Chapter Three__ Supervision of Instruction. In this chapter, the discussion focuses only on aspects of the supervision. program designed to improve classroom instruction which, in effect, limits the concern to professional growth and teaching performance. ‘As mentioned earlier, the main purpose of supervision is to improve instruction in order to enhance student learning, This is a eadership function that is accomplished in response to academic goals and personal growth needs of those involved. To carry out this task, the instructional leader continuously looks for ways 10 assist teachers in doing their classroom tasks better. Whenever and. wherever necessary, the instructional leader provides intervention measures to improve the teaching-learning experiences in the classroom. Instructional leadership became a dominant model in the 1980s as research findings indicated that effective schools usually have principals who focused more on instruction (“Developing _ instructional leaders,” n.d.). The definitions of instructional leadership have become more comprehensive to include not only such tasks as setting clear goals, allocating resources to instruction, managing the curriculum, monitoring lesson plans, and evaluating, ‘Supervision of instruction | 69 a teachers, but also the emphasis on learning. Because of this focus on learning, Dufour (2002) prefers the term /earning leader to instructional leader. Expanding this view, the National Association of Elementary School Principals (Lashway, 2002) considers instructional leadership in terms of “leading learning communities” and assigns to it these roles: 1. Prioritizing student and adult learning 2. Setting high expectations for performance 3. Gearing content and instruction to standards 4. Creating a culture of continuous learning for adults Using multiple resources of data to assess learning 6. Activating the community's support for school success Bottoms and O'Neill (2001) consider the principal as the “chief learning officer,” while Elmore (in Lashway, 2002) regards instructional leadership as the “organizational glue that keeps things on track.” ‘The findings of the research conducted by Blasé and Blasé (1998) indicated two major supervisory behaviors that positively influence student learning: talking with teachers, and promoting, professional development. Supervisors talk to teachers to make suggestions, give feedback, solicit opinions, express admiration and praise for effective teaching, and support collaboration. ‘To develop and even level the competencies of teachers in schools, principals provide adequate professional development opportunities Many intervention approaches may be included in the supervision program to achieve the desired objective which is to70 | Supervision of instruction: The Phitopiné Perspective NEN improve teaching and learning: clinical supervision, mentoring, coaching, peer assessment, portfolio assessment, and action research (Sullivan and Glanz, 2000). These approaches establish. a “helping relationship” (Cogan, 1973). Each of them requires several stages of implementation, and relies on classroom: data, However, the most crucial phase is the conference which Blasé and Blasé (2000) consider as the heart of instructional supervision. They observed that good instructional leaders, based on the findings of their study, understand and make wise use of instructional conference as an opportunity for reflective talk with the teachers. ‘Moreover, the authors concluded that reflective talk requires ‘a number of complex skills and processes (p. 20) which include the following: 1. Classroom observation and data-gathering methods 2, Teaching methods, skills, and repertoires 3, Understanding the relationship between teaching and learning Data analysis ‘Knowing how to make the conference reflective and non- threatening, Communication skills (c.g., acknowledging, paraphrasing, summarizing, clarifying, and elaborating on information) “Awareness of the stage of development, career state, levels of abstraction and commitment, learning style, concerns about innovation, and background of the teacher ‘A-survey of the different approaches discussed in this chapter shows that the above-mentioned prerequisites are common characteristics and concerns of instructional supervisory IEE practices. It is axiomatic that instructional leaders who have deep appreciation of these dimensions are able to support teachers’ efforts to improve instruction, and make conferences more and growth-oriented. joe um CLINICAL SUPERVISION ‘Supervision of instruction | 72. “The educator credited with the conceptualization of the clinical supervision cycle is Morris Cogan. Clinical supervision has emerged as one of the most important and powerful intervention measures since the 1960s. According to Pajak (1993, p. 76), Cogan “viewed clinical supervision as a vehicle for developing professional, responsible teachers who were capable of analyzing their own performance, who were open to change and assistance from others, and who were above all, self-directing.” This statement underscores the key concepts of the intervention measure developed by Cogan: self-analysis, openness to change, willingness to accept assistance, and self-direction. Jogan insists that the proper domain of clinical supervision is the €lassroom behavior of the teacher, not the teacher as a person. The focus is to understand what happens in class, rather than to attempt to change the personality of the teacher. Of course, the underlying premise is that a change in behavior may eventually change the person. In order to bring about the desired change in classroom behavior, it is necessary that the teacher observes:/etemunta 1. the behavior to be changed; / 2. the desired change; and 3, the professional satisfaction that will be derived from doing, so. ‘These requirements point to the important role of the teacher in clinical supervision. It is the teacher who initially seeks help froma trained supervisor. To this extent, the success of the process"72. | Supenision of nstucton: The Philippine Perspective ON relies on the working relationship between the clinical supervisor ‘and the teacher that is characterized by sharing of responsibility and the collaboration. Cogan cautions against certain working relationships that are counter-productive: superior-subordinate, teacher-sttident, and counselor-client. A superior-subordinate relationship implies dependency and. ack of professional accountability. A teacher-student relationship encourages docility, obedience, and compliance. A counselor mnt relationship focuses on therapy to address personality problems. These different types of supervisor-teacher working relationships may constrain rather than promote a healthy working environment conducive to clinical supervision. Furthermore, in general, what these relationships promote is dependence— rather than independence—which is contrary to one of the primary objectives of the clinical supervision cycle. Goldhammer, Anderson, and Krajewski (1993, p. 52-53) prepared the following outline of characteristics, assumptions juirements of clinical supervision: > eg and req 1D (eves fi 1. It isa technology for improving instruction. ” Hap 2. It isa deliberate intervention in the instructional process. It is goal-oriented, combining the needs of the school with personal growth needs of those who work within the school. It assumes a professional working relationship between teacher(s) and supervisors). It requires a high degree of mutual trust as reflected in understanding, support, and commitment to growth, It is systematic, although it requires a flexible and continuously changing methodology. 7. Itereates a productive (ie., healthy) tension for bridging the gap between the real and the ideal. ‘Supervision of Instruction | 73. 8. Itassumes that the supervisor knows a great deal about the analysis of instruction and learning, and productive human interaction. 9. It requires both pre-service training (for supervision), especially in observation techniques, and continuous in- service reflection on effective approaches. Evidently, clinical supervision differs from traditional supervision in terms of philosophy, objective, process, and focus. ‘The data in Table 5 show the differences. Table 5 Differences Between Clinical Supervision and Traditional Supervision Values Clinical Supervision _| Traditional Supervision Aim To help improve instruction | Evaluation instruction Basis Classroom data ‘Observer's rating Focus: Limited specific concems_| Broad general conoems Frequency | Based on need Based on policy Philosophy | Promotes independence _| Promotes dependence Process: yaiical Linear Responsibility | Shared betveen teacher || aise’ responsibilty and supervisor CLINICAL SUPERVISION CYCLE ‘The clinical supervision approach was first published by Goldhammer (1969) and Cogan (1973). However, effective supervisors had been using similar methods for some time before these publications. Goldhammer and Cogan borrowed the term, “clinical supervision” from the medical profession. In theory and practice, clinical supervision is a continuous series of cycles inRR Silpetvison of instruction | 75 “supervision focused upon the improvement of instruction by means of systematic cycles of planning, observation, and intensive intellectual analysis of actual teaching performances in the interest of rational modification.” This definition identifies three distinct phases: planning, observation, and analysis. 74 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine Perspective! iG which the supervisor assists the teacher in developing better and ‘more successful instructional strategies. In “Clinical supervision: state-of-the-art review” (ASCD, 1980), Cheryl Sullivan describes clinical supervision as an eight-phase cycle of instructional improvement. Weller Three-Phase Cycle Sullivan Eight-Phase Cycle 1, Establishing the clinical relationship by the supervisor with the teacher by explaining the purpose and the sequence of clinical supervision 1. Collaborative planning 2. Classroom observation 3. Analysis and feedback 2. Planning the lesson(), either independently by the teacher or jointly with the teacher ‘Weller’s definition is amplified by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) who added a fourth phase: a collaborative reflection and analysis of the process and its findings. The authors classify this phase as reflective clinical supervision. 3. Discussion or evaluation of the lesson plan 4. Observation of the lesson and recording of appropriate data Sullivan and Glanz Four-Phase Cycle Collaborative planning 5. Collaborative analysis of the teaching-learning process, especially “critical incidents and pattern analysis.” Questions are preferable to lectures: “Why do you think: the students started to talk when you... ?” Classroom observation and analysis Feedback Collaborative reflection 6. Making conclusions by the teacher about his/her behavior and the students’ behaviors and learning ‘This model is similar to the one proposed by Goldhammer consisting of five stages except for the separation of classroom observation and analysis into two distinct phases. The collaborative reflection phase in the Sullivan and Glanz model corresponds to the post-conference analysis of the Goldhammer cycle. 7. Collaborative decision-making on changes sought in the teacher's behavior, and creating a plan for implementing. the changes 8. Making arrangements for the next pre-observation. conference Goldhammer Five-Phase Cycle 1, Pre-observation conference On the other hand, the definition proposed by Richard Weller (in Sullivan and Glanz, 2000, p. 107) clusters some of the steps in the Sullivan model, Weller defines clinical supervision as 2, Classroom observation 3. Data analysis and strategy7 | Supervision of insinicton Ths Philips PerspeetVE TT 4. Post-observation conference 5. Post-conference analysis Table 6 Comparison of the Phases in Four Different Clinical Supervision Cycle Models Phase, Mode! Planning [Observation | Analysis |Feedback | Reflection Goldhammer[Phase | Phase2 | Phases | Phase4 | Phase 5 Sutivan [Phases 13] Phasos | PhasesS-6| Phase7 | Phase 6 Weller Phase i [Phase2 | Phase2 | Phase3 | Phases eee ase. jase ase 3 | Phase: ae Phase |Pnase2 | phase2 |Pnase3 | phases FIVE PHASES OF THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION CYCLE ‘The comparison shows that despite the differences in the number of phases in clinical supervision cycles developed by various authors, all cycles include planning, observation, analysis, feedback, and reflection phases as Figure 9 illustrates. Planning Phase Regardless of the number of phases, the cycle always begins with a planning conference between a supervisor and a teacher initiated by the latter in the same manner that a patient goes fo a clinic to seek help from a doctor regarding a physiological problem. Remember that Goldhammer and Cogan borrowed the concept of clinical supervision from the medical profession. Pellicer (1997) describes the analogy in the following manner. When a patient has some health problems, he/she goes to the clinic to seek medical help from a doctor. The doctor asks the patient several questions regarding the problem before the former makes a diagnosis, In the same manner, when a teacher seeks the help of a clinical supervisor, the teacher acknowledges certain Supervision of Instruction | 7 Bae Figure 9 Five Phases of the Clinical Supervision Cycle gle J Ce Cea) difficulties in a specific and narrow area of instruction that needs to be addressed such as maintaining discipline, questioning skill, class participation, etc, The clinical supervisor asks the teacher several questions to understand the problem, and to determine the kind of assistance or intervention needed. The purpose of the planning conference is to enable the supervisor and the teacher to identify the focus of observation in a collaborative way, in the same manner that in tandem, a patient and a doctor try to focus on certain information that will enable the latter to make an accurate diagnosis of the specific health problem of the former. Collaborative planning reduces anxiety, and makes the teacher feel comfortable about the process in the same way that patient usually feels better after consulting with a doctor who is adequately trained to provide the needed assistance, During the planning conference, the teacher explains the lesson to be observed, its purpose and content, the way the teacher will handle the class, and the desired learning outcomes. The supervisor asks probing and clarifying questions in order to be clear about expectations. Both teacher and ‘Supervisor agree on78 | Supervision of instruction: hs Phlippie PEP paetie mmm the type of data to be recorded (e.g., teacher's questions, student's _ behaviors, non-verbal communication, movement patterns), and how these data will be recorded (cg., video or audio recording, verbatim transcript, anecdotal notes, checklist). It is also during the planning conference when the schedule of observation and post-conference is set. Observation Phase After the planning conference, the supervisor finalizes the Choice of observation tool depending on the agreed-upon focus, The observation takes place at the scheduled time. During the observation, the supervisor gathers data and information using the observation tool. Itis the task of the supervisor to record data and information as accurately as possible, especially of patterns and critical incidents during the class session. This reliance on data and factual information makes clinical supervision a scientific Process. Two of the more popular instruments used for recording data are the Flanders’ System of Interaction Analysis (“Flanders’ interaction,” n.d.), and the Kounin System of Analyzing Classroom Management (“Kounin system,” n.d.) The Flanders’ interaction model provides the teacher and the supervisor the opportunity to draw conclusions about the verbal classroom climate, and to make inferences regarding the effectiveness of the communication strategies employed in the classroom. The Kounin System of Analyzing Classtoom Management identifies specific teaching techniques that help ot hinder classroom discipline, and demonstrates that the techniques and not the teacher’s personality are the most crucial elements in classroom control. Data Analysis Soon after the class observation, while the event i stil fresh in the mind, the clinical supervisor collates, tries to make some sense of am Table 7 ‘SUibervision of instruction | 79 Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) ‘Accepts feelings: accepts and clarifies the feeling tone of the students in a non-threatening manner. Feelings may bbe positive or negative. Predicting and recalling feelings are included Praises or encourages: praises or encourages student action or behavior. Jokes that release tension and not made at the expense of another individual; nodding head or saying ‘uh huh?" or ‘go on’ are included, Indirect Influence ‘Accepts or uses ideas of student: clarifying, building, or developing ideas or suggestions by a student. As teacher brings more of his/her own ideas into play, shift to category five * Asks questions: asking a question about content or procedure with the intent that a student may answer. Lectures: giving facts or opinions about content or Procedures, expressing his/her own ideas; asking thetorical questions. * Gives directions: directions, commands, or orders with Which a student is expected to comply. Criticizes or justifies authority: statements intended to change student behavior from non-acceptable to ‘acceptable pattem; bawling someone out: stating why the teacher is doing what he/she is doing; extreme. self-reference, * Student talk-responses: talk by students in response fo teacher. Teacher initiates the contact, or solicits student statement Direct Influence ‘Student tal-initation: talk which students inate, IF ‘calling on’ a student is only to indicate who may talk Next, observer must decide whether student wants to talk. If helshe does, use this category Silence or confusion: pauses, short periods of silence ‘and periods of confusion in which communication cannot bbe understood by the observer.80 | Supervision of Instruction: The Phitppine Perspective) UNM Table & Kounin System of Analyzing Classroom Management Criterion Description Group Alerting "Teacher notifies students of a forthcoming change in activity; ensures tha they fnish the previous activity; and tolls them what they are supposed to do next when they are allready, ‘Accountability Teacher holds each student responsible for aciive involvement in lessons by 1) requiring everyone to write ‘an answer to the question before calling on a few to ‘ive their own answers, and 2) circulating and observing Students at work ‘Smoothness “Teacher slaris activites promplly, brings them to closure, ‘and manages transition from one activity to another easly. ‘Teacher does not introduce abrupt changes that disrupt ‘students flow of thought or work while doing an activity. Stimulus Boundecness “Teacher becomes absorbed ina stimulus. For example, a piece of paper onthe floor distracts orinterupts classroom ‘activities. The teacher spends some time berating the. ‘lass members for the liter on the floor or trying to find ut how it got there 5. Overlgppingness mudi Fatene, ‘Teacher performs two operations simultaneously, For ‘example, while the teacher is working with a reading group, a student comes to ask a question about grammar, ‘The teacher keeps the reading group at work while helping the leamer wth the grammar problem. ‘Teacher calls for the ond of one activity, initiates another ‘one, and then returns to the previous activi. For example, fa Teacher asks the students to put thelr feading books: ‘away and do the speling exercises. When the reading ‘books are set aside, and the students are ready to start. the new actly, the teacher suddenly asks the students. Whether they understand the story they have read from the book 7. With-itness “Teacher knows what is going on in all parts of the ‘classroom at ll imes. When misbehavior occurs, teacher Corecty identifies the main culprit Teacher does not alow. misbehavior to spread to other students before taking ‘corrective action. It is scored for both timing and target ‘accuracy. Timing involves stopping a deviant behavior before it spreads, Target accurecy involves identifying the cerring student, For example, if whispering begins at the. back ofthe room and then spreads, and is only at this Point thatthe teacher ciicizes one class member who imply joins i, this Is Scored negatively for both timing and target accuracy TEER ‘Supervision of Insiruction | 81 the raw data, and develops a plan for the post-observation conference. Some of the questions to consider in analyzing the data are: What patterns and critical incidents did the data indicate? ‘What strengths and weaknesses did the teacher exhibit? ‘What techniques were especially successful? What techniques did not work well? What patterns, events, and concerns needed to be addressed? How will the conference begin and end? ‘The supervisor does not make any conclusion but prepares the presentation of the data in such a way that the teacher is able to draw the conclusions by himself/herself. Feedback ‘The results of the analysis of the data are presented to the teacher during a post-observation conference. Based on the findings, the teacher is able to examine critically his/her own teaching with an open mind, The supervisor's task js to help build upon the teacher's understanding of the behaviors and events that, ‘occurred in the classroom as borne out by the data. Some of the questions to consider are: What patterns and critical incidents are revealed by the data? How do these events impact student learning? Were there outcomes that were unanticipated or unintended? What changes are necessary to improve the teaching- learning process in terms of motivation, presentation, questioning, and assessment techniques?82 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine PerspeGtve Nm Based on the findings of their study on the behavior of effective principals, Blas¢ and Blasé (2000) concluded that effective feedback is given when principals: 1. include explanatory comments that focus on specific behavior observed in class; avoid non-judgmental and non-evaluative behavior; provide detailed and descriptive information of the behavior observed; include positive elements indicating strong points in the teacher performance; establish collegial relationships based on trust and respect; and promote two-way interaction and problem-solving orientation. Moreover, Blasé and Blasé revealed another post-conference strategy that is useful if implemented properly: making appropriate suggestions. For instance, they found out that good principals made purposeful, appropriate, non-threatening suggestions. As a consequence, participating teachers responded positively to suggestions by: 1. implementing new ideas; using a great variety of teaching methods; responding to student diversity; 2, 3, 4. preparing and planning more carefully; a taking mote risks, achieving better focus; and using professional discretion in making changes. aE ‘Sijpervision of instruction | 83. Likewise, the critical elements in making suggestions (pp. 30- 32) noted by the authors are as follows: 1. Principals listened before making suggestions. 2. Principals often made suggestions in such as way as to extend, broaden, or enrich teacher's thinking and strengths. 3. When making suggestions, principals shared, among other things, their own professional experiences to encourage teacher reflection. 4, Principals indirectly made suggestions for the improvement of teaching through examples and demonstrations. 5. Principals gave teachers discretion, or choice to accept or reject their suggestions, and this was considered critical to the success of making suggestions. 6. Attimes, principals even supported instructional changes that contradicted current policy. 7. Principals bolstered their suggestions by encouraging teachers to take risks to improve instruction. 8. Principals supplemented their giving of suggestions with distributing literature on effective instruction. 9, Inmost cases, principals gave suggestions during face-to- face interaction. Reflection ‘The supervisor critically examines his/her behavior and performance during the supervision cycle. The questions to consider are: 1. How well did the clinical supervision cycle go? 2. What worked well and what did not?84 | Supervision of Instruction: The Philippine Perspective) 3, What are the areas of improvement? How can the next cycle be improved? ‘What other strategies can be explored for better results during the next clinical supervision cycle? COGNITIVE COACHING Cognitive coaching requires supervisors to engage teachers in a supportive, collegial investigation, and reflection of the teaching-learning process (Costa and Garmston, 1994), Unlike other supervision models, cognitive coaching dictates that the individual teacher performs the evaluative steps. The process involves collaborative reflection that requires such activities as comparing actual and desired student performance, evaluating appropriateness of teaching strategies, and analyzing effects of teacher's classroom behaviors, among others, Cognitive coaching, is widely used in professional development. It promotes such. higher order thinking skills as analyzing, evaluating, problem- solving, and decision-making. Coaches serve as facilitators and mediators. They are able to lead teachers through planning, reflection, and problem-solving through dialogues. As in other types of supervision models, the ultimate goal of cognitive coaching is to develop teacher independence through meta-cognition, a process of introspection in search of internal cognitive guides (thinking about thinking). The method developed by Costa and Garmston recognizes the importance of meta-cognition. Coaches who help foster independent learning by promoting meta-cognition provide teachers with the necessary tools to become independent professionals. Meta-cognition involves three important stages: planning, monitoring, and evaluating requiring three types of activities, to wit ‘Supervision of Instruction | 85 1. Planning conference 2. Lesson observation 3. Reflection conference Planning Conference During the conference, the coach helps teachers 1) think through their planned lessons carefully; 2) anticipate what might happen during the lesson; and 3) plan a way to document what will transpire during the lesson. Lesson Observation Classroom instruction is observed and documented as it takes place. Desired behaviors which are used as bases for discussion during the reflection conference are noted. Student achievement and strategies, and decisions made during the lesson are recorded, Reflection Conference Coaches facilitate and mediate by helping teachers 1) summarize impressions and assessments of the lesson; 2) recall data supporting those impressions and assessments; 3) express feelings about the lesson; 4) compare the plan with the actual implementation of the lesson; 5) analyze why desired outcomes ‘were not achieved; and 6) deduce relationships between student achievement and teacher behavior. For the cognitive coaching process to be effective, establishing, and maintaining trust and confidence are essential. When coach and teacher respect one another, mediation toward cognitive autonomy (self-coaching and self-evaluation of one’s, performance), and effective practice become possible. Costa and Garmston (1994) argue that autonomous teachers are: 1. self-directing, 2. self-monitoring,86 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine Perspective 3._ selfmodifying, and 4, goal-oriented, As a consequence, teachers are constantly experimenting and experiencing. Even if they fail, they learn from their failure. ‘They operate in the best interests of the organization and, at the same time, attend to the realization of their own personal goals and needs. However, itis not only the teacher who should be involved in, self-reflection and self-evaluation. The coach must also periodically reflect and selfevaluate his/her effectiveness as a mediator. By doing this, the coach can fine-tune his/her role in the process, and help build a more meaningful, mutually satisfying, and more productive relationship with the teacher. MENTORING Mentoring is a process that involves the participation of an experienced supervisor in helping a less-experienced teacher improve instructional behavior collaboratively and non- Jjudgmentally. It is a sustained and mutually agreeable relationship intended to aid an inexperienced teacher in developing professional skills. The process focuses on meeting individual needs necessary for professional growth and development. Mentoring also beefs up the pool of competent and talented teachers on the job because those who are initially inexperienced are given the help they need to improve their quality of teaching. Asthey gain more confidence, they strengthen their commitment to the profession. Mentors are facilitators of instructional improvement. They are not critics or evaluators. Their goal is to provide individualized professional guidance, and support on a long-term basis, Effective mentors are good models. They demonstrate positive attitude and character, professional competence and experience, communication and interpersonal skills, and devotion to the ae profession. They exercise tact and diplomacy in performing their roles as guides and leaders based on a collegial relationship. They use variety of knowledge and skills accumulated from experience (Creating a teacher mentoring program,” n.d.) ‘Supervision of instruction | 87 Sullivan and Glanz (2000) assert that mentoring is an alternative form of supervision, contrary to the claim of some ‘educators that equate mentoring with supervision. They describe the following model of mentor’s tasks excerpted from a manual titled: Différentiated supervision (in Sullivan and Glanz, 2000): 1. Anexperienced educator volunteers to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to an inexperienced non- tenured faculty or several faculty members on a specific area, Insome cases, a supervisor oran administrator requests an experienced staff member to serve as a mentor, and share his/her expertise to a faculty or several faculty members. ‘The working principle is sharing of expertise. ‘The expert develops the mentoring plan, and submits it to the supervisor or administrator for approval before it is implemented. 5 ‘The mentor implements the approved plan, and reports all activities to the supervisor. Allinteractions or recommendations between the mentor and the faculty are kept confidential. PEER ASSESSMENT ‘The dictionary defines the word peer as “an equal in civil standing or rank, or an equal in any respect.” A peer may be a co- worker, a partner, an associate, or a collaborator. Peers may assess{88 | Supervision of Instnction: The Phin PEFspectV8 Na orevaluate each other without feeling threatened and anxious of the possible loss of self-esteem because of reprocity, equality, and safety that exist between and among them. They can help each other with specific teaching problems or concerns. Peer assessment my lead to peer coaching or consultation which Sullivan and Glanz (2000) consider as an umbrella term of many different types of peer-to-peer assistance that are interchangeably referred to, sometimes, as collegial teaching and peer supervision. Peer coaching takes place when a fellow teacher, who is knowledgeable about specific aspects of the teaching-learning process, serves as a coach or consultant to another seeking help. Its focus is joint problem-solving of specific teaching issues. ‘Teachers help their colleagues reflect on and improve teaching practices, or implement certain teaching skills acquired throught faculty development programs. Based on the Joyce and Showers model (in Sullivan and’ Glanz, 2000), peer coaching involves regular meetings between oramong two of more teachers in order to jointly solve problems using planning, observation, feedback, and creative thinking for the development of a specific skill. The authors argue that peer coaching can become the heart of professional development through a sustained discussion of teaching and learning, as well as curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation. ‘According to them, the goals of peer coaching (p.133) are to: refine teaching practices; stimulate self-initiating, autonomous teacher thought; improve school culture; increase collegiality and professional dialogue; and share in the implementation of new or common, instructional skills. a2 ‘They recommend the following guidelines for the implementation of a peer coaching system in schools: ‘Stipeivision of Instruction | 89 1, Colleagues choose a peer that they trust and with whom they feel they will work well. 2, Familiarity with the clinical supervisiori cycle is essential. 3. Peers may have to help each other cover classes while other colleagues observe each other. 4. Supervisors can assist by working outa system of teacher substitution to avoid conflicts of schedule. 5. Videotaping of classroom instruction provides teachers the opportunity to view class together. 6, Teachers of the same course or subject who tackle similar lessons or topics combine classes and observe each other's application of skills. 7. Team teaching can be very effective. 8. Weekly or biweekly seminars for peer coaching need to be organized. 9. The first sessions can be used to learn and review observation and feedback techniques. 10. The opportunity to share experiences and brainstorm new ideas is essential. PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT Another method of assessing teacher performance is through the use of a teacher portfolio. What is a teacher portfolio? The ERIC Digests (n.d.) defines a teacher portfolio as a collection of works, records, and documents demonstrating and highlighing a teacher's knowledge and skills in teaching, It provides a means for90 | Supervision of instruction: The Philipine Perspective NNN reflection, offers the opportunity for evaluating the effectiveness of lessons, and informs on the quality of interactions with students and peers, In a nutshell, it is a documentation created bya teacher that reveals and describes his/her duties, expertise, and professional growth. Depending on the intended use, a teacher portfolio may include some or all of the following: 1, Teacher's background . Class description: time, grade, and content 2, 3. Licensure examinations 4. A personal statement of teaching philosophy and goals Faculty development effort, ie, attendance in workshop- seminars and programs . Implemented lesson plans, handouts, and notes Graded student work such as tests, quizzes, and class projects Video/audiotape of classroom lessons Colleague observation records 10. Written reflections on teaching 11. Photographs of bulletin boards, chalkboards, or Projects A portfolio may be used asan additional source of information for assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of a teacher for administrative decisions such as retention and promotion (summative), or for providing feedback so that teachers may improve their teaching and level of professionalism (formative). Because of the concerns in the subjectivity of portfolio (cach portfolio is unique ‘Supervision of instruction | 91 and tailored to the individual), and the lack of standardization, its Use for administrative decision-making comes under a high level of scrutiny than its use in promoting professional growth. ‘The following steps are recommended by ERIC Digests for implementing a portfolio program: 1. Start slowly. Allow one to two years for development, implementation, and regulation of a portfolio program. Gain acceptance. It is extremely important that both administrators and teachers accept the use of a portfolio. Instill ownership. Teachers must be involved, from the beginning, in developing a portfolio program. ‘They must feel ownership over the program’s direction and use. Communicate implementation. The teachers need to know explicitly how the portfolios will be used. If they will be used for advancement, then the expected structure and intended scoring methods need to be explained in detail. ‘Use models. Models of portfotios used by other institutions are readily available. These models may be adopted easily and provide examples for teachers developing their portfolios. Be selective, Portfolios should not contain everything a teacher does. A portfolio contains carefully selected items that reflect and substantiate a teacher’s expertise and achievement, Be realistic, Portfolios are only one form of authentic assessment. As such, they should be used as part of the assessment process in conjunction with other measures, ACTION RESEARCH Action research is an inquiry that teachers design and conduct in order to improve teaching performance. The process provides92 | Supervision of instruction: The Philiopine Perspective teachers new opportunities to reflect on and evaluate their own teaching personally; explore and try out innovative ideas (i.e, strategies, materials); and assess how effective the innovations are. This is usually done in collaboration with supervisors and other teachers. It promotes the concept of teacher-as-researcher (ERIC Digests, n.d.) which encourages teachers to be collaborators not only in improving teaching behavior, but also in revising curriculum, improving working environment, professionalizing teaching, and developing policy. Hopkins (1985, pp. 58-60) offers these pieces of advice on teacher research: 1. The teacher’s primary role is to teach, and any research project must not interfere with or disrupt this commitment. The method of data collection should not be too demanding on the teacher's time. The teacher should be committed to the research problem under study. ‘Teachers must follow ethical procedures when carrying out action research. Classroom research, when possible, should adopt a perspective where all members of a school community build and share a common vision. ‘The most important feature of action research is the linking of. “action” and “research” which involves trying out practical ideas ‘asa means of increasing knowledge about improving curriculum, teaching, and learning (Kemmis and McTaggarrt, 1982). It is actually applying ideas in order to improve practices. It links action to understanding through a systematic way of learning from experience. The criteria for selecting ideas to be acted upon are: Importance of the issue or concern to the teacher Supervision of instruction | 93 Importance of the issue or concern to the students Opportunities available to explore the idea People who might be interested in helping Practical and political constraints 6. Manageability of the task Examples of ideas in the form of questions that may be linked to action are: How can I improve my questioning skills? How can I improve student evaluation? How can I increase the time students spend on task? How can I make my students more sensitive to grammar? How can I improve student-student interaction during group work? How can I improve female participation in the physics class? ‘Teacher action research is solution-oriented. It is a process focused on the solution of everyday practical problems that need to be addressed. It consists of spiraling cycles of problem identification, systematic data collection, analysis and reflection, data-driven action, and problem redefinition. Kemmis (O'brien, 1998) developed a simple model of the cyclical nature of the action research process consisting of four steps: plan, act, observe, and reflec as represented by Figure 10.192 | Supervision of instruction: Te Phitippine Perspective NE aa" Slipetvision of instruction | 93 tunities to reflect on and evaluate their own Importance of the issue or concern to the teacher teaching personally; explore and try out innovative ideas (Ls strategies, materials); and assess how effective the innovations sre, This is usually done in collaboration with supervisors and Opportunities available to explore the idea cther teachers. It promotes the concept of teacher-as-researchet (ERIC Digests, n.d.) which encourages teachers tobe collaborators People who might be interested in helping not only in improving teaching behavior, but also in revising curriculum, teaching, and developing policy. ‘Manageability of the task Hopkins (1985, pp. 58-60) offers these pieces of advice oni eee Examples of ideas in the form of questions that may be inked to action are: 1. The teacher’s primary role is to teach, and any research project must not interfere with or disrupt this ‘commitment. teachers new oppo Importance of the issue or concern to the students Practical and political constraints 1. How can I improve my questioning skills? How can I improve student evaluation? 2. The method of data collection should not be too ei . How can I increase the time students spend on task? demanding on the teacher's time. How can I make my students more sensitive to 3, ‘The teacher should be committed to the research problem, grammar? under study. How can I improve student-student interaction during 4, Teachers must follow ethical procedures when carrying” ‘group work? out action research. How can I improve female participation in the physics 5. Classroom research, when possible, should adopt @ class? perspective where all members of a school community puild and share a common vision. ne feacher action research is solution-oriented. It is a process ‘The most important feature of action research is the inking 0 focused on the solution of everyday practical problems that action” and “research” which involves trying out practical ideas need to be addressed. It consists of spiraling cycles of problem as.ameans of increasing knowledge about improving curriculum identification, systematic data collection, analysis and reflection, teaching, and learning (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1982). It is data-driven action, and problem redefinition. Kemmis (O'brien, 1 nature of the actually applying ideas in order to improve practices. It li 1998) developed a simple model of the cy action to understanding through a systematic way of learning cerience. The criteria for selecting ideas to be acted upon ar action research process consisting of four steps: plan, act, observe, oa and reflect as represented by Figure 10.194 | Supervision of nsinction: The Philp Figure 10 Kemmis Action Research Cycle CYCLE 1 Observe evcle? 4, ‘Source: Mactsaae, (1995) in O'brien avaliable in hito:/hwww.web.nel~robrien/papers) ‘tinal nm) The plan includes these items that serve as bases of implementation: 1. A description of the problem and the idea (intervention. measure) to put into action ‘The rationale for the change ‘The strategic action to be taken ‘The people involved ‘The monitoring strategies A realistic timetable [NNN Spenvision of instruction | 95 Moreover, the plan considers possibilities, as well as constraints (ic., tights to privacy, confidentiality of those involved). The implementation of the strategic action is observed and monitored through such techniques as the use of: 1. Diaries and logbooks ‘Anecdotal records Questionnaires Video cameras 2, 3 4, Tape recorders 5, 6. ‘Tests ‘The data collected including the problems encountered are analyzed in terms of the consequences—intended or unintended— of the strategic action. The conclusions and recommendations become the bases for the start of a new cycle. BEGINNING TEACHERS ‘The aforementioned supervisory practices are intended to help teachers, regardless of status and rank, to improve their teaching performance. Undeniably and expectedly, the teachers who need assistance most are the neophytes—those who are hired without any previous teaching experience usually right after the completion of pre-service education, or those who enter the teaching profession after quitting a non-teaching job. The first category is composed of new graduates with eithera Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSE) ora Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEE) degree from pre-service education institutions. Pre-service education is the formal teacher education program designed to help an individual prepare for the teaching profession. The second category usually comprises graduates of other professions who have taken 18 units of pedagogy to qualify to teach.96 j Supervision of Instruction: The Philippine Perspective Under Philippine law, both types of novice teachers have to be certified by the Licensure Board for Teachers after passing the professional examination. However, whether equipped with a teaching degree or not, and even with the proper certification to teach, these teachers still need to be inducted into the profession. According to Dukes, Cangetosi, and Knight (in Cangelosi, 1991), pre-service teacher education programs provide beginning teachers with necessary, but still insufficient, competencies to be successful in-service teachers, This view is reinforced by Carter (1990) who cautions educators from making the following false assumptions regarding new teachers. 1. New teachers are well-prepared (because of their pre- service training) for their initial classroom and school experiences, 2. Teachers can develop professional expertise on their own. 3. Teaching can be mastered in a relatively short period of time, More and more, educators realize that the first three years of teaching are critical in developing the competencies of new teachers, and that there is a serious need to provide the latter with guidance and support as they struggle their way through during this period, ‘Tobecome consistently effective, especially in the initial years of their teaching careers, beginning teachers need assistance and feedback as they perform their work. This is the function of supervision. With proper guidance, direction, and support, in- service experiences enable the neophyte teachers to improve their insufficient and raw pre-service competencies. RAE Supervision of Instruction | 97 Gordon and Maxey (2000) report that many educators believe that it takes three years to induct a new teacher fully. This period, according to Cangelosi (1991), is the most critical and career- threatening, Itcorresponds to the probationary period for teachers for obvious reasons. The induction of a beginning teacher provides an opportunity for the supervisor to influence the subsequent professional behavior of the teacher. Setting expectations for teacher performance, sharing evaluation criteria, determining assessment schedules, and explaining the role of the supervisor are the relevant concerns, among others, that must be addressed during this stage of the teacher's professional development. ‘The induction period, according to Wiles and Bondi (1991), enables the supervisor to establish contact, bond with the new teacher, set performance expectations, and accelerate the improvement of teaching behaviors in the classroom. Through this strategy, the supervisor can help beginning teachers cope with problematic areas during this period of adjustment such as classroom management and discipline, assessing student performance, acquiring needed instructional materials, organizing, the curriculum, and interacting with various stakeholders, most especially, with parents. PROBLEM AREAS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS Reyes (2003) conducted an investigation of 137 neophyte teachers in 15 private schools in the National Capital Region to find out the major problems they encountered in the workplace during the probationary period (first three years). The results of the study showed a gradual decrease in the percentage of distribution of the problem areas—except for professional relationships— during the first three years of teaching. Although the percentage of teachers consistently declined for all the other areas (from a range of 98-64 in the first year toa range of 17-7 in the third year), the percentage of teachers who98 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine Perspective considered professional relationships as a problem area decreased from 75 in the first year to 28 in the second year, but rose again to 39 in the third year. This implies that while most of the problem areas are addressed over the years, interpersonal relationships remains a problematic area which does not proceed in a linear | fashion with experience. Table 9 Percentage Distribution of Problem Areas According to Neophyte Teachers During the First Three Years of Teaching Raa eS ‘Supervision of instruction | 99 Table 10 Ranks of Specific Problem Areas Under Professional Relations by Years of Teaching Experience Professional Relations | tstyear | 2ndyear | 3rd year Problem Rank | Rank | Rank Talking to my immediate supervisor regarding my problems ‘Conducting conferences with parents regarding their children’s progress. 1 1 2 ‘Source: Reyes, F (2008). Comparatve-coreational analysis of problems of neophyte {teachers Rass for connecting pre-service preparation and bepinning years ofteaching, Tanglaw, Official Journal ofthe Colege of Education. DLSU-Manila: DLSU Press, In the study, the items under professional relationships included concerns regarding relationships with supervisor, colleagues, and parents. The concern for relationships with supervisor ranked highest in the first two years, and shared second rank with relationships with parents, teachers, and other school personnel in the third year. Relationship with teachers, supervisors, and other school personnel ranked third in the first year but ranked second in the second and third years. Talking to supervisor, which is another relationship concern, still ranked second on the third year. The findings imply that for majority of the neophyte teacher-respondents, relationship with supervisors is consistently a priority concern during the first three years, The Problem Area year aa ian ieee Efecively communis ideas to teacher, supers, Tava eau wast oie Seer Organization ane planing Gan areseee on Sata eoeaes a Tasca Tapas 8 coleaques regarding Professional relationships 75 28 ED my problems in teaching aia Haining pte sina prceesione| Gort es e A ‘teaching attitude while Classoom management Tai | osseous even eer Evaiaton of tudes 7a p38 8 a source: Rye. F (20) Compute creators anal of pablo nope Mesiey cLaeiect nate, St ie is. ‘teachers: Basis for connecting pre-service preparation and beginning years of teaching. Commit sil Tan] 7 ‘agar Ofc oat of Golge of actin, OLSU vant LSU Poss concern does not diminish despite the increasing number of years of interaction with the supervisors Similarly, interacting with parents is a high priority problem area, ranked second by the respondents in the third year. This suggests that for many teachers, even after two years of experience of interacting with parents, meeting with them is still not a welcome event. “CLASSIFICATION OF NEOPHYTE TEACHERS Neophyte teachers may be classified into three types: the born teachers, the potentially competent teachers, and the misplaced individuals, (Cangelosi, 1991). Each of these types requires varying levels of supervision1100 || Supervision of instruction; The Philippi PORSCHV6 Nm The Born Teachers, Although all neophyte teachers experience difficulties during the first few years of teaching, the born teachers succeed immediately. At the start of their career, the performance of born teachers is already comparable with, or even better than that of some experienced teachers. They need minimal supervision. Their teaching performance further improves with experience. The Potentially Competent Teachers To achieve satisfactory classroom performance levels, these neophyte teachers need experience and instructional supervision to overcome initial problems. With reasonable supervisory support and encouragement, they are able to surmount difficulties and develop into competent teachers. The Misplaced Individuals ‘These beginners require an unreasonable and costly supervision inorder to achieve satisfactory classtoom performance levels. They need very close supervision, which approximates pre-service training, in order to discard negative attitudes and practices and to rectify misconceptions about teaching, ‘The research findings of Reyes that were earlier cited suggest that adequate support and encouragement should be given to all types of beginning teachers primarily by supervisors and secondarily by experienced teachers and other school personnel. ‘This is to strengthen their character in confronting the harsh realities of the workplace, and their resolve to become good teachers. Brock and Grady (1997) support these views and maintain that the most important person for beginning teachers in the work environment is the immediate supervisor. Neophyte teachers expect guidance and support from their supervisor as they struggle to develop the skills to become committed and better teachers. The struggle is largely an effort to overcome a weak knowledge base and inadequate pre-service training which, oftentimes, results in reality shock and isolation. KR 2 The lack of support and encouragement from senior faculty, ‘administrative officials, and other school personnel contributes to the neophyte teachers’ feelings of frustration, isolation, and failure triggered by the latter's inadequacies and lack of experience These negative feelings eventually make novice teachers quit the profession. Lunenberg and Ornstein (2000) claimed that based on research findings, nearly 50% of newly-hired teachers in the US., especially in inner city schools, leave the profession within five years. Incidentally, this should explain why there is a heavy recruitment of Filipino teachers for postings in American schools in the early years of the 21st century. ‘Supetvision of Instruction | 101 ” Beginning teachers face various difficulties that feed their insecurities and anxieties about the teaching profession. These problems, if not addressed, spell their failure or doom as teachers. Lunenberg and Ornstein (2000) identified seven general causes of this failure: 1. Assignment to difficult classes (those refused by experienced teachers) Isolation of classrooms from colleagues and supervisors (classrooms that are farthest from the central office) Poor physical facilities “leftover” facilities of experienced teachers) Burdensome extra class assignments (tough assignments that new teachers are not yet ready to handle) Lack of understanding of the school’s expectations (poor orientation) Inadequate supervision (very few visits from supervisors) 7. Inadequate use of technology (lack of training) In addition, beginning teachers fear 1) not living up to personally imposed standards, 2) meeting parents, 3) being102 | Supervision of instruction: The are ‘Supervision of instruction | 103 evaluated, 4) being rejected by students and colleagues, and of teachers widens, aggravating the difficulties and discouraging eee new teachers from making a long-time commitment tothe teaching YA similar view is held by Gordon and Maxey (2000) wl profession. This oceurs, for instance, when pees es propose that there are work-related and person-related probh sensitive to the needs of new teachers, give them those duties that ‘re not yet within their competence, and expect them to perform that confront beginning teachers. These concerns contribute 4 as effectively as the experienced ones. the difficulties they experience in the workplace. These con may be clustered as follows: These different findings suggest that supervisors are called upon to be sensitive to the needs and concerns of beginning ; m i ssi : ESI aie eta Mian ad teachers, and to assist in making the latter’s adjustment period less mastery of ject mat i tery of the subject matter) traumatic. Nonetheless, it is in providing assistance in the area 2. Instructional concerns (limited familiarity with effective of instruction that supervisors can be more effective. The proper strategies, technological innovations, time utilization) and timely use of many intervention measures will go a long way in making the smooth transition of many neophytes from being 3. Relationship concerns (establishing rapport with Poarattal eeshepiaibetemang errecrve tutes colleagues, administrators, and students) There are reasons to improve provisions for the professional development of new teachers. These are: 1) to make their job 4 casier, 2) to make them feel more confident inside and outside 4, School environment concerns (availability and proper use of resources) 5. Personal concerns (isolation, frustration, fear) the classroom, 3) to reduce their feelings of isolation, and 4) to ‘enhance quantity and quality of their interaction with colleagues 6. Concerns about expectations (unclear expectations, role and administration (Lunenberg and Ornstein, 2000). Lunenberg, conflict) and Ornstein suggest a set of guidelines for improving support Generally, it is agreed that a supervisor must be aware of or beam teach exe pcm nici: and sensitive to these various concerns. The most crucial are the 1. Attendance ina special orientation for neophyte teachers instructional concerns which involve improvement of teaching in addition to a regular teacher orientation skills for effective instruction. However, since all these concerns are not independent of each other and, in fact, interacting, the focus on instructional concerns does not imply that the other areas are unimportant and neglected. asa ‘Supervisors are also cautioned against making unreasonable Assigning a lighter teaching load for the first year (if demands on new teachers. Problems arise when neophyte teachers. Possible) are given duties similar to those of veteran teachers. Lucas (1999) |. Assigning extra duties that are not too demanding but found out that because of unreasonable demands, the gap between the supervisor's expectations and the actual teaching performance Appointment of someone to help beginning teachers set up their classrooms at the start of their first school only of moderate difficulty and requiring moderate amouat of time104 | Supervision of instruction: The 5. Pairing beginning teachers with expert teachers 6. Creation of coaching and other collaborative problen solving groups _. Provision for joint planning, team-teaching, committee assignments and other cooperative assignments between new and expert teachers . Inclusion of the accomplishments of beginning teachi together with those of expert teachers in newsletters school publications ‘Regular meetings with a supervisor to identify problem and work out solutions to the problems |. Special and continuing in-service activities on topics that address the needs and interest of new teachers Scheduling social events such as luncheons and parties Regular evaluation to determine strengths and ‘weaknesses and provide opportunities for feedback ‘SUMMARY. cs ‘The primary objective of supervision of instruction is t insure the effective delivery of instruction to the students. In order to accomplish this, instructional leaders should help teach especially the neophytes, discharge or perform their assignet tasks optimally. This can be achieved by providing the necessat ‘guidance and assistance through a variety of intervention strategi such as clinical supervision, mentoring, coaching, ete., desi to improve the pedagogical skills of teachers, and to enhance thei self-confidence. ‘Supervisors should address the needs and concerns especial} of novice teachers so that their adjustment period becomes smooth and less traumatic. Intervention measures, when and where appropriately used, can transform many neophyte and marginal teachers into effective ones. ‘Supervision of instruction | 105 Readily available help to teachers—struggling beginners or not—eases the burden of teaching, makes them. feel more confident inside and outside the classroom, reduces feelings of isolation, and enhances quantity and quality of their interaction with colleagues and academic personnel. Key Concepts Learning leader Clinical supervision Cognitive coaching Portfolio assessment Peer assessment Reflective feedback Intervention measure Supervision cycle ‘Neophyte teachers Action research Review Questions 1. What is the primary objective of supervision of instruction? Differentiate the different supervisory approaches that ‘may be used to improve classroom instruction indicating the common elements Describe the problem areas for novice teachers. Why is it necessary to address the needs of novice teachers?