CHAPTER 1 A Framework for Supervision INTRODUCTION “The purpose of supervision is to help schools contribute more effectively to studer achievement. With this purpose in mind, we provide a framework in this chapter to help in understanding how schools contribute effectively to this goal. The trams ‘work shows how instructional capacity, instructional quality, and student e ‘ment can become three powerful pathways to academic success for all students How the pathways are understood and traveled depends on one’s theory of supervision, To illustrate this point, we provide a scenario that shows bow four supervisors, each representing a different theory, size up a school-improvement problem and offer solutions. The theories, labeled A, B, C, and D, are discussed, and {examples of how they work in the real world of supervision are presented. SOME BACKGROUND Forde past several decades, the federal and state governments of the United States and many industrialized nations around the world have focused significant at on school improvement. Eager to remain competitive in the global mat these governments are calling on schools to produce a workforce that ean adapt t© the rapidly changing technologies of production, the accelerated rate of technolo, nd the application of sophisticated technology to almost all forms of nies to nursing, from teach ical invention, work, from banking to wine growing, fom auto mec (0 professional athletics, Governments have passed legislation and policy initia: tives demanding improved academic achievement by all students, achievement ‘within more rigorous and complex curriculum guidelines, achievement that mandated tests, These surable and meets increased standards of learning on stat policy initiatives often include standards of effective teaching by which teachers Will be evaluated, state-imposed tests of literacy and content knowledge for teaching licensure, and requirements for continuing education for the periodic renewal ofthe license to teach, Besides these initiatives, some states and large city4 Patt Ove espctives for Supervision Schoo systems are holding teachers and administrators accountable for the poor vo demie achievement of their students—accountable to the extent that teachers ind administrators ean be removed from consistently underperforming schools. Many of these ideas are at the center ofthe reforms mandated by the federal gov- ‘emnment’s No Child Left Behind (NCLB) initiative Tinder the relentless pressure of these policy initiatives, teachers and supervi- sors have had to reconsider and reconstruct the activity of teaching and reconstruct the provess of supervision. From the teacher's perspective, teaching has to be far now responsive to the variety of students’ talents, readiness to learn, interests, and ‘ltural and linguistic backgrounds. The notion that there is one teaching strategy that works forall children, if it was ever genuinely embraced, can no longer be tlefended. The attitude of the policy community i that if the students are not learn in itis the teacher's fall No longer ean teachers blame the students, the students! patents, oF the ineffective teaching of prior teachers. The failure of students to learn on classtoom is considered the failure of the teacher 0 find a way (0 enable the students to lear. Teachers face an additional challenge. Not only is the: ‘ensure that all children reach acceptable levels of achievement, but achievement Ievels themselves are being raised. Metacognitive learning is being introduced into the early grades, That is, students are expected to reflect on how they are learni and to be more aware of learning-attack strategies, This calls for higher levels ff reavoning previously thought by many to be beyond the cognitive developmen {al levels of younger students. Teaching for simple recall of facts, for memorized nswers is-no longer sufficient. Students have to explain relationships between pisces of information, and that requires higher level of learning. Intra, those de ning place new demands on teachers to develop a repertory ian features that call for that higher-level e pressure on tec! mands for student of teaching strategies and lesson-de fear Supervisors are likewise challenged by the new policy emphasis on school re- newal. They are obliged to concentrate on what students are learning in relationship fo what curriculum standards and state tests indicate they are suppoved to be learn Ing, Rather than looking for teaching strategies that the school systems consider “tleotive classroom by classroom, supervisors have to look for observable evidence that students are learning as a result of the various stimuli presented by all their teachers, Supervisors are challenged to sitdown, not simply with individual teacher liter individual teacher to discuss specific teaching skills, but more so with groups Sf teachers to discuss which students are learning atthe required levels and which re not and to develop and design new’ ways to foster the required learning. Som times the learning difficulties are caused by bilingual challenges faved by students Sometimes by difficulties faced by special-needs children, and sometimes by stesses Within the home envionment. The job of the supervisor is to help teachers pinpoint ‘in additional resource people when the source of the developing difficulty, bring ‘alled for to work with the teachers, and monitor the gradual improvement in the Students’ learning, But teachers, to0, have supervisory responsibilities. No matter how capable are designated supervisors, as long as supervision is viewed as doing something to teachers and for teachers but not with teachers, its potential to improve schools will not be fully realized. Further, unless teachers become sufficiently self- managing by accepting more responsibilty for their own learning and development, the capacity ofthe school to provide needed help will be severely taxed, BOTH ROLE AND FUNCTION In tody's efor climate, supervision is best undersood as both aoe fon, When focexample, inal, department chairs, cental ofc subject matter spocklbs,'and oer formally dctiguated supervisor vst elserooms 10 belp ‘Eesec egr Gc paces ney ae xorg frm Sopra They con by eagagcy atch Rnaioas wt oheeving tacking and roving helpful comments, helping teachers to reflect on their practic, teaching a demon- sation eso, suggesting its techies might inlet the By este rst ply ‘ceo abs nein fons, hn ough ey a sal operas Tesco ps oats in per vity factoea Wwe they visit each oe's lasses fo earn and to provi el, oeitdue each eters plan hing tocxamine logethe samples of stadent wor, o pour ove the most ent est scores together, io purle togeier over whether asdgumcats they are giving students are approprais or whether sudentpeformaoce levels mect important sods hr pons eggs ries ae caring, he earning of thet colleagues, andthe quality of teaching and leaming that students receive. : . fons * ‘The supervisory function reo important in helping school contribute ees sively to rigorous and atheneleaming that ey cannot be cane ost hose ‘tho lave formal supervisory responses. Principals and ote cma super son. therefore, have two broad esponsibilis portolios,disag- formal evaluations of teact sf + w provide the most effective supervision they can for teachers; and + to provide the conditions, help, and support teachers need to engage in the supervisory functions for themselves as part of thei daily routine By fulfilling these responsibilities, supervisors can build a culture of supervision in the school that includes a commitment to continuous learning. Within this culture teachers become members of communities of practice. Communities of practice are formed as teachers come together in a common effort to help each other teach and learn, to care for each other, and to work together in advancing student academic achievement, The ties that bind teachers and their work together within such com ‘munities are such that teachers think of themselves as being less involved in a col Seon of individual practes and more involved in a sng shared practice ofLEADING AND LEARNING TOGETHER Lite is likely to happen unless principals and other formal supervisors Focus their leadership on leaming. Building the capacity of teachers, then giving them the dis- cretion they need to practice effectively, and finally, holding them accountable for helping students be effective learners in a caring environment are the benchmark indicators of leadership for learning. But bringing together leadership and learning does not work well in promoting effective teaching and learning for students when the focus is only on meeting the learning needs and interests of teachers one at a time, This one-at-a-time approach is a great way to help teachers get smarter. But smart teachers and smart schools are not the same. A school gets smarter when what teachers learn and what teachers do ar aligned withthe school's purposes. A school gets smarter when the school itself is the prime beneficiary of learning, Richard Elmore reminds us that learning for teachers can be a private good or a public good.! When learning is private good, teachers benetit as individuals. This is the most common pattern of teacher learning. When learning is a public good, teachers benefit and the school benefits too. Teachers, for example, may lear a lot more about literacy and numeracy strategies, but only when this individual eapacity becomes part of the school’s collective capacity does what is learned help us achieve our student learnin, then do schools become smarter too. ‘The greatest asset a school has its collective 1Q. Supervisors have to figure out ‘how to hamess this intelligence, how to develop it, and how to use iteffectively. This is more likely o happen when teachers are connected around common purposes and themes and when they are connected to each other in a shared practice, When this happens, they are likely to feel a sense of responsibility for each other und 10 feel a ‘moral obligation to work together to help achieve the school's purposes. Learning that counts the most in a schoo! is learning that supports the public good But what about accountability? In this age of standards, high-stakes test results, shouldn't we be talking about holding teachers accountable? How can we ichers accountable without getting involved in evaluating teachers? Where sacher evaluation fit into the supervisory picture? In today's elimate of re- form, supervision must retain an important stake in accountability. If supervision is divorced from accountability, neither supervision nor accountability will get the support it needs to be effective als. C Teachers need to be involved in supervision to overcome the isolation they expe rience. And teachers need to be involved in supervision to become continuous learn cers. When they are working together and learning together, teaching improves. Better teaching means improved student learning. When students are not learning well, and hen teachers are not teaching well, the problem may be the quality of supervision the School provides. Ina sense, those of us who are supervisors need to be held aecount- able for providing systems of supervision that make sense to teachers, that teachers will want to bea part of, and that will help teachers be more effective the classroom, im, Wastiagton, DC: Alber Shaker ns, 202 But this stake in accountability must represent less a supervisory event and ‘more a supervisory norm-—a strong value that permeates the culture ofthe school AAs this norm takes hold, supervisors will be able to engage in a number of roles ‘Among them are colleague, teacher developer, keeper of the vision, and designer of learning opportunities. They will be able to maintain, as well, a healthy concern for {quality control as they strive to push the learning curves of teachers and schools to the limit and as they function as stewards on behalf of parents and students. ‘A FRAMEWORK FOR SUPERVISION Earlier it was noted tha, the purpose of supervision is to help increase the opportu nity and the capacity of schools to contribute more effectively to students’ academic success. With this purpose in mind, we set the scene for supervision by providing framework for understanding how schools contribute to academic suecess and for understanding the critical role that supervision can play inthis process. This frame- ‘work is responsive to today’s policy coatext of school renewal that requires the inte ation of bureaucratic aspects of supervision (for example, the legislated mapping Of teaching fo test resulls) and human resources aspects of supervision that seek to invest in teacher learning and other capacity-building strategies. One way to concep: tualize this integration is to consider Newman's? work on pathways to learning. This work is summarized in the model that appears as Figure 1-L. Note that in the center of the figuee, instructional capacity, instructional quality, and student engage: ‘ment are listed as the three pathways that supervisors travel in helping schools become more successful, Social supports and structural supports are listed inthe fig- ture on both sides of the supervisory pathways as important dimensions of leadership that support their development and effectiveness, The pathways are detailed below:? 1. Instructional capacity is defined as features of the school’s organizational characteristics that support teaching and learning. Among them are teachers’ knowledge of the subjects they teach, skill in teaching and classroom ment, dispositions that promote achievement (i... high expectations, sensitiv ity t individual differences, commitment to caring), access to a high-quality curriculum, teaching materials, technology, adequate physical space, and ac~ cess 10 a strong professional community that supports high-quality te and learning and is committed to teachers’ thinking, planning, and working to- ‘gether in ways that enhance thei abilities and performance as teachers, fred M. Nowmaan, “How Seondary Sebo Cotte Acaec Sus Batu Schcie els), The ecient Yana: Soil Infencer and Educational Calenes, Nine Pres 986, pp 8-108, Though Newnuana focus on secondary school, he des no ive tat nape it cotbute to studentahiement in secondary school a compared with i: Inbis words the eeuch hs ao reveled spr difecacs win te two vlAcad 1.0 capa Instructional quality is defined as curriculum content grounded in the acade mic and professional disciplines that demands in-depth understanding and pplication; teaching addressed 10 the mastery of basic information and skills ‘and a climate for learn nvironment, and a com fas well as deep understanding and complex think ing characterized by high expectations, an orderly mitment to caring and cooperation Student engagement is defined as students’ commit nt to and participation in When a school’s instructional capacity improves, teachers have access t0 a bigh-qua aching improves, and te to improvements in instructional quality. Instructional quality, in turn, is & major contributor to promoting higher levels of student engagement, the ccuriculum, Jers help one another, leading proved learning, In effect, the pathways ask thr how will we work to ether and ‘questions: What will we lear t sher? How are we providing quality teaching and learning in ‘a caring environment? Are we being successful in helping students be connected t0 each other, their work, and their responsibilities? ‘Newman is quick t point out that helping schools become more effective con- tributors to student learning requires more than traveling the supervisory pathways. In discussing student engagement, for example, he notes that “Student engagement results both from the quality of the instructional seting and trom the level of social Support from peers, parenis, and the community beyond the school.™' Added to the social supports are structural supports such as small school size, decentralized school management, and encouraging teachers to work in more cooperative and cok Tegial ways. Both social and structural supports are important leadership concerns tha, if properly handled, can make it easier to travel the supervisory pathways ‘Lisa lot easier to separate the pathways from their supports in a book. On the job, supervisors have to worry about both the general leadership that is required in a School and the kind and quality of supervisor leadership they must provide. In sum: + Supervisory leadership focuses on improving a school’s instructional capacity and instructional quality and on stre ening student academic engagement ‘+ General school leadership focuses on improving the amount and kind of social support and structural support that the school can make available to teachers and students What does supervisory leadership look like? How does it work in practice? Not everyone agrees. Supervisory leadership is contested with diferent views competing for atention. Following Newmann, we believe that the heart of supervisory leadet- ship is designing opportunities for teachers to continuously expand their capacity to Team, 1 care, to help each other, and to teach more effectively. We view schools as learning communities where students, teachers, and supervisors alike are learners and teachers depending upon the circumstances. Learning for one group inevitably10. ser One Respective fe Superson leads to learning for all! And we believe that building the school’s instructional ‘capacity is an important means to improve student academic achievement ‘What are your views? What are the practices of supervision you observe every day in your school? What are the assumptions behind these practices? What views have dominated the way supervision has evolved over the last century? We exam next section. ine these questions in IMAGES OF SUPERVISION SCENARIO Let us jourey into the world of supervision by involving ourselves in Metro City’s school improvement efforts. Place yourself inthe role of schoo! supervisor in Metco City, A year ago another school in Mero City was selected by the superintendent and central office staff to become a model school, This school was to incorporate a new ‘ducational system featuring explicit goals and teaching objectives across grade Tevels and « highly structured and tightly paced curriculum linked to the objectives. Te curriculum included new textbooks and workbooks for all the major subject reas a well as carefully thought-out assignments and activities designed to provide Students with needed practice, Daly and weekly lesson plans were provided to make things easier for teachers and to ensuce that students received the same instruction rnd assignments. Criterion-referenced weekly, six-week, and semester tests were ‘cluded in the package. The system provided as wel for test scores tobe evaluated by grade level and by each class within the grade level every six weeks to monitor student progress. Teachers were formed into quality-control committees, or quality Circles, to discuss the scores andi instances oF low scores to come up with way’ the System might be better implemented, The administration was particularly prow! of this quality-circle concept, for it wanted teacher participation ‘The Metto City administration felt that if teachers became familiar with the system and if they followed directions and protocols faithfully they would teach Siecessfully. An incentive system was also introduced, Teachers were tained inthe methods of teaching that the district Felt were necessary to deliver the new curricu- Tum effectively and efficiently. Observation checklists containing desired teacher behaviors were used to evaluate teacher performance. Teachers scoring the highest received cash bonuses, To help things along, the principal received extensive taining in the new curriculum and in staff supervision and evaluation. Further, « supervisor who had thorough understanding of the new curriculum, the testing procedures, the daily ant ‘weekly lesson plans, the needed teaching to make things work, and the evaluation ‘System sas assigned to the school. Both principal and supervisor provided inst caching carefully to ensure compliance withthe new having difficulty in complying tional leadership by monitorin system and by providing help to teachers who we Prior to the beginning of the school year, teachers were provided with a can fully planned and implemented weeklong training program, receiving a Courant: A Ramework for Supervision 11 salary for their participation, Schools ran on a half-day schedule for the frst week, thus allowing additional waining and debugging. The training seemed to be successful, for by the end of September teachers appeared to develop an acceptable level of understanding and competence in using the system. The central office had high hopes for the success ofthis new initiative and save it as @ model for export to ‘other schools in the district. [efore the introduction of the new educational system, the teachers and princi pal of this school enjoyed a reputation for being a closely knit faculty with high ‘morale. This situation began to change shortly after the new system was introduced, Teachers began to complain. They didnot like the new curriculum, feeling that fre- «quently it did not fit what they thought was important to teach. They complained of pressure from the tests, They found themselves teaching lessons and adopting teaching strategies that they did not like. The te each day, the tests and their con- tent became more and more the curriculum, They expressed displeasure, too, with the overall climate in the school, describing it as inereasingly impersonal with re spect to students and competitive with respect to colleagues. Disconte hers were particularly disturbed t teachers grew as the semester continued. Things really began to sour when it be: ‘came apparent that student performance did not measure up othe high expectations of the administration, The administration was puzzled as wo why such a well thought-out and carefully implemented educational system was not worki school. Shorty after the spring break, the principal became disillusioned enough to request a transfer. The supervisor was equally discouraged. . ‘With the departure of the principal imminent, the superintendent asked you and thre other supervisors to review matters atthe school in an effort to determine the source of the supervision problems and to ative ata solution to these problems. ach of the supervisors was asked to work independently to develop solutions and to bring ideas to the meeting tha isto take place shorty. How will you respond to the superintendent's request? Take a few minutes to develop an outline or frame: work that summarizes your views [Below are descriptions of how the four supervisors sized up the problems at this school and the solutions that they proposed. Each of the supervisors was working from an image or an implicit theory of how the world of schooling, and pechaps ‘even the world itself, works. Which of the four descriptions best matches your own View of the situation and your opinion as to how the situation might be remedied” Supervisor A You fee th the present problems in the redesigned school are obviously attibutable to the people who work there. Ifthe teachers have not yet adapted to the new cur riculum and its procedures, they probably are incapable of functioning in a school fhe we poores Leonad DG“MEER EERE EERE REREEREEEE 12 Paar One: Perspectives ox Supers ‘committed to school improvement. [tis also possible thatthe principal and the new experts they were assumed to be and are therefore to blame For Stperisor af no erat tring othe system an for hibit to rode thet aa erhelpand supervision nse sth thy might we the sytem ete Soeur ay om th begining, yu would have Safed te shoo wih athena specie search woul have Been condted 1 id the aan re see ako woul est Atsuch assem those who would carefull fol saa pcr of eahing and working tht he sytem egies, neni eo eon the shoo, you believe that oo much emphasis was placed on are ne teacher fo develop a concept understanding of the ne pres ae eae ein oo many question, 00 much confusion dubs, nd et saa ease needed to know was othe tnt he system, wate Pe nba outcomes were expected. Clearer diretos an expectations se wer a feo tanng and close monitoring Would have provided the Meade contol to make te system Work ee atthe earacalum, the leson plans, th materia he test te each pee a the evaluation system educed ino the schoo re he Best de ua ys ow tha tis possible or spas oer an that no aa can be designed perfect, yousttbute he aren hs cse he ct ae i inabiy ofthe eae fo do ha hey were supposed 1060, Toe tic upooning mowing ou pan tomake ea that he pokes aaa ten tain acer beter an to more closely monitor he each- anes Scar why are wing owe the system the way is intended Supervisor B ‘Yon are convinced thatthe source of the problems atthe redesigned school isthe Tek of eanphass on human relations, Throughout the year the teachers and xl ‘inployees have been complaining, As you suspected from the outset, the teachers ‘toc consulted about the type of curriculum or the procedures that should be jst as they were excluded from the decision-making process that led to the development ofthis model of the school of the future. You believe that teachers sant to fel that they have a say inthe matters that influence them, They want tobe Remembered and noticed, tobe considered important, The formula for success is SGmple and staightforward, When these conditions do not exist, morale sinks When teachers are satisfied and morale is high, on the other hand, they are more ‘cooperative and more willing to comply, and their performance improves. The teachers state that the new curriculum and teaching procedures are too cumbersome and rigid and thus make it impossible for them to work comfortably ‘As you have always said, when the school fulills its responsibilty to teachers" eads, everything else fails into place and school goals are met automaticaly. Making sure that teachers are happy is Key. Under the new system, teachers have to Cope not only with a reduction in the amount of teamwork that previously had remote mate and satisfaction but also with new supervisors who were hited or skills instead oftheir aman skis rained because oftheir technic: Chart A Framework for Supervision 13 Dari the upcoming meeting you plan to discuss top mans ra ang Uses ahaniin eal itp ar Tce eacina Can petal lonetary ste Tanking things work. Fix the human relationship problems, and teachers will gladly ‘cooperate with the administration in implementing the new system. : Supervisor C In your pit pens ne gn ho atl sources a fale to provide teachers wilh opportuntis to Tull tei individual ‘cols ot atonomy nd el nau ene. competent wor. You fom this ‘pinion om th bas of what you have lea about echo ingeeral swells Mow this toubled school The teacher ia hs schol lke those in your owe tchool, ar mature dul who, under the right moutvaing conditions wan 0 do thei est for tesco: they want io enjoy thelr work and are capable of supers ing themselves. Indovd thei performance record and thir vel fob aisaction before th edsiging process prove ia! abe tis eae, The fonmula for sbecess is Simple and suaightforwarl Give people esponsibility an authoiy o make dec Sion about hv the are to wor, ad they respond with nceased motivation, Po vide them with opportunites obo soccecsulin ecomplishing er goals, ante performance improves, The best tegy isto provide te overall ramewerk ad et teachers gure out how wo implement Wi he ight lima, teachers respond (0 ener expectations, need bead goals, and want to be held sccounable if ited Sha given the discretion to make te tmplemening decisions that make 3 thant Inte school nor enugh tein wax given to creating tha lima "npc pina reheat ee ee eos fe tS tadreasings and slaah Cinna pacesagsonl ies ee mgs fps es ieaeeh tne len vile trina ta ioporh ot Ey. oa-dieeton, and a save of fllllmut wets ignored. Unier the crc tchool ad owl teachers counepreducive and you plano make Your fe ee ee paige acimintymqmsirigbarttige-yeeny see ny} siemdions fk Go cpentecdl tea te one ay ct ola isan hl ail tc aces see gst nppaeten Supervisor D You believe that the changes introduced were not realistic. They did not reflect the way schools actually work or how teachers think and behave. The curriculum and instructional system and the teaching and eval that were introduced oals, structured tasks, easily measured outcomes, sure operat Featured discret| parr One Perspectives for Supervision ccodues, clear Hines of authority, and single est way (0 Oran, teach, and a Tne problem, as you see it, is that these characistist re suitable for thing and learning environments that ae table an predictable and for instances ee student and teacher needs and styles ae uniforn. BYE schools have multi- any competing goals, unstructured task, competing, 1% difficulet0- Ha errpmes, unsure operating procedures, and unclear ant 0° lines eds and styles. You hope Taathorty, Further, teachers and students have diverse avptan that these are characerstics of dynamic enviommenis Whi be Jat works i ‘instance may not work in the second. firs insane reading somewhere that schools are “managed coe andcul- ral Het and you inlend to build your argument round i's ‘What counts eat so moc the management system thats PON Aes what they be- Forteacher vs they share, and te assumption they Hold ‘values are held lew, they become defining characteristics of the school's clus. Changing Schools, as you see it, means chang ‘Zou plan vo recommend tat the present sytem De Pot on recommend tha the faculty and administration spend the 10° ree values they share about teaching and learning, wat Pree evaluate, and how they might best work together, "hey ‘should then conduct ae rvesomont tat ienttes dhe norms and values tha a PO place in the a ned seed by what is nOW going on, ad come 10 TRS Wi what needs Qing. This sort of reflection, you Deliee, will ene m to create a new cul caagcirschool—one with different and more effetive DT ‘You intend 0 vit ttt his enorme schools ess emphasis Wt need to be given to pre- pe hat needs to be done and to providing direct super Shared values seep yoses, a common perspective on what needs 40 Be St improve the and purer jase commitment 1 change in your view, should {Anca sb: schoo iget supervision an should help teachers to become ef as oe tee oemmendation of the four supervisors represents & 4 Teen albeit ex: Each rag or tory of what supervision i, how sehools Work ‘and what is een wo teachers Make your selection by ranking he {0% A that reflects your view of supervision. Does a cleat favorite emerge? You probably feel more Your vive by combining sore ofthe views. What combined nas ‘would you soar own personal theory. The theories of school cultures hold. You will also sar coming (0 grips hols are for, how propose? By deciding, you ate reveal eeeh of the supervisors are described below. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT, HUMAN RELATION SCIEN EOSCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SUPERVISION Many ofthe supervisory practies found in schools today 4 Man ot ation of two theories of supervision: eaitonal scenic 1 oF a commimclatons, These theories are reflected in the images supervision. rarayed by supervisors A and By respectively, Wy OW Eth either theory of Pearson is adequate o provide # model for school super\Si00. In later sections ak or Supervision 15 se loot a eu rn sep ol Scand mre un oe eae of a see mage ee gc Mayo ts tp ti thory sem fom his experience and research on supervision in ta a adustes. For example, Taylor analyzed the loading of pig iron onto Aeris inks Fo a Noung con tec Talo ar gs for increasing the Worker” productivity Hi techniques were Ti tha Lene tha they were based on carefol observation and task analy ae Jeet for example tat the equipment the workers were Using Was inadequate to the task. He substituted standardized shovels and other standardized inal jn Jsignedspecfally forthe tasks tbe done, Once the best way of woe enetning wax established, he instructed workers to do exactly as they were sa aly at they wet ol. By closely adhering o his methods and by using the daar te proved the workers were abet increase their average loading pet erred 7 tons, Taylor fee that the see o scenic management was & Se plant worker who didnot think too much but instead followed directions coer dnt, of couse, were to be based on “sienifcally validated ease of ding the jb, The scientife management recipe isa follows Identify the best way. Develop a work system based on this “research.” ‘Communicate expectations to workers Train workers in the system. + Monitor and evaluate to ensure compliance. i on eae ighly refined cuca teaching systems and he Pe ha hy ae carflly flowing approved goings and a son nl account and eine rcemphsze tific management within an atmosphere of clear-cut ma nager-subordinate relation: tie manage i cba of epervason antl be foun sho. y Pe supers The ess ave nt changed il Bes netic reining se sree on a fs simian Mara em Sone a prdnsiy of wrkers cul Be nereased Py Sere ae es lh nf ei New Yok: Hare Rov, 1 pet pe oy ra Ryn can tion andthe Calf EienEEEEE EE REE EERE EEE 16 arr One Pespctines for Supervise meeting their social needs at work, providing them with opportunities to interact ‘with each other, treating them decently, and involving them in the decision-making process. His classic research study at the Westem Electric Hawthorne plant during the 1920s gave testimony to those ideas.* Ultimately, human relations supervision was a successful challenger to traditional scientific management, When it was “applied to schooling, teachers were viewed as whole persons in their own right rather than as packages of needed energy, skills, and aptitudes to be used by administrators and supervisors. Supervisors needed to work to create a feling of satisfaction among teachers by showing interest in them as people. It was assumed that a satisfied sta would work harder and would be easier to work with, to lead, and to control. Parte {pation was considered an important supervisory method, and its objective was to ‘make teachers fee! that they were useful and important to the school. “Personal feelings” and “comfortable relationships” were the watchwords of human relations. ‘Human relations supervision is still widely advocated and practiced. Human relations promised much but delivered litle. Is problems rested partly with misun- derstandings as to how this approach should work and partly with faulty theoretical notions inherent in the approach itself. The movement actually resulted in wide spread neglect of teachers. Participatory supervision became permissive supervi- sion, which in practice was laissez-faire supervision. Furthermore, the focus of human relations supervision was, and stills, an emphasis on “winning friends” in an attempt to influence people. ‘To many, winning friends was a slick tactic that ‘made the movement seem manipulative and inauthentic, even dishonest. Though this approach developed a considerable following during the 1930s through 1950s, it became clear that increases in school productivity would not be achieved merely by assuring the happiness of teachers, ‘School reforms that began in the early 1980s and continue today suggest anew, renewed interest in scientific management thinking, though its shape and form in practice have changed considerably from the more traditional fox, This neoscien tific management isin large part a reaction against urban relations supervision with its neglect ofthe teacher inthe classroom and its lack of attention to accountability Neoscientifie management shares with traditional management an interest in con trol, accountability, and efficiency, but the means by which it achieves these ends is far more impersonal. For example, there is a renewed interest in closely monitoring, ‘what it is that teachers do, the subject matter they cover, and the teaching methods, that they use. But checking daily lesson plans and visiting classes daily to inspect teaching often breeds resentment and results in tension between teachers and super Visors. A more impersonal way to control what it is that teachers dois to introduc standardized eriterion-referenced testing and! to make public the scores by class and school. Since itis accepted that what gets measured gets taught, tests serve as an im- personal method of controlling the teacher's work. *see; for example, hon Mayo, The Human Problems ofan Indra Csznton, New Yor: Maclin 1995; and FJ Rocthiserger and W. 2, Diskoon, Management andthe Worker Cambridge MA: Hara (Cree 1 Famemer for Supervision 17 star ck of aithandtast in tein idl caches by and wings oe play at meh iret in he welfare of he school ns posrans aha eset by ania spervio Sate and federal pally makers andthe ence pos Wi. Within onal siete management, acer a heavy igevied ea face-to-face soting in aneffrttensure that good teaching wlllake pes a hun ron uc fv hn th eee Bemore lab inthe ands of management nearing hat pot teeing al take pice In neosintic maragemen, persona sct ae roncee mechanisms nbs or face cloesuperiton Hae ix sated at ‘iil andar of performance objective, rcampeesle cane eid ie work of teachers can be controlled by holding them accountable to these standards, thus ensuring better teaching. ‘ one thy of acon, For example th work of arts maybe programe by an impersonal system of egultion and contol, dn) 1-dy supercon mieoe Phase lest and cordial relaonships, bling teachers up (telling them, for teacieel iS coches : eae ae ne HUMAN RESOURCES SUPERVISION Jn 1967 the Association for Supervision and Curiculum Development's Commis sion on Supervision Theory concluded its four-year study with a report entitled Supervision: Perspectives and Propositions? In this repo, Wiliam Lucio dis cussed scientific management and human celtios views of supervision and spoke Of third viet ofthe eevsonns which sought to combine emphash em both tasks and human concerns into a new theory, Standard-bearers of the revision ists were Douglas MeGregor, Warren Beonis, Chris Angyrs, and Renss Likert. Beginning with the second edition of this book, we fave referred 10 the concepts an practices associated with this new theory as human resources supers sion." This is the theory of supervision that supervisor C relies upon. The dstine tion between human resources and human relation i eitical, for hutnan resou is more than just another vai of human relations. Human resources represents @ wlan Lao Superson: Peripectves and Propositions Washington, DC: Asocition fr 5 sion and Cream Developmen, 907. er a SDs Migr. Ze Haan Se of Bari, New York: MC, 4, Wao Hens Ags, Pray nd Orponttn New Ys: Harps Ron, Wt Ren het Now Pate Managemen, New Yo: MeGraw- Hl, 191 See ews "his tinction was fist mae by Reymond Miles, “Haman Kelaows or Hunan Resouces” ‘asin Reve vol. $3,904 (1985199. 148-16 aby Non Hae Ewa Cel and ae Pr Manager! Think ws serial Thinking: An Iteration Say New York: We.her regard for human need, potential, and satisfaction. Argyris captured the new phasis succinctly, as follows: either an overpowering manipulative organization nor Happiness, morale, and satisfaction ae not We're interested in develop organizations that wil “keep people hapry : aa grant isin our disesson. Individual competence, commit ans ng individuals, and active, viable, vital organi ing tb i emt, self xesposiblity, lly funeti = ey the Kinds of criteria that we wil sep foremost in our minds Leadership within this new kind of supervision was tobe nether directive nor sronizing, but instead, supportive. Jo such as to ensure a max Te leader and other processes ofthe organization mast be sc rebut at all neocons and in all eaionshps within the orgsnvaon rape light of his background, values, dss, and expectations will inw a eas suporive an one which builds nd maintains his Sense of personal ‘worth and importance ‘every managerial at rests on a theory, Pro De aes ment. Theory Y, a8 5 e ankind and mata vrais for motivating workers than the older Theory X. wovided a more powerful b tactics of eontrol—to procedures and eee srmining whether they are doing it, and ‘gues ring people what od, ot etn fr ling pists Since an undeing ssurtion i that sr tbe aces others, tsi opie be ade odo wha ss : = oop st ad esque of tion and cont Theory Y. on he thet elo, with he rein of 3 and, leads to a preoccupai favironment which wil encourage commitment Saas apport forthe exit exerci of iniitiv, i xt organizational objectives and which = ity, and se Uiection in achieving them. "* “The assumptions about people associated with Theory X are as follows 1. Average people are by nature indolent—they work as litle as possible 3. They lack ambition, dislike responsibility, prefer to be led F They are inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs. 4. They are by nature resistant to change. + They are gullible, not very bright, ready dupes of the charlatan and demagogs when the assumptions of Theory X do a oe Je, seem to work only minimally and indeed seem to be true, Teachers, for exampl semis rays aerating he ivi and he Organ, New Yor: Wie. 90.4 Teese re ure rom MGrogor's sy “TD ne Human Side of terri.” which per in CGueree 1: Framework for Supervision 19 then only under close supervision, Few instances of teacher initiative can be found. Instead, teachers seem to be de ensive and preoccupied with maintaining the status quo. McGregor argued that when such conditions exist, the problem may be less ‘with workers and more with the expectations that their administrators and supervi sors have of them. Sensin -gative assumptions and expectations, teachers are Tikely to respond in a negative way. This is an example of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Fundamental to Theory X is a philosophy of direction and control. This philosophy is administered in a variety of forms and rests upon a theory of motiva: tion that is inadequate for most adults, particularly professional adults, The assumptions about people associated with Theory ¥,on the other hand, are as follows: 1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive centerprise—money, materials, equipment, people—in the interest of economic (educational) ends. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations. 3, The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming re sponsibility, the readiness to direct behaviors toward organizational goals are Iisa responsibility ize and develop these all present in people; management does not put them then ‘of management to make it possible for people to recog human characteristics for themselves. 4. The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people ean achieve their own goals best by direct their own efforts toward organizational objectives."” Basic to Theory Y is building identification of and commitment to worthwhile objectives in the work context and building mutual trust and respect. Suecess in work is assumed to be dependent on whether authentic relationships and the ex change of valid information are present “Advocates maintain that school conditions ereated by human resources man agement result in a better life for teachers and more productive schooling. Satisac- tion and achievement are linked in a new and more expansive way. Instead of focusing on creating happy teachers as a means to gain productive cooperation, the ‘new supervision emphasis is on creating the conditions of successful work as a means of increasing one’s satisfaction and self-esteem. As Fredetick Herzber described the new emphasis To fel that one has grown depends on achievement of tasks that have meaning tothe individual and ince the hygiene [satisfaction] factors donot reat tothe tas, they ae powerless to give such meaning to the individual. Growth is dependent on some ichievements bu achievement requires a task The motivators are task factors and chs tre accesay fr gwowth; they provide the psychologial simulation by which thei vidual can be activated toward his self realization needs. erick Herabery, Work andthe Narre of Man, NewYork: Wot, 1966, 9.7820. part One: Perspectives for Supervision HUMAN RELATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCES SUPERVISION COMPARED. a ifr ook in rastce, Huran ons an human an a ead more etecve shal ible hat ase woke e ex workers casiet to work with, more cooperative, and more per ape workers ands ease (0 work sate gan ey want rom each ky toe come ar teed wo, Cone, for example th pracize of shred en a end inten tae stato, This onship Pagid a floes Te human relations supervisor increase > which in tum increases adopts shared > 10 decision-making teacher school practices: satisfaction effectiveness rhe rationale bind this strategy is that teachers want to fe! mmprtnt and inva Sst fetng it ture prone in teachers «beter atde toward the inva eto dy beome easier fo manage and more effestive in their Fo ean eee uch teachers work Satisfaction, aconing 10 wis view, a oneal acumplishment of important and meaningful work and his aa era's he key component 10 ling school success, The fan aot a i mnceas tol sues, The supervisor assumes hat beter dei ei sade that teacher ownership and commitment otese decisions will aad tat the Hkeinood of success at work will nerease. These rela Gonshis are depicted as follows Te human resources supervisor i case > which in tun increases adopts shared to increase crass decision-making school twacher effectiveness. satisfaction practices gned with the assump- ed, Human relations supervision is much more closely a : tions of Theory X than with those of Theory Y, even though when experiet yhuman relations supervision results in a softer form of control. REVISITING THE SUPERVISORS Let us now revisit supervisors A, B, C, and D. Scientific management and neoscientifie management constitute the theories that govern the thinking and practice of supervisor A. This supervisor supports a highly structured and finely tuned teaching and learning system characterized by close connections among objectives, curriculum, teaching methods, and testn Supervisor A believes that if teachers do what they are supposed to, the system will produce the results that are intended. Human relations constitutes the theory to which supervisor B gives allegiance. Supervisor B is concerned wit ystems insensitivity to teachers needs, Further, teachers were not consulted about the system tobe implemented and thus feel left out, The answer to this supervisor is to back off and try again, this time getting teachers involved and making compromises in the proposed changes that get in the way of teachers’ social interaction and other needs. With the right human relations strategy, supervisor B believes, any school-improvement initiative will be successful, [is just a matter of how effectively you work with people ‘Supervisor C comes closest to operating from within the human resources per spective. This supervisor helieves that successful teaching and school improvement ‘occur when teacher motivation and commitment are high. Being in charge of one’s \work life and being held accountable to shared values and broad goals contribute to moti the teachit jon and commitment. Authentic participation in decision maki viding responsibility are viewed as key supervisory strategies by supervisor C Supervisor D's analysis of the problems in Metro City represents a fairly new image of supervision. Supervisor D relies much less on direct supervision, whatever its form, No matter how enlightened such supervision mi sons, it stil depends Ia in the case of human resources sup vision, at the base is an exchange of higher: level need fulfilment for some sort of work compliance. Instead, supervisor D seeks to build substitutes for supervision into the everyday life ofthe school. Prime among these substitutes are norms, obligations, relational trust, culture, and other forms of eommunity characteristics. The more deeply held are these substitutes, the more likely are people to be internally motivated This hard to put a label on supervisor D's theory of supervision, Providing sub- stitutes, For example, suggests that supervision as itis now being practiced should ’be replaced by something else. Supervisor D highlights shared values. Shared val- ues can take many forms. Sometimes they are expressed as professional norms oF ‘community norms or the felt need for teachers to care about each other and to help ‘each other. As schools are restructured as true learning communities, shared norms and ideas become the source of authority for what supervisors, teachers, and students do. These sources of authority replace bureaucratic and interpersonal authority by speaking to community members in a moral voice and calling them to do the right thing. ‘These and other substitutes for supervision will be discussed in the next and subsequent chapters of this book,“This “normative” supervision that characterizes supervisor D's views is based on several premises that are at odds with more traditional approaches fo supervision «One premise is that while self-interest may be an important source of mova Ta Pr teachers, most are both capable of sacrificing sel(-interest and willing to do so for more altruistic reasons if conditions are right. «_ ‘Noother premise is that preference, values, emotions, and beliefs are equally i pat more powerful teacher motivators than are logic, reasoning, and scientific evidence, «third premise is that teachers and others do not make decisions simply 2 50, ied nividuals, Instead, what they think, believe, and ultimately do is shaped by their memberships in groups and their eonnections with other people. “hey Px Tore responsive to norms than they are to either rules or neels—a cond- tion that seems to apply to students as wel! itis important to conclude this discussion of images of supervision withthe waming given as we began, Each of the supervisory models sketched above Pro aera eersimplifcaton, and probably none is exclusively adequate. Successful Supervision is shaped by the cireumstances and situations that the supervisor et aor iterent times, different models may be appropriate. Sul it matters greatly akich of the general theories of supervision or which combination one accepts 35 rene his overarching framework, The images of supervision twist and curt with new policy developments in teaching and learning, SUMMARY in Chaper | we have provided a framework for understanding and practicing supervision TS te cae pads te laership pias hat supervisors must trvel a Tey sek fm frame amis achievement inte acoks: promoting issrutional apa): proving o> Ftructional quality, and ensuring student eng ‘rove, so does stint achievement a ee coed tse maje themes viewing supervision as both ole an unetion, ree senses ne portance of inking lading an arin strategy fr change and examining San relations, human resources an Do the Mino City Fur theories of supervision (Seale management, fo peony) The theories are modeled by supervisors AB, Cand, wi rae cerision scearo. The recommend theres ae embodied by supervisors C aD. SOME REFLECTIONS: 1. Which ofthe four theories f supervision, A,B,C, or D, best describes how supervision ati virece nace in your school or sctool istic? What do you dof yu subserbe othe pra any sae ovies C and D bu are required to use the practices of theories and B? 5 a 199 Thomas. Seriovann,Srenthnig the Heartbeat: Leading and Lem un Fame: Jn Bs 205; an Robt. Sat hl Ladei, 11: A Framework fr Supervision Give examples of scenic management tory and ' Sie em gement theory and practice in today's Hadeip and Consider Ricard Elmore distinction between ache earning public good. The teacher is the prime ber oa the toa isthe ple So cary ofthe former, an the schools the pie fect ofthe lat Joining Elmore, we pind ot ha sat eachers donot cess lead to smart schools. Schools get smarter when what teachers know is agg pet this a postion? od and when ted knowlege is linked to school purposes. What i you poston? Explain your pontine acteg How doo tak shes a Hy sano ee dts? Fp htt hat persion is ant foremn ncn ats hd Supervisor D advoetes a normative theory Sr theory of supervision. At the cer of his hey are at mn scp so han mtr No ere hel of cng th selina wing 1 os on beta of te cmon pene values, toton, and bls are power iat of hua behavior ahd wha teacher th bee taped ir mente oct with pl T wat Sct anne eh om? ie eo 1 eee ‘not true.” Be prepared to defend your ratings. . nia