- They are cheap, fairly impervious and easy in construction and maintenance.
- It has good thermal insulation property due to which it remains cool in summer and fairly
warm in winter.
- For mud floor construction, a 25 cm thick layer of selected moist earth is spread over the
prepared bed, it is then rammed well to get a consolidated thickness of about 15 cm.
- In order to prevent crack due to drying, small quantity of chopped straw is mixed in the
moist earth, before ramming.
- The floor is maintained by giving occasionally a wash of cement-cow dung (1 cement: 2
or 3 cow dung).
- Muram or disintegrated rock floors are also used in villages and possess the same
advantages as mud floors.
- For muram floor construction, first of all a subgrade is prepared by laying about 25 cm
thick layer of boulders or broken bricks and then wetted and rammed hard. Upon this hard
bed, a 15 cm thick layer of muram, with coarser piece at bottom and finer piece at top is
laid. Over this layer of muram, another 25 mm (or 2.5 cm) thick layer of powered muram
is spread.
- Water should be sprinkled on the entire surface and rammed well. The surface is rammed
again with wooden rammer called thapies for about three days.
- To maintain muram floor in good condition, occasionally a wash of cement-cow dung (1
cement: 2 or 3 cow dung).
Merits of Mud flooring and Muram Flooring:
1) Cheap initial and maintenance cost.
2) They provide smooth, hard and fairly impervious surface.
3) Offer good insulation against heat, and hence maintain equal temperature in all the seasons.
4) Easy in construction and maintenance.
5) They possess sufficiently long life, if properly maintained.
Demerits of Mud flooring and Muram Flooring:
1) For proper maintenance, the floor are required to be given a wash of cement cow dung
plaster once or twice in a week which is objectionable from sanitary (relating to the
conditions that affect hygiene and health) point of view.
2) Stone Flooring:
- This flooring consist of thin slabs of stones laid on concrete bedding.
- The usual size of stone slabs are 30 cm x 30 cm, 45 cm x 45 cm, 60 cm x 60 cm and 45 cm
x 60 cm and their thickness varies from 2 cm to 4 cm.
- After excavating to the required depth, the earthen base is levelled, rammed and watered.
On this surface a layer of 10 to 15 cm thick lime concrete or lean cement concrete is laid
and properly rammed. This forms the base course of the floor.
Fig. 2 Stone Flooring

- Over this concrete bed or subgrade, well dressed stones are laid and fixed with thin layer
25 mm (or 2.5 cm) of mortar (1 cement : 3 sand).
- Normally the joint width between the individual stones slabs not exceed 0.5 cm.
- When the stone slab is properly set, mortar in the joints is raked out to a depth of about 15
to 20 mm and then flush pointed with 1:3 cement mortar.
- A slope of 1 in 40 is provided for proper drainage.
Merits of Stone Flooring:
1) It provide hard, durable and wear-resisting floor surface.

2) It is easy in construction and maintenance.
3) Places where slab stones are available, there this type of flooring is economical.
Demerits of Stone Flooring:
1) It do not give pleasing and attractive appearance.

2) Poor in shock absorbing and not offer perfectly even surfaces.
3) Brick Flooring:
- This type of flooring is suitable for cheap construction and where good bricks are available.
- Well burnt bricks of good colour and uniform shape is used.
- The method of preparing the base course for brick flooring is varies from place to place.
- For the construction of brick flooring, firstly an excavation is made about 40 cm and then
earth is levelled, watered and well rammed until it become dry and hard.
- On the prepared bed, the subgrade should be made of 25 cm layer of brick bats and covered
with 10 to 15 cm thick layer of lime concrete or lean cement concrete ( 1 cement : 3 sand :
6 coarse aggregate)
- The joints should preferably be 1.5 mm in thickness.
-
Fig. 3 Brick Flooring
Merits of Brick Flooring:
1) It offers durable and sufficiently hard floor surface.

2) It provide non-slippery and fire-resistant surface.
3) Cheaper in initial and maintenance cost.
4) Easy in maintenance.
Demerits of Brick Flooring:
1) The only drawback of this flooring is that it is absorbent.
4) Timber Flooring:
- This type of floor construction is no extensively used but is popular for special purpose
floor ex. In auditorium, dancing hall etc.
- The use of timber floors is best suited for buildings on hill stations.
- One of the major problems in timber flooring is the damp prevention. This can be done by
introducing D.P.C. layer below the flooring.
- Timber floors can either be of suspended type (i.e. suspended above the ground) or solid
type (fully supported on the ground).
1. Suspended type timber floor:
- This type of floors are recommended when the chances of dampness are high.
- The entire area of the building below the ground floor of timber is covered with an
impervious material (cement concrete or asphalt) in order to prevent dampness.
- Generally, a 15 cm layer of concrete is placed all over the bed known as concrete
bed and D.P.C. courses are inserted throughout the width of the wall immediately
below the wall plate (see in fig.)
Fig. 4 Supported Type Timber Floor

- Timber floor essentially consist of boarding supported on timber joists called
bridging joists or floor joists, which are nailed to the wall plates at their ends.
- In case of large rooms, where the distance between the walls is considerable,
intermediate walls called sleeper or dwarf walls, are constructed to support the
joists along their length.
- Longitudinal timber members called sleeper plates are fixed on the top of sleeper
walls and the timber joist are secured to the sleeper walls by nailing them to the
sleeper wall plates.
- The sleeper walls are not spaced more than 1.8 to 2 m.
- The hollow space between the flooring and the concrete bed is kept dry and well
ventilated by providing air bricks on in the outer walls and voids in the sleeper wall.
2. Timber flooring fully supported on the ground:
- Where the dampness problem is not acute, timber floor may be supported on the
ground all along.
- For this type of construction, bae concrete is first laid in 15 to 20 cm thickness.
- Over it, a layer of mastic asphalt is applied.
- Wooden block flooring is then laid over it.
Fig. 5 Wooden Block flooring

- Wooden block flooring over joist or concrete bed is provided in the following alternative
ways:
1. Strip Flooring: This is made up of narrow and thin strips of timber which are
jointed to each other by tongue and groove joints. (Normally strips, 6 to 10 cm wide
and 2 to 2.5 cm thick are used).
Fig. 6 Tongue and Groove Joints
2. Planked-Flooring: In this type of flooring, wider planks are used and they are also
jointed by tongue and groove joints. (Normally, planks width is about 20 cm).
3. Wood-block Flooring: This consists of short but thicker wood blocks which are
laid over a concrete base. The blocks are properly jointed together by ends of the
grains exposed. (Normally, wooden blocks of size 20 x 8 cm to 30 x 8 cm, with
thickness of 2 to 4 cm, are used).
4. Parquet Flooring: This is similar to block flooring, in this thin blocks are used
(maximum thickness 10 mm). The blocks are laid by means of hot glue in desired
pattern and nailed with panel pins.
Fig. 7 Parquet Flooring
5) Concrete Flooring:
- This type of flooring is most commonly used in residential, commercial, institutional, and
public building of all type.
- The concrete flooring consist of two components:
1. A base course on subgrade and
2. A wearing course on floor finish.
- In floor construction, the floor finish over the base course (or subgrade) may be placed in
two ways.
1. Non-Monolithically: Topping or floor finish is laid after the base has hardened.
2. Monolithically: Topping is laid immediately after laying the base layer after laying
the base layer while the base is still in plastic state.
- Monolithic construction have following disadvantages:
1. There is possibility of developing hair cracks on account of settlements, which may
occur in base course after laying.
2. The finish once damaged is difficult to repair due to monolithic character of
flooring.
3. The construction is progress is slow as the finish can only be laid when base course
sufficiently set.
- Monolithic construction has the advantages of smaller thickness due to good bond.
- The concrete flooring consist of topping of cement concrete 2.5 to 4 cm thick laid on a 10
to 15 cm base of suitable mix of concrete (either lime concrete or lean concrete, 1:3:6 or
1:5:10).
- The actual construction of concrete flooring consist of following operation:
1) Ground Prepration: The surface of the ground for receiving the floor is levelled,
well-watered and rammed.
2) Formation of Base Course on Subgrade and Laying lime Concrete:
- Upon the above prepared ground, 15 cm thick layer of broken bricks is
evenly spread and consolidated. This sub-base on subgrade called hard core.
- Thereafter, a layer of lime concrete or lean cement concrete (1:2:4), about
15 cm thick is laid on the hard core or directly on the soil if made up of good
soil.
- A slope of 1 in 120 to 1 in 240 is sufficient for inside floor and an outward
slope of 1 in 36 to 1 in 40 is recommended for bathroom and verandah floor.
- The lime concrete should be watered and well rammed for two days and the
third day the topping concrete should be laid.
3) Laying of the Topping Concrete:
The topping is laid by two methods:
1. Topping laid in single layer:
The topping consists of single layer of Cement Concrete (1 cement: 2 sand:
4 coarse aggregate), having its thickness 4cm.
2. Topping laid two layers:
The topping consists of 1.5cm thick Cement Concrete (1:2:4), which is laid
monolithically over 2.5cm thick Cement Concrete (1:3:6).
4) Lying of wearing coat or floor finish:
- After an hour of lying cement concrete, a wearing coat about 2 cm is laid
on concrete surface.
- The finish of several type such as mortar finish, mosaic finish, terrazzo
finish etc. are used for different purposes over the concrete base.
Fig. 8 Concrete Flooring Details

5) Grinding and Polishing:
- A hard wearing surface of attractive appearance can be produced by
grinding and polishing the concrete surface by hand or grinding machine.
- The grinding should be done after 3 to 4 days of laying concrete.
- This grinding removes loose materials and produce a smooth finish.
6) Curing:
- After he flooring is completed, the whole surface is covered with wet socks
or begs with 5 cm of wet sand and kept wet for at least 10 days by sprinkling
water at suitable intervals.
- Curing helps in developing strength, weather resisting and wear-resisting
qualities.
Merits of Concrete flooring:
- It is non-absorbent and hence offer sufficient resistance to dampness.

- It possess high durability (the ability to withstand wear, pressure, or damage).
- It provide smooth, hard, even and pleasing surface.
- It is easily cleaned and has proved overall economical due to less maintenance cost.
- The concrete is non-combustible material, this flooring offers a fire-resistant floor.
Demerits of Concrete flooring:
- It does not possess very satisfactory insulation properties against sound and heat.
- The concrete flooring cannot be satisfactory repaired by patch work.
6) Mosaic Flooring:
- The floors having its topping consisting of mosaic tiles or small regular cubes, square or
hexagons, embedded into a cementing mixture is known as Mosaic Floors.
- Commonly used in operation theaters, temples and bathrooms etc.
- For construction of mosaic flooring, a hard concrete base of 15 cm is laid.
- Over this concrete base, while it is still wet, a 2 cm layer of cement mortar (1:2) is evenly
laid.
-
Fig. 9 Mosaic Flooring
- Upon the bed of cement mortar (or cementing material), small pieces of broken tiles are
arranged in definite patterns.
- After this, cement or coloured cement is sprinkled at the top and the surface is rolled by
light stone roller (usually having dia. =30 cm and length= 45 to 60 cm) till the even surface
is attained.
- The surface is left for 24 hours to dry and then it is rubbed with pumice stone to get a
smooth and polished surface.
- The polished surface is finally allowed to dry for about 2 weeks before use.
7) Terrazzo Flooring:
- Terrazzo flooring is becoming very popular these days for providing floor finish in banks,
hotels, offices building and other public building, on account of its excellent wear-resisting
properties and decorative effect.
- This is special type of concrete flooring in which marble chips are used as aggregates.
- Any desired colour can be obtained by using marble chips of different shades and also by
using different colour of cement.
- A layer of cement concrete mortar (1 cement: 2 sand) of 12 mm thick is evenly spread over
concrete base course.
- Normally, terrazzo mix having proportion 1:2 to 3 (1 cement: 2 to 3 marble chips) is used.
- This terrazzo finish is installed over the concrete base course.
- When the mortar bed has sufficiently hardened, a terrazzo mixture (1 cement: 3 marble
chips), 6 to 12 mm thick, depending upon the size of chips with water just sufficient to
make a workable mix is applied.
Fig. 10 Terrazzo Flooring
- About 85% of the marble should be exposed over the finished surface and to achieve this,
it may be necessary to add additional chips during the rolling process.
- The prepared surface is cured for several days and then surface is carefully polished by
grinding machine.
- During the process of grinding, the surface is kept wet. The holes and pore, if any are filled
with a thin grout of cement paste.
- The produced surface is pleasing in appearance.
8) Granolithic Flooring:
- This flooring is a finishing coat over the concrete surface, which is used to provide a hard-
wearing surface for the floors in offices and public buildings.
- Granolithic flooring consist of rich concrete made with very hard and tough quality coarse
aggregate, such as granite so that the surface will have the maximum resistance to abrasive
action (the process of scraping or wearing something away).
Fig. 11 Granolithic Flooring
- If granolithic flooring laid monolithically with concrete base the thickness of flooring
should not be less than 25 mm.
- If granolithic flooring laid non-monolithically with concrete base the thickness of flooring
should not be less than 35 mm.
- For light duty floor, granolithic concrete consist of mix proportions as 1:2:3 (1 cement: 2
sand: 3 granite chips).
- For heavy duty floor, this finish consist of mix proportions as 1:1:2 (1 cement: 1 sand: 2
granite chips).
- To improve further the wearing qualities of such a finish, the sand should be replaced by
fine aggregate of crushed granite.
9) Tiled Flooring:
- Tiles, either of clay or cement or terrazzo are manufactured in square, hexagonal and
various other shapes sizes and thickness.
- Tile flooring commonly used in residential, high class hotels, offices and other public
buildings etc.
- These floors are installed in shorter time with pleasing appearance and good durability.
- For construction, the ground for receiving the floor is levelled, well-watered and rammed,
and on this a sub-grade of lime concrete (usually 15 cm thick) or R.C.C. is made.
- Over the sub-grade, a thin layer (25 mm thick) of lime sand mortar with mix proportion
1:3 (1 lime: 3 sand) or 1:1 cement mortar, is laid to serve as a bedding mortar for receiving
tiles.
- The bedding mortar is allowed to harden for few hour and then a neat slurry is spread over
the surface.
- Readymade tile are laid flat on this surface, with a thin paste of cement applied on their
sides.
- The joints are made as thin as possible, and extra mortar that comes out through the joints
to the surface is immediately cleaned.
- After 2 or 3 days, the joints are well rubbed with carborundum stone and the polishing of
surface can be done by rubbing machine or hand.
- Flooring tiles in India are being manufactured in square sizes of 20 x 20 cm, 25 x 25 cm
and 30 x 30 cm at present with the assumed thickness of joints as 1.5 mm.
Merits of Tiled Flooring:
- It provides a non-absorbent, decorative and durable floor surfaces.
- It permits quick installation or laying of floors.
- It is easily repairable in patches.
Demerits of Tiled Flooring:
- Generally costly in initial and maintenance cost.
- On becoming wet it provides a slippery surface.
10) Rubber Flooring:
- Rubber flooring are used in public and industrial buildings because of their good wearing
qualities, resiliency (object to spring back into shape, elasticity) and noise insulation.
- The flooring material is made of up pure rubber mixed with fillers such as cotton fiber,
granulated cork or asbestos fiber and desired colouring pigments.
- This type of flooring is manufactured in the form of sheets or tiles in the variety of patterns
and colours. The thickness of sheets or tiles ranges between 3 to 10 mm.
- For the construction of rubber flooring, a base of concrete R.C.C. or wood is prepared.
- The rubber tile are then cemented to the smooth and dry base of concrete or wood by means
of special adhesive.
- Rubber flooring is expansive in initial cost, yet it provide a durable wearing surface.
- Oil, grease and gasoline make the floor slippery and it becomes difficult to restore it in
good condition.
- Rubber sheets are supplied usually in sizes, 500 x 90 cm, 350 x 90 cm and 250 x 90 cm.
- Rubber tiles are supplied usually in sizes, 20 x 20 cm, 30 x 30 cm and 45 x 45 cm.
- For the above sizes the corresponding thickness are specified as 3.2 mm, 4.8 mm and 6.4
mm respectively.
- Merits and Demerits of rubber flooring are same as Linoleum Flooring.
10) Linoleum Flooring:
- Linoleum flooring is generally laid over the wooden or concrete floors of residential and
public buildings, in order to improve their durability and appearances but hide the defects.
- Linoleum rolls are supplied in width of about 2 meters or 4 meters, in varying thickness
from 2 to 7 mm.
- Linoleum covering over the wooden or concrete base is laid in the following 3 ways:
1. Linoleum covering (sheet or tiles) are laid loose on dry and smooth sub-floor.
2. The laid covering are to be fixed to the sub-floor by suitable adhesive, in order to
have proper bond and high durability.
3. The covering of linoleum over the prepared wooden base are nailed down at the
ends.
Fig. 12 Linoleum Flooring
Merits of Linoleum Flooring:

- It provide an attractive, resilient, durable and cheap surfaces.
- It offer surface which can be easily washed and cleaned.
- It offer adequate insulation against noise and heat.
Demerits of Linoleum Flooring:
- It damaged easily, when kept wet for sufficient time.
- It does not offer resistance against fire, being combustible in nature.
- This covering when applied over wooden base may get torn (cut, cracked), under
excessive sub-floor movements.
12) Cork Flooring:
- Natural cork is nothing but the outer bark of the cork oak tree which are used in the flooring
after manufacturing in the form of tiles and carpet like Linoleum flooring.
- It provide warm, noiseless, non-slippery and resilient flooring and possess good heat
insulation qualities.
- The cork flooring is generally used to obtain a noiseless floor as in case of libraries,
churches, theaters, art galleries and school etc.
- For construction, dry levelled floor (concrete or wooden) is prepared for receiving cork
flooring.
- Cork tiles or cork carpet are laid in similar manner as a linoleum covering.
- Features regarding cork flooring:
- Cork tiles are manufactured from high grade cork bar and are available in standard
sizes (10 cm x 10 cm to 30 x 90 cm) with varying shades of thickness (from 5 mm
to 15 mm).
- Cork tiles are usually made in two qualities, ordinary and heavy density. The heavy
density tiles are used when heavy wear is expected like floor of theatres, schools
etc.
- Cork Tile joints are either tongue and groove type or butt type.
- The cork carpet, being more absorbent, is difficult to maintain it clean.
- Merits and demerits of cork flooring are similar to linoleum flooring.
13) Magnesite Flooring (or Magnesium oxychloride composition flooring):
- These are patent type of floor materials available for use on special occasions.
- Magnesite composition flooring consist of a dry mixture of magnesium oxide, asbestos or
other inert material and a pigment. Liquid magnesium chloride is added on the job to form
a plastic material which is spread to a smooth finish.
- This type of flooring is generally cheap and laid in thickness of about 12 mm over the
rough surface (wood or concrete).
- This type of flooring is not very attractive and is less durable than clay tiles, terrazzo and
marble. However, it is less noisy than these floors It is used in school and in office
buildings.
14) Glass Flooring:
- This type of flooring can be used for special purpose where it is desired to transmit light
from an upper floor to a lower floor.
- For the construction of glass flooring, the structural glass in the form of tiles, blocks etc. is
fitted within frames of various types.
- The framework containing structural glass blocks should be so closely spaced that the glass
flooring can be safely sustain the anticipated loads.
- The structural glass is available in different forms of varying thickness, usually from 10 to
30 mm.
15) Marble Flooring:
- This flooring is commonly used for superior type of floor construction, particularly in
hospitals, temples, bathrooms, theatres and other such buildings.
- The construction of this flooring is exactly same as that of mosaic flooring, except that the
use of marble pieces instead of mosaic tile is made.
16) Plastic or P.V.C. Flooring:
- The plastic flooring is a recent development in the floor construction and has been
successfully used as a covering over the concrete base in all type of buildings such as
residential building, hospitals, churches, hotels, school, offices, shops etc.
- The plastic material called P.V.C. (poly-vinyl chloride) is fabricated in the form of tiles
and is available in different sizes in varying colours and shades.
- Plastic flooring is laid in the similar way as cork flooring.
17) Asphalt Flooring:
- Formally, this type of flooring was disliked due to bed smell and ugly appearances,
particularly in indoor floors.
- The asphalt flooring is carried out in variety of colours and in different forms such as
asphalt tile, asphalt terrazzo, mastic asphalt, special acid proof asphalt blocks etc.
- The thickness of mastic asphalt floorings have been recommended as 15 mm, 20 mm and
25 mm and over for light, medium and heavy duty floors respectively.
- In case the flooring is to be laid in two layers, the second layer is to be laid immediately
after the first layer and no sand is to be spread at the bottom layer.
- The joints formed at the end of each day work, i.e. construction joints, should be of overlap
type.
Selection of flooring material:
Following are the factors that affect the choice of a flooring materials:
1) Initial Cost: The cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of building.
Floor covering of marble are very costly and may be used only in residential buildings.
2) Appearance: Floor coving give pleasing appearance i.e. it should produce a desired colour
effect and architectural beauty.
- Flooring of terrazzo, mosaic, tiles and marble gives a good appearance.
3) Cleanliness: the flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be non-
absorbent. It should have effective resistance against absorption of oil, grease etc.
4) Durability: the flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear (damage), temperature
changes, disintegration with time and decay, so that long life is obtained.
- From this point of view, flooring of marble, terrazzo, tiles, concrete, mosaic etc. are
considered to be of best type.
5) Damp resistance: Flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness, so that
healthy environment is obtained in the building.
- Flooring of concrete, terrazzo, mosaic etc. are preferred for this purpose.
- While flooring of cork, wood, rubber, linoleum, bricks etc. are not suitable for damp
conditions.
6) Sound Insulation: Flooring should insulate the noise. Also, it should not be such that noise
is produced when user walk on it.
- Cork flooring, rubber flooring and timber flooring are good from this point of view.
7) Thermal Insulation: The flooring should offer reasonably good thermal insulation so that
comfort is imparted to the residents of the building.
- Floor covering of wood, rubber, cork, P.V.C. tiles are better for this purpose.
8) Fire resistance: This is more important for upper floors. Flooring material should offer
sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a
building.
- Concrete, tiles, terrazzo, mosaic, marble have good fire resistance.
- Cork, asphalt, rubber and P.V.C covering if used, should be laid on fire resistance
base only.
9) Smoothness: the flooring material should be smooth, and should have even surface.
However it should not be slippery.
10) Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks,
imprints etc. likely to cause by shifting of furniture, equipment etc.
11) Maintenance: the flooring material should require least maintenance. However, whenever
repairs are required, it should be such that repairs can be done easily, with least possible
expenditure.
- Hard covering like tiles, marble, terrazzo, concrete etc. requires less maintenance
in comparison to materials like cork, wood etc.
Upper Floors
- In upper floor the flooring materials are practically same as used for ground floors.
- Upper floors are supported either on the walls or on columns, therefore, the major problems
of strength and stability.
- Depending upon the materials used for construction, and upon the arrangements of beam,
girders, etc. for supporting the flooring, upper floor may be classified into the following
types:
1. Steel joist and stone or precast concrete slab floors
2. Jack arch floors
3. Reinforced cement concrete floors
4. Ribbed or hollow tiled flooring
5. Filler joists floors
6. Precast concrete floors
7. Timber floors
Steel Joist and Stone or Precast Concrete Slab Floors:
- This type of floor is quite common in locations where stone slab are readily available in
span of 1 to 3 m and width 30 to 60 cm.
- Where the stone slabs are not available, precast concrete slabs can be used.
Construction Method 1:
- The slabs are placed at the lower flange of the rolled steel joist (R.S.J.), specially where
plain ceiling is required, through in this case bearing to the slab is small.
- When the slabs are placed on the lower flange of joists, the space between the top of the
slab and top of the R.S.J. is filled with the lime concrete or light weight cement concrete,
after encasing the steel joists completely in cement concrete so that they do not get rusted.
- On the top of it regular flooring is laid.
- The spacing of the rolled steel joists depend upon the length of available stone slabs.
- The bearing of the joist on the wall should be at least be equal to depth of the joist, but in
no case less than half the width of the wall.
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ 0.5 ∗ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
- It is better if bearing is kept just equal to the width of the wall so that eccentric load of the
wall is eliminated.
- A bed plate is provided below each end of the joist to suitably distribute the load to the
wall.
Fig. 13 Stone slab rested on lower flange of rolled steel joist

- The slabs can be supported on the upper flange of rolled steel joist (R.S.J.) by inserting
wide stone bedding plate, called suboti between the flange and the slab.
Fig. 14 Stone slab rested on upper flange of rolled steel joist
- In some places like Jodhpur, stone slabs are available in lengths of 2.5 to 3.5 m.
- If the width of the room is slightly less than this value, stone slabs can be directly
supported on the walls, without using steel joists.
Fig. 15 Simple stone slab floor

Reinforced Cement Concrete Floors
- Floors of modern buildings are invariably made of reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.),
because of the inherent advantages of this type of construction.
- Concrete is weak in tension and to overcome this, steel which is strong in tension, is
introduced to form a composite material.
- In R.C.C., the steel strengthens the concrete, and hence R.C.C. is equally strong both in
compression and tension.
- R.C.C. floors are also comparatively fire proof and damp proof.
- These floors can also be used on large spans, and therefore, more suitable for big size
rooms, halls, etc.
- R.C.C. floors can be classified into the following types:
1. Simple slab flooring
2. Reinforced brick flooring
3. Beam slab flooring
4. Flat lab flooring
5. Ribbed flooring or hollow tiled flooring
Simple R.C.C. Slab Flooring:
- In simple R.C.C. flooring, the R.C.C. slab bends downwards, causing tension at the bottom
fibers at the mid span. Due to this mild steel bars reinforcement is placed at the bottom of
the slab, keeping a minimum cover of 15 mm.
Fig. 16 Clear Cover and Inclined Length of Reinforcement

- Half of these bars are bent up near ends to take up negative bending moment caused due
to partial flexibility at the ends.
- We will provides mains bars in shorter span and distribution bars in longer span.
Fig. 17 Sagging and Hogging bending moment
- The bearing of the slab in the wall should neither be less than its thickness nor less than
half of the width of the wall.
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 ≥ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 ≥ 0.5 ∗ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐿𝑦
- The slabs having ratio of longer length to its shorter length (𝐿 ) greater than 2 is called one
𝑥
way slab otherwise as two way slab.

- In one way slab main reinforcement is parallel to shorter direction and the reinforcement
parallel to longer direction is called distribution bars.
Fig. 18 One way slab
Fig. 18 Example of one way slab
- Thickness of the slab is decided based on span to depth ratio specified in IS456-2000.
Minimum reinforcement is 0.12% for HYSD (High Yielding Strength Deformed) bars and
0.15% for mild steel bars. The diameter of bar generally used in slabs are: 8 mm, 10 mm,
12mm and 16mm.
- Main bars in the slabs won’t be less than 8 mm if you are using H.Y.S.D or 10 mm if you
are using mild steel bars.
- When the length to breadth ratio of the room is less than 2 (i.e. room is generally square).
The floor slab is designed spanning in both directions and called two-way slab. In this case,
main reinforcement in the slab is provided in the both.
- Example of two way slab:
Fig. 19 Example of two way slab
Fig. 20 Two way slab
- R.C.C. slabs floor construction is carried out as follows:
1. A well designed centering work either of steel or timber is construct to support its
own weight (dead load) and the superimposed load.
2. After centering, the reinforcement is placed on the interior surface and then a thin
layer (2 to 5 cm) of cement concrete is placed.
3. The cement concrete (usually M20 mix or 1:1.5:3 mix) is then poured around the
reinforcement up to required thickness of the slab, and well consolidated by means
of rammer.
4. The concrete is now cured for about 2 weeks to attain its full strength.
5. After the concrete has sufficiently hardened, the formwork is removed and the
upper and lower surfaces of the slab are treated as desired.
Reinforced Brick Flooring:
- Reinforced brick work is a typical type of construction in which the compressive strength
of bricks is utilized to bear the compressive stress and steel bars are used to bear the tensile
stresses in a slab.
- In other words, the usual cement concrete is replaced by the bricks. However, since the
size of the bricks is limited, continuity in the slab is obtained by filling the joints between
the bricks by cement mortar.
- The reinforcing bars are embedded in the gap between the bricks which is filled with
cement mortar.
- Such type of construction is quite suitable and cheap for all span floor slab carrying
comparatively lighter loads.
Fig. 21 Reinforced Brick Flooring

- Cement mortar used to fill the joints should be 1:3 ratio, with proper water-cement ratio to
make the mortar workable.
- The width of the joint between adjacent bricks is generally kept equal to 2 cm.
- The compressive strength of reinforced brick work is sometimes increased by providing
wider gap (say about 4 cm) between the bricks, and providing 2.5 to 5 cm thick layer of
cement concrete on the top of the bricks, as shown in figure below.
Fig. 22 Reinforced Brick Slab
R.C.C. Beam and Slab Floor:
- For larger spans and heavy loading conditions where intermediate walls are not provided
to reduce the span, R.C.C. beam and slab floor construction is becoming very common for
most of the buildings.
- In this type, Beam and Slabs are designed as rectangular sections and the slabs are
supported on beams. In monolithic construction, the beams and slabs are cast together.
- The beam used in monolithic construction are known as T-Beams.
- The floor of R.C.C. beams and slab type, are constructed either as one way slabs supported
on two sides and with main reinforcement in one direction only.
- If designed as two way slabs supported on four sides and with reinforcement in two
directions.
- When the size of the room (i.e. hall) is very large, these floor beams are supported on
longitudinal beams which, in turn, are either supported on R.C.C. columns or end walls.
Fig. 23 R.C.C. Beam and Slab Floor

Flat slab flooring or Beamless Slab Flooring:
- This floor is made of R.C.C. slab which is directly supported on columns without the use
of beams or girders.
- Flat slabs are generally thicker (12 mm or more) in case of beam and slab floor but are
more economical as when the floor loads are heavy, panels are square or nearly square and
column spacing ranges between 5 to 8 meters.
Fig. 24 Flat slab Floor
- Because of exclusion of beam system in this type of construction, a plain ceiling is
obtained, thus giving attractive appearance from architectural point of view.
- The slab in flat slab construction may be either with or without drop. Drop is that part of
the slab around the column which is of greater thickness than the rest of the slab.
- Reinforcement in the slab can be arranged either in two-way system or in four way system.
- Two way system of reinforcement is commonly adopted for slab subjected to ordinary
loading conditions.
Pre-cast Concrete Floors:

- With the modern development in construction technology, pre-cast beam slab units are now
available with the help of which the floors can be can be completed in lesser time without
the use of framework.
- These precast units are available in about 25 cm width, various depths, and various spans
and can be supported either on walls or on rolled steel joists.
- The sides of each unit are provided with grooves to form connecting joggles for adjacent
units.
- The joints are grouted with cement mortar, using cement guns.
Fig. 25 Precast concrete floor unit

Merits of Precast Concrete Floors
- No framework is required during construction.
- They are simple and rapid in construction.
- No time is wasted for curing of the floors and, hence these floors are allowed to be used after
48 hours of fixing in position.
- Such floor are economical, light weight, sound proof, fire proof and economical.
Demerits of Precast Concrete Floors
- The manufacture of pre-cast units requires strict supervision and skilled labour.
- The casting mould required for precast unit are very costly and hence only economical when
large scale production of similar unit is desired.
- There is certain wastage due to breakage in handling and transportation of these precast units.
Timber Floors:
- Timber floors, thought quite light in weight, poor fire resistance and sound insulation
properties.
- They are quite costly, except at those locations where local timber is cheaply available.
- It is also highly vulnerable to termite attack.
- Timber floors are basically of three types:
1. Single joist timber floors
2. Double joist timber floors
3. Framed or triple joist timber floors
Single joist timber floors:
- This is the simplest type of timber floor used for residential buildings, where span are short
or moderate (say up to 4 m) and loads are comparatively lighter.
- The floor consists of wooden joists (also called bridging joists) spaced 30 to 40 cm apart
and supported on the end walls, over which timber planking or boarding is fixed.
- The width of the joist are kept 5 to 8 cm wide.
- The depth of the joist is determined from the thumb rule:
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑐𝑚) = 4 ∗ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 + 5 𝑐𝑚
- The joists are supported on wall plates 10*7 cm to 12*7 cm in size, at the end walls.
- A space of about 5 cm is kept at the ends for air circulation.
- When the span exceeds 2.5 m, it becomes essential to strengthen the joists by providing
herring bone strutting at the mid span, by means of inclined pieces of timber of size 5*3
cm to 5*5 cm.
- The end of the joist are nailed to the wall plates.
Fig. 26 Single Joist Timber Flooring

- Planking consists of wooden boards of 4 cm thick and 10 to 15 cm width, which are fixed
to the bridging joists.
Double joists timber floors:
- This type of flooring is stronger, and is used for spans between 3.5 to 7.5 meters.
- The bridging joists are supported on intermediate wooden supports, called binders. Thus,
the loads of bridging joists are first transferred to the binders and through them to the end
walls in the form of highly concentrated loads. This is a disadvantage of this type of
flooring.
- Also, the overall depth of the flooring is increased.
- The bridging joists are spaced at 30 cm centers and the spacing of binders is kept 2 to 3.5
m, and they rested on stone or wooden bearing.
Fig. 27 Double Joist Timber Flooring

- In order to reduce the overall depth of the floor, bridging joists are cogged to the binders,
with depth of sinking equal to 1/3rd depth of binders and bearing not less than 2.5 cm.
Framed or Triple Joists Timber Floors:

- This type of floor is suitable for spans greater than 7.50 m, in which intermediate supports
known as girders are provided for the binders.
- There are four elements of flooring:
1. Floor boards
2. Bridging joists
3. Binders
4. Girders
- The binders are staggered and connected to girders by tusk and tenon joints to increase the
rigidity of the floor and to decrease the overall depth of floor.
- Sometimes, the wooden girders may be replaced by rolled steel joists.
Fig. 28 Framed or Triple Joist Timber Flooring

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Floors

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Floors: Various types, suitability for various purposes, construction details, floor finishes,

composite floors, precast beam floors etc.

A floor consist of the following two components:

The materials used for ground floor construction:

Fig. 1 Solid Ground Floor

The materials used for the finishes of ground floor are:

1) Mud and Muram

1) Mud-flooring and Muram Flooring

Fig. 2 Stone Flooring

Merits of Stone Flooring:

1) It provide hard, durable and wear-resisting floor surface.

Demerits of Stone Flooring:

1) It do not give pleasing and attractive appearance.

Merits of Brick Flooring:

1) It offers durable and sufficiently hard floor surface.

Demerits of Brick Flooring:

1) The only drawback of this flooring is that it is absorbent.

Fig. 4 Supported Type Timber Floor

Fig. 5 Wooden Block flooring

Fig. 7 Parquet Flooring

Fig. 8 Concrete Flooring Details

Merits of Concrete flooring:

- It is non-absorbent and hence offer sufficient resistance to dampness.

Demerits of Concrete flooring:

Fig. 11 Granolithic Flooring

Fig. 12 Linoleum Flooring

Merits of Linoleum Flooring:

Selection of flooring material:

Steel Joist and Stone or Precast Concrete Slab Floors:

Fig. 13 Stone slab rested on lower flange of rolled steel joist

Fig. 15 Simple stone slab floor

Simple R.C.C. Slab Flooring:

Fig. 16 Clear Cover and Inclined Length of Reinforcement

way slab otherwise as two way slab.

Fig. 18 One way slab

Fig. 19 Example of two way slab

Reinforced Brick Flooring:

Fig. 21 Reinforced Brick Flooring

Fig. 22 Reinforced Brick Slab

Fig. 23 R.C.C. Beam and Slab Floor

Pre-cast Concrete Floors:

Fig. 25 Precast concrete floor unit

Fig. 26 Single Joist Timber Flooring

Fig. 27 Double Joist Timber Flooring

Framed or Triple Joists Timber Floors:

Fig. 28 Framed or Triple Joist Timber Flooring

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