Accepted Manuscript

A strategy to develop an efficient piezoelectric nanogenerator through ZTO assisted

γ-phase nucleation of PVDF in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite for harvesting bio-
mechanical energy and energy storage application

Suman Kumar Si, Sumanta Kumar Karan, Sarbaranjan Paria, Anirban Maitra, Amit
Kumar Das, Ranadip Bera, Aswini Bera, Lopamudra Halder, Bhanu Bhusan Khatua
PII: S0254-0584(18)30275-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.04.013
Reference: MAC 20508

To appear in: Materials Chemistry and Physics

Received Date: 22 December 2017

Revised Date: 27 March 2018
Accepted Date: 4 April 2018

Please cite this article as: S.K. Si, S.K. Karan, S. Paria, A. Maitra, A.K. Das, R. Bera, A. Bera, L.
Halder, B.B. Khatua, A strategy to develop an efficient piezoelectric nanogenerator through ZTO
assisted γ-phase nucleation of PVDF in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite for harvesting bio-mechanical
energy and energy storage application, Materials Chemistry and Physics (2018), doi: 10.1016/
j.matchemphys.2018.04.013.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
A Strategy to Develop an Efficient Piezoelectric Nanogenerator through ZTO Assisted

γ-phase Nucleation of PVDF in ZTO/PVDF Nanocomposite for Harvesting Bio-

mechanical Energy and Energy Storage Application

Suman Kumar Si, Sumanta Kumar Karan, Sarbaranjan Paria, Anirban Maitra, Amit Kumar

Das, Ranadip Bera, Aswini Bera, Lopamudra Halder, and Bhanu Bhusan Khatua*

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*Materials Science Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur - 721302, India

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*Correspondence to Dr. B.B. Khatua (email: khatuabb@matsc.iitkgp.ernet.in)

Materials Science Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302, India
Tel.:91-3222-283978

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ABSTRACT:
Extracting energy from various types of mechanical forces through piezoelectric

nanogenerator (PNG) exhibits a great potential for powering up low-power portable devices

and self-powered electronic systems. Here, the ferroelectric and lead-free perovskite zinc

titanate (ZTO) nanospheres mitigate to align the molecular –CH2/CF2 dipoles of PVDF,

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promoting the nucleation of electroactive γ-phase in the PVDF matrix (γ-PVDF), which is

responsible for the generation of piezoelectricity of the PNG without any electrical poling

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treatment. The fabricated PNG with 2 wt% ZTO loading shows a maximum output voltage

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up to ∼25.7 V and current ∼1.2 µA with a power density of ~ 8.22 µW.cm−2 under cyclic

finger imparting with a constant pressure (~16.5 KPa). In addition, the PNG is capable of

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harvesting energy from a wide variety of easily manageable mechanical stress source such as
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human body movement, walking, and machine vibration and exhibits high durability for

about four weeks without any deterioration in the output performance. Furthermore, the
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ZTO/PVDF films demonstrate a higher electrical energy density of ≈ 0.267 J.cm-3 at an

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electric field of 600 KV.cm-1, which makes it fit for electrical energy storage device. This
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high performance ZTO/PVDF hybrid film paves a new and effective way to fabricate eco-

friendly devices, active sensors, and flexible nanogenerators for powering small portable
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electronic appliances and flexible high energy density capacitors as well.

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Keywords:

Piezoelectric nanogenerator, Zinc titanate NPs, γ- PVDF, Biomechanical energy, Energy

density.

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1. Introduction

Recently, energy-harvesting devices have intensively been explored not only to

manage global energy crises, global warming, exhaustion of ozone layer etc. but also to

understand the self-powered electronics such as implanted medical devices and mobile

electronics. Nowadays, piezo[1]-/triboelectric[2]-/pyro[3] based nanogenerators (NGs) have

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enormous attraction owing to their ability to harvest energy easily from heat,[4] light,[5]

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mechanical vibration [6], wind energy [7], sonic waves [8], fluidics [9], and bio-motions [10]

present in the environment. Among these nanogenerators, triboelectric nanogenerators

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(TNGs) are efficient mechanical energy harvesting device that harvests energy even at small

mechanical stimuli and biomechanical activity. Although TNGs show high-energy

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conversion efficiency and high output voltage, they include several drawbacks such as low
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durability (due to tear and wear of the contacting surfaces), wrapping, and industrial
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packaging problem. These drawbacks turn the focus of the researcher for developing

mechanically durable, high performance, exceedingly sensitive, scalable, and sustainable

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mechanical energy harvesters. In this regard, piezoelectric nanogenerators (PNGs) are

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considered best alternative to the TNGs from the efficiency and durability point of view [11].

The practicability of the PNGs is already verified by powering different devices such as light
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emitting diodes (LEDs) [12], liquid crystal displays (LCDs)[13], speakers [14], watches [14],
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medical imaging [15], telecommunication and ultrasonic devices [16]. With the unique
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optoelectronic [17] and piezoelectric properties [1] of ZnO, Wang et al. first fabricated ZnO

based PNG in 2006 [1]. However, with the development in ZnO based PNGs, the PNGs with

perovskite materials such as BaTiO3 [18], PbTiO3 [19], Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 [20], PMN-PT [21],

ZnSnO3 [22] offer more impression than ZnO based PNGs as the perovskite materials have

higher piezoelectric coefficient than ZnO. Although ceramic material based PNGs show

excellent output performance, those PNGs find less practical applications due to its brittle,

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fragile, and rigid nature and require tedious fabrication processes. To address these issues

polydimethy siloxane (PDMS) was extensively used as a matrix in the composite NGs [23].

Though, it has a disadvantage; it is so viscous that the added filler could not be uniformly

dispersed, which is unfavourable for the PNGs to exhibit high output performance. Moreover,

lead-based PNGs showing high output performances are toxic in nature, which finds less

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applicable due to the human health concern. Thus, the lead-free flexible PNGs have received

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tremendous attention due to their high performance and environment-friendly nature [24].

In contrast to ferroelectric ceramics, ferroelectric polymers offer impressive

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flexibility, biocompatibility, and processability, which make them exciting candidates for

wearable and implantable electronics for human bodies [25]. In this concern, PVDF [26, 27]

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and its copolymer [28] are the alternative choices to fabricate the nanogenerator due to their
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high chemical resistance, biocompatibility, lightweight, economical, flexibility, and high
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piezoelectric properties. PVDF is a semi-crystalline fluoropolymer, having five crystal forms

(polymorphs or phases) namely α, β, γ, δ and ε. Amongst these phases, β and γ are the polar
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forms and are mainly responsible for the piezo, pyro and ferroelectric properties of the
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polymer [8, 29]. There are a number of methods such as mechanical stretching [30], electrical

poling [31], casting from solutions [32], spin coating [33], electro-spinning [34], and use of
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foreign additives like clay, CNT, CTAB, GO, RGO, CoFe2O4 etc to attain the polar phases of
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this polymer [32, 35, 36]. Among these techniques, use of foreign additives offers an
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interesting, attractive, and facile approach particularly in the perspective of polymer

nanocomposite for the fabrication of the PNGs. However, it is well established that

conducting fillers decrease the electrical breakdown strength appreciably and consequently

increase the dielectric losses. Thus, ceramic nanoparticles are the substitute fillers due to their

usual non-conducting properties resulting in low dielectric losses [37]. Furthermore, this type

of fillers has the ability to significantly improve the toughness and the electrical energy

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density of the nanocomposite films, which suggests their tremendous applications in paper-

based flexible capacitor fabrication. Recently, several researchers have been focused to

fabricate self-powered flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators using of perovskite nanomaterial

and piezoelectric polymer. In this concern, researchers have developed NG/PNG based on the

PVDF nanocomposite where they have used BaTiO3 [38], BiVO4 [39], ZnSnO3 [40] as the

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electroactive phase stabilizer for high output performance. The utilization of ferroelectric

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fillers and ferroelectric polymer matrix plays the main role in the high output performance of

the nanogenerator. However, no such research articles have been found in the literature where

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researchers have used zinc titanate nanoparticles (ZTO NPs) as electroactive phase stabilizer

for PVDF to get high output performance from the PNG at low filler loading.

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Here, for the first time, we have fabricated flexible, lightweight, lead free and high
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performance ZnTiO3/PVDF nanocomposite hybrid PNG through a facile and cost-effective
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solution casting method. In this study, the sonochemical synthesized ZTO NPs stabilize the

electroactive γ-phase, which is responsible for the high output performance of the PNG. The
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fabricated hybrid PNG shows excellent output performance without electrical polling under
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vertical compression. The fabricated hybrid PNG with 2 wt% ZTO loading generated the

output voltage (25.7 V) and current (1.2 µA), respectively, under 16.5 KPa pressure. The
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reason behind this superior performance may be due to the synergistic effect of ferroelectric
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ZTO NPs and piezoelectric PVDF polymer. In addition, the ZTO NPs help to reinforce the
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local stress generated in PVDF film that promotes larger deformation of the PVDF chains in

the nanocomposite film than that in pure PVDF. This PNG can power up wristwatch, mobile

LCD screen, and 12 light emitting diodes (LEDs, connected in series) under periodic human

finger imparting. We have also attained higher energy density 0.267 J/cm3 and minimum

energy loss: 0.0906 J/cm3) of the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite film which is effective for the

fabrication of flexible high energy density capacitors. Due to the cost-effective and facile

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fabrication process of PNG, the fabricated PNG may be a superior choice for real energy

harvesting application from various mechanical sources such as road transport, footpath,

bridge, tires, shoes, treadmills etc.

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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the synthesis of the nanocomposite and fabrication process of
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the PNG.

2. Experimental
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2.1 Materials
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PVDF powder was purchased from the Alfa-Aesar, India. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), ethanol

(C2H5OH), and N, N dimethyl formamide (DMF) were purchased from Merck Chemicals,
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India. Titanium (IV) butoxide (Ti[OC4H9]4, 99.9%) was supplied by Alfa-Aesar, and zinc
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acetate [Zn (CH3CO2)2, 99%] was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich. Oxalic acid (CO2H)2.2H2O

was also supplied by Sigma –Aldrich. PDMS (Sylgard 184) was purchased from Dow

Corning Corp. All chemicals were used as received without any additional treatment. DI

water was obtained from the Merck Millipore. Commercially Cu foils were procured from

India.

2.2 Synthesis of ZTO Nanoparticles

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The synthesis of ZTO NPs was done following the sonochemical method, as reported

elsewhere[41]. Titanium butoxide (99.9%) and zinc acetate (99.9%) was used as a precursor

for Ti and Zn, respectively. In the typical synthesis process, 0.44 g zinc acetate and 0.252 g

oxalic acid were dissolved separately in 10 ml absolute ethanol under a stirring condition for

30 min. Then, the two solutions were mixed together to get a white and cloudy gel-like

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solution. Next, 0.68 gm titanium butoxide was added to the white and cloudy gel-like

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solution. After that, the solution was diluted with distilled water and kept under continuous

stirring for 120 min. Then, the solution was placed under high ultrasonic sonometer (20 kHz,

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750 W) for 30 min at room temperature for complete precipitation. The precipitate was

washed with distilled water for several times and the obtained white product was dried at

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100°C for 12 h in a hot air oven. Finally, the powder was calcined at 700°C in a furnace for 6
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h.
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2.3 Preparation of ZTO/PVDF Nanocomposite Film

The ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite film was prepared using solution casting method. At
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first, 1 g PVDF powder was dissolved in 10 ml N, N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) and heated
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at 60 °C under magnetic stirring for 2 h to obtain a transparent solution. In another beaker,

0.01 g ZTO was dispersed in 10 ml DMF by a probe sonicator (OSCAR Model PR-250;
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Ultrasonic Power, Frequency 25 kHz, a diameter of the Probe tip is 6 mm) for 1 h. Then, the
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PVDF solution was added to a ZTO dispersed solution and sonicated for 2 h to obtain a
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complete dispersed solution. Finally, the suspension was poured into a Petri dish and dried in

an oven at 90°C for 48 h for solvent evaporation. Then the Petri dish was kept in a vacuum

oven for complete removal of residual solvent. After drying, ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite film

(thickness 5 mm) was peeled off the petri dish and cut into 2 × 2.3 cm2 for nanogenerator

fabrication. Various ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite films were synthesized with different

loadings of ZTO (0.5, 1, 2 wt%) were abbreviated as 0.5ZTO/PVDF, 1.0ZTO/PVDF, and

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2.0ZTO/PVDF, respectively. The schematic diagram of the fabrication of ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite films is shown in Fig 1(a). The Fig S1 (a) shows the digital pictorial image of

the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposites film, which revealed that the film was semitransparent in

nature. The flexible nature of ZTO/PVDF nanocomposites films were demonstrated in Fig S1

(b-d) under various mode operations like rolling, bending, and twisting.

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2.4 Fabrication of the PNG

For the fabrication of the nanogenerator, the nanocomposite film with 2 ×2.3 cm2 area

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was sandwiched between two flexible Cu electrodes. For external connections, two Cu wires

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were attached to with the top and bottom electrodes. Finally, the whole device was

encapsulated with a thin, pure polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layer for protecting it from

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external stress, moisture, and temperature. The schematic diagram for the fabrication of
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nanogenerator is presented in Fig 1. The working performances of PNG under different
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modes of imparting pressure i.e. bending, stretching and twisting are shown in Fig 9.

2.5 Materials Characterizations:

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To study the crystalline phases of ZTO NPs and PVDF film, X-ray diffraction (XRD)
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analysis was performed by X-ray diffractometer (Panalytical, PW 3040/60) using Cu kα

radiation (λ= 0.15406 nm at 40 KV and 60 mA) at room temperature. Raman spectral

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analysis had carried out for ZTO NPs using single stage spectrometer (T-64000, HORIBA
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Jobin Yvon, and France). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) (PHI 5000 Versa Probe II)
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was performed to know the presence of the elements and their oxidation state in ZTO NPs.

The surface morphology and microstructures of ZTO NPs and hybrid nanocomposite film

(ZTO/PVDF) were analyzed by field emission scanning electron microscope ( FESEM, Carl

Ziess SUPRA40, with accelerating voltage 5 kV) and high resolution transmission electron

microscope (HR-TEM, JEM 2100F, JEOL, JAPAN) with an accelerating voltage of 200 KV,

respectively. The characteristics crystalline phases of PVDF nanocomposite films was

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examined through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Jasco FT-IR 300E, ATR

mode) study over a range of (400-1600) cm-1. To study the crystallinity and thermal

properties of PVDF nanocomposites films, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis

was carried out under nitrogen atmosphere in the temperature range of 20 °C - 200 °C at a

heating rate of 10 °C min-1 using a Pyris Diamond DSC (Perkin-Elmer, U.S.A). The electrical

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outputs i.e. open circuit voltage (VOC) and short circuit current (ISC) of fabricated PNGs were

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measured by an oscilloscope (ROHDE & SCHWARZ, RTM 2022) and an electrometer

(Keithley 4200-SCS), respectively. The charging and discharging performance of the

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capacitors with various capacitance (2.2, 4.7 and 10 µF) was performed by CHI 760 D

workstation with a standard two-electrode system. Using a Precision Premier II tester

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(Radiant Technologies, Inc.), the ferroelectric properties of the nanocomposite films have
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studied.
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3. Results and discussion

The crystallinity of synthesized ZTO NPs have analyzed by XRD studies, as shown in Fig.
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2a. The broadening of the different diffraction peaks indicates the inherent nature of
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nanocrystals. The diffraction peaks at 2θ ≈ 24.06o, 32.9°, 35.53°, 38.22°, 40.74°, 49.08°,

53.86°, 56.91°, 62.03°, 63.08°, 68.2°, 75.45°, are responsible for (012), (104), (110), (015),
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(113), (024), (116), (018), (214), (300), (208), and (220) reflections planes, respectively. All
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the diffraction planes indicating the formation of a hexagonal lattice for ZnTiO3 (JCPDS card
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No. 26–1500)[42]. The dominant phase in the ZTO NPs is the rhombohedral phase signifying

the presence of a pseudo-cubic symmetry, which is little distorted from the ideal cubic unit

cell. Besides this, peaks marked with an asterisk indicates the presence of tetragonal rutile

phase of TiO2 as an impurity in synthesized ZTO NPs (JCPDS no. 21-1276) [43]. The

average crystallite size of ZTO NPs was determined using the Debye–Scherrer formula (eq 1)

(as tabulated in Table S1 in ESI).

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0.92λ
t= (1)
β cos θ

Where t is the crystallite size, β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction

peak, θ is the Bragg’s angle in radians and λ is the X-ray wavelength (≈ 0.154 nm). The

details of dynamic symmetry and structural analysis for ZTO NPs have investigated by

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Raman spectral analysis, as shown in Fig 2b. Among the observed peaks at 172, 229, 266,

342, 468, 534 and 707 cm-1 , the peaks at 266, 342, 534, and 707 cm -1 are responsible for γ4

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(LO), γ2 (LO, TO), γ1 (TO) γ1 (LO) modes for the perovskite structure of ZTO NPs,

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respectively, consistent with the previously reported data [44, 45]. Due to the presence of

hexagonal phase in ZTO NPs, a non-centrosymmetric region was formed from local off-

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centring of the titanium atom in ZTO NPs, which could be responsible for the ferroelectric
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nature of the ZTO NPs [46].
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The surface morphology and microstructure of ZTO NPs were observed by FESEM

and TEM analysis. As can be seen, the FESEM image (Fig. 2c) reveals the formation of
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irregular spherical shaped ZTO NPs with the particles size of ZTO NPs ≈ 12 nm. It is well
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established that, the high aspect ratio fillers have lower surface area than low aspect ratio
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fillers, which results in the reduction of the surface energy, thus avoiding agglomeration and

enhancing output performance of the PNG [47]. The presence of Zn, Ti, and O in ZTO NPs
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was confirmed from energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), as shown Fig. S4a in ESI.
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In addition, the spherical shape of ZTO was confirmed from the HR-TEM images as depicted

in Fig. 2d and 2e. The polycrystalline nature of the ZTO NPs has been confirmed from the

measurement of lattices fringes distances of a particular nanoparticle. The HRTEM image of

the ZTO nanoparticles (shown in Fig. S4b in ESI) show the lattice fringes distances of 2.4,

2.2 and 1.6 Å, which are the characteristics of (110), (113) and (116) planes, respectively,

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indicating the presence of hexagonal phase of ZTO as major phase, as supported by the XRD

analysis.

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Fig. 2 (a) X-ray diffraction patterns of crystalline ZTO nanoparticles synthesized at 700°C
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after calcination, (b) Raman spectrum of ZTO nanoparticles, (c) FE-SEM images of ZTO

NPs, and (d-e) HR-TEM images of ZTO NPs synthesized at 700°C.

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Formation and quantification of crystalline polar phase in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite

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were examined by XRD and FTIR studies. The crystalline nature of ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite could be proved from the XRD patterns of pure PVDF and ZTO loaded

PVDF films (Fig. 3a). The different diffraction peaks at 2θ ≈ 17.6° (100), 18.3° (020), 19.9°

(110) and 26.4° (021) of pure PVDF film can be recognized to the non-polar α-phase of

PVDF [48]. An intense peak at 2θ ≈ 20.17° corresponds to the (002) plane indicates the

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formation of electroactive polar γ-phase in 2.0ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite. In addition, the

presence of additional peaks at 2θ ≈18.45° (020) and 26.83° (022) also suggest the formation

of polar γ phase in the 2.0ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, as reported earlier [14, 32]. With the

increasing of ZTO NPs loading, the intensity of different peaks for α-phase at 2θ ≈17.6o,

18.3o, 19.9o and 26.4o of pure PVDF gradually decreases, whereas the intensity of the

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diffraction peaks corresponding to γ-phase in the nanocomposite increases. This is because

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the electrostatic interaction between the ZTO NPs and PVDF polymer chains plays the key

role in the formation and stabilization of electroactive γ-phase in the nanocomposite. The

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strong diffraction peaks indicated a high degree of crystallinity of the γ-phase in the

nanocomposite [49]. We have calculated the degree of crystallinity of PVDF and ZTO/PVDF

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films (with different ZTO loading) using the following equation:
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∑ Acr
χc = × 100%
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∑ Acr + ∑ Aamr (2)

Where, ∑Acr and ∑Aamr are the summation of the integral area of the crystalline zone and
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amorphous zone, respectively [50]. The degree of crystallinity of PVDF with ZTO loading,
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calculated from XRD analysis, is given in Fig. S5 (ESI) which represent a slight increment in
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the degree of crystallinity of PVDF with increasing ZTO NPs loadings, consistent with the

crystallinity value obtained from the DSC analysis (Table S2). Due to the heterogeneous
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nucleation in the presence of ZTO NPs, the crystallization temperature is enhanced provided
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by its large surface area for adsorption of the PVDF chains.

In addition, the FTIR studies were carried out to further analyze the absorption bands

related to different phases (α, β, and γ) of PVDF and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, as shown in

Fig. 3b. The pure PVDF film shows strong characteristic peaks at 488 cm-1 (CF2 wagging),

532 cm-1 (CF2 bending), 613 cm-1 (CF2 bending), 764 cm-1 (skeletal bending), 796 cm-1 (CH2

rocking), 856 and 976 cm-1 (CH2 twisting), which are exclusively for non-polar α-phase [48,

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51]. The nucleation and stabilization of the polar γ-phase have started on the inclusion of

ZTO NPs in the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, which can be well understood from the

appearance of the two sharp peaks at 834 and 1234 cm-1, shown in Fig 3b [32]. The dipole-

dipole interaction among ZTO NPs and PVDF chains, vibrational stretching of molecular

dipoles (-CH2/-CF2) and stress-induced polarization effect in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite help

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together to transform α-phase of PVDF into γ-phase in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite. Also,

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there could be some interactions between surface charges of ZTO NPs and CH2/CF2 dipoles

of PVDF polymer chains, which would be another reason behind stabilization of γ-phase in

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the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite [14]. With the appearance of polar γ-phase in the

0.5ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, some absorption bands at 764, 796 and 976 cm-1 also

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appeared which confirm the presence of the non-polar α-phase to some extent at 0.5 ZTO
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NPs loading. The reason behind the appearance of α-phase at the lower loading of ZTO is
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that an insufficient stabilization of the γ-phase of PVDF occurs in the ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite. The absorption intensity of α-phase gradually decreases while the intensity of
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peaks corresponding to polar γ-phase becomes more prominent beyond 0.5 wt% ZTO
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loading. Fig S6a (ESI) shows that the two fundamental vibrational bands for symmetric

stretching (CH2) and asymmetric stretching(CH2) of ZTO loaded PVDF film were shifted to
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lower frequency range compared to pure PVDF film at higher frequency region of 3100-2900

cm-1 in FTIR spectra [14]. The interfacial interaction between PVDF and ZTO can be
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confirmed from peak broadening and peak shifting of these CH2 bands of PVDF chains. The

vibrational band at 1070 cm−1 defines linear dependence behaviour upon the thickness of the

nanocomposite film and independent to the crystalline phases of PVDF [48]. The relative

fraction, F(γ), of γ-phase of PVDF film and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite were calculated

considering vibrational band at 1070 cm−1 as a normalized peak using the following equation

(as shown in Table S6b in ESI) [49, 52].

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Xγ Aγ
F (γ ) = =
Aγ + Aα (K γ / Kα )
(3)
Xα + Xγ

Where, Xα and Xγ are the corresponding crystallinity of α and γ-phases, respectively. Aγ and

Aα are the absorbance at 834 and 764 cm-1, respectively and Kγ and kα are absorption

coefficient at the respective wave number. The value of the ratio of absorption coefficients of

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respective wave numbers, (Kγ/ Kα), is 0.41 where Kγ = 0.150 µm-1 and Kα = 0.365 µm-1[32].

As shown in Fig S6b (ESI), with the increasing of ZTO NPs loading in ZTO/PVDF

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nanocomposite, the relative percentage of γ-phase increases due to more interactions between

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ZTO nanoparticles and PVDF chains and conversion of α-phase to γ-phase reached up to

99% at 2 wt% loading of ZTO in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite. With increasing the filler

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loading (above 2 wt%), the film becomes rough and crease because, at higher filler loading in
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the polymer matrix, there are high possibilities of agglomeration of fillers which hinders the

nucleation the polar phase. Thus, beyond 2-wt% of ZTO NPs loading, ZTO NPs may
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interrupt with the crystallization of polar γ-phase in ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, which

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results in the formation of low % of γ-phase, as shown in Fig S6b (ESI).

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The crystalline nature and electroactive polar phase play an important role in

piezoelectric properties of the nanocomposite [32]. The influence of ZTO NPs on the thermal
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properties and the crystalline behaviour of PVDF were further studied by DSC in the

temperature range of 120 °C to 180 °C, as shown in Fig 3c and 3d. Fig 3c and 3d show the
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thermographs of pure PVDF and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposites that clearly state that the
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melting temperature (Tm) and crystallization temperature (Tc) gradually increase with the

increase of ZTO loading in the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposites. In addition, the broadening

nature of melting and crystallization peaks of the ZTO loaded PVDF films was found to be

narrowing with the addition of ZTO NPs, which implies that the γ-phase becomes more

intensive in the crystalline structure of the nanocomposite film [53]. This is because the

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melting temperature of the γ-phase is higher than that of the α-phase [54]. The percentage of

crystallinity (Xc) of the pure PVDF and its composites was calculated using the equation:

∆H m
X (%) = ×100% (4)
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(1 − Φ) ∆H 0 m

Where, ∆Hm is the melting enthalpy of the nanocomposite, ∆H°m is the melting

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enthalpy of the 100% crystalline PVDF (104.50 J.g-1) and Ф is the weight percentage of the

ZTO in the nanocomposite [32]. The calculated values of Xc for pure PVDF (Xc~ 35% ) and

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its composites with 2 wt% ZTO NPs (Xc~ 45%) are given in Table S2 (ESI) which are in

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good agreement with the crystallinity values obtained from the XRD analysis. The reason

behind this increasing crystallinity of PVDF in the nanocomposites could be due to restricted

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movement of PVDF chains in presence of ZTO NPs. In the nnocomposites, ZTO NPs acts as
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a heterogeneous nucleating agent that provides large surface area for the adsorption of PVDF

chains to accelerates the nucleation process of PVDF [55].

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The high magnification FESEM image of the cryo-fractured surface of the

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2.0ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite film is shown in Fig 3e. As can be seen, the ZTO
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nanoparticles (marked with red circles) are distributed uniformly throughout the PVDF

matrix. This uniform distribution of the ZTO nanoparticles in PVDF matrix accelerates the
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rate of heterogeneous nucleation of the polar γ-phase of the PVDF in ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite. The presence of such large number of additional nucleation centres favours
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the enhancement of the γ-phase fraction in the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite films which will
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be more effective for high output performance of the PNG. A homogeneous and distinct

distribution of the ZTO NPs in the nanocomposite film is also evident from the high

magnification HRTEM image, as shown in Fig 3f.

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Fig. 3 (a) X-ray diffraction patterns of pure PVDF and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite at various
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ZTO NPs loadings, (b) FT-IR spectra of pure PVDF and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, DSC
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second melting (c) and cooling (d) curves of pure PVDF and ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite at

various ZTO NPs loadings, (e) FE-SEM (cryo-fracture surface) image of the 2.0ZTO/PVDF
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nanocomposite, (f) TEM (microtome) image of 2.0ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite.

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The typical electrical output performances of PNG with an active area of 2 × 2.3 cm2

was studied under periodically human finger imparting at the frequency of ~3 Hz. Successive

application and releasing of the compressive stress results in AC-type voltage and current

output signals from the PNG, as shown in Fig 4a and 4b. The generated open circuit voltage

and short circuit current from the PNG reached up to ~25.7 V and ~1.2 µA, which are ∼ 12

times higher than that of pure PVDF film, under constant pressure (16.5 KPa, as shown in

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ESI) of finger imparting on the PNG, respectively. This enhancement in the output

performance for ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite compared to pure PVDF is due to the

development of polar γ-phase on the addition of ZTO NPs in PVDF matrix.

To examine the role of ZTO NPs on the output of PNG, we have tested the

performances of the PNGs under periodic human finger imparting at various (0 to 3 wt %)-

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loading levels of ZTO NPs. Fig 4c shows that both output voltage and the current were

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increased with increase in ZTO NPs loading in the PVDF matrix. Similarly, Fig 4d shows the

variation of current density and power density as a function of ZTO NPs loadings. The

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generated output power increases as the loading percentage of ZTO NPs was increased in the

ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, which endorses the higher piezoelectric output in the

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nanocomposite compared to that of pure PVDF. This significant increase in the output
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performance is associated with the high effective piezoelectricity of nanocomposite. The
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combination of piezoelectric matrix with non-centrosymmetric fillers generated more

piezopotential upon deformation, which results in the high output performance of the PNG
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[56]. Thus, PNGs with 2 wt% ZTO NPs loading generated a maximum output voltage and
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beyond this loading, the output voltage was decreasing due to the increased mechanical

stiffness of the nanocomposite film and aggregation of ZTO NPs in the ZTO/PVDF
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nanocomposite, as discussed earlier. It can also be proved from the Fig 3e that the ZTO NPs
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are well distributed at 2 wt% ZTO NPs loading throughout the matrix, which significantly
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increases the interaction of PVDF chains with the ZTO surface. As the interaction of the

PVDF chains and ZTO NPs decreases on agglomeration (the specific surface area of the NPs

decreases), the effective formation γ-phase decreases at higher ZTO NPs loadings which

results in the low output voltage [35]. A comparison table is given in Table1; to assess the

performances of this PNG device with other reported PVDF based PNGs.

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In order to check the origin of signals from PNG, we have measured the output

performance of PNG under reverse connection, as shown in Fig 4e and f. The generated

signals coming out from PNG in reverse connection are opposite to the signals from PNG in

the forward condition (shown in Fig 4a and b). This result confirms that the observed signals

generated from the device are solely due to the piezoelectric effect of the nanocomposite, and

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not from other means (triboelectric effect). Also, we have measured the output voltage of the

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device, which turns upside down under forward connection for more clarity of the concept, as

shown in fig S11.

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Fig 4a and 4b reveal the unsymmetrical nature of the positive and negative peaks or

between the positive and negative peaks. The unsymmetrical nature in heights between

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positive voltage peaks and negative voltage peaks is due to unequal stress applying on PNG
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during finger imparting. Generally, materials undergo compression under finger imparting
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and upon releasing pressure; it cannot get back into its original shape before applying another

tapping, which strongly depends on materials elastic property. Because of this phenomenon,
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PNG device feels unequal stretching and compression under each tapping, which results in
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the formation of unequal positive and negative peaks. We have also observed the

unsymmetrical nature of heights among positive voltage peaks or among negative voltage
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peaks, which is due to irregularity in finger imparting pressure for each imparting. This
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irregular imparting pressure on the PNG causes unequal stretching and compression which
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results in a different amount of strain rate in the PNG and hence, inequality in height of

positive and negative voltage peaks [57].

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Fig. 4 (a) Open circuit voltage (forward connection) and (b) short circuit current from the

PNG device at 2 wt % ZTO loading, (c) Variation of output voltage and current generated

from the PNG with the ZTO NPs percentage, (d) Variation of peak current density and peak

power density generated from the PNG with the ZTO NPs loading percentage, and (e and f)

polarity switching tests under finger imparting (reverse connection).

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Table. 1 Comparison of the proposed nanocomposite nanogenerator (PNG) output with

respect to the previously reported PNG.

Device
Voltage Current Power density
Nanogenerator Poling area Pressure/Force
(V) (µA) (µW/cm2)
(cm2)
Not
PVDF[58] 9 100 N 3 0.05 0.016

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poled
Not
Fe-rGO/PVDF[32] 6 12 KPa 5.1 0.25 0.213
poled

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Not
ZnO NWs/PVDF[59] 7.2 8.43 KPa 0.1 5 2.50
poled
Not
Al-rGO/PVDF[14] 7.82 46.8 KPa 36 0.8 3.68

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poled

BaTiO3/PVDF[38] Poled 1.2 1 MPa 35 0.6 17.5

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BaTiO3/P(VDF-
Poled 4 0.23 MPa 75 15 281.2
HFP)[60]
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Ba(Ti0.9Zr0.1)O3/ Not 2.58
6.25 11 N 11.9 1.36
PVDF[9] poled
Not 11.0
DNA/PVDF[61] 3.75 13 KPa 20 0.184
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poled
Not 4.41
GO/PVDF-TrFE[62] 1 0.32 MPa 4.026 1.88
Poled
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Not
Present Work 4.6 16.5 KPa 25.7 1.2 8.22
poled
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The schematic shown in Fig 5 has used to explain the working mechanism of the ZTO/PVDF
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nanocomposite nanogenerator. The interactions between the oppositely charged surfaces of

ZTO NPs and CF2/CH2 groups in PVDF can enhance the formation and stabilization of γ-
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phase in PVDF through surface charge induced polarization. In addition, on applying

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pressure the existing dipoles in the ZTO nanoparticles as well as in the PVDF chains are

getting oriented in a single direction along with the applied pressure through stress-induced

polarization effect. Thus, this combined effect of stress and surface charge induced

polarization synergistically enhances the net surface charges on the surfaces of the

ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite film [14]. In absence of any mechanical load, the net dipole

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moment will be zero due to the random orientation of the dipoles present in the ZTO/PVDF

film, resulting in no output signal. Under finger imparting i.e. on applying force, the

generated dipoles inside the film get oriented perpendicular to the plane of the film. As a

result, the opposite charges will be accumulated on both surfaces of the ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite film. To counter this developed potential, the electrons will flow in the outer

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circuit, producing a positive peak and on releasing the pressure, the generated piezoelectric

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potentials will vanish and the charges flow back to balance the potential difference between

two electrodes and generated a negative peak. As under compression more crystal

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deformation occurs compared to that under decompression, the signal for the output

performance appears as larger peaks for compression and smaller peak for decompression

[63].
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Fig. 5 the schematics shown here are used to understand the working mechanism of the

nanogenerator (PNG).

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For a demonstration of converting irregular human motion into electricity, the process

of rectification is needed to convert the alternative output from fabricated PNG into the direct

output. A four-probe full-wave bridge rectifier was used to rectify the AC output from the

PNG and to authenticate the application of the PNG to be an actual power source. This direct

output can be stored in an energy storage device like capacitor and batteries for the actual

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energy source. Fig 6a shows the generated rectified voltage of 2.0ZTO/PVDF based PNG

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using four-probe rectified bridge where no negative peaks are present i.e. AC output

converted into DC output.

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To check the charge storage capability of a capacitor using PNG under human finger

imparting, a rectified electrical output from 2 wt % ZTO NPs loaded PNG was stored in a

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capacitor of 2.2 µF power. Fig 6b shows the charging and discharging behaviour of PNG at a
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constant frequency of 3 Hz for 680 sec under human finger tapping. The inset of Fig 6b
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shows the enlarged view of charging behaviour of the capacitor. A single 2.0ZTO-PVDF

based PNG device can charge the capacitor up to ~7.6 V in a very short time period (280
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sec). Furthermore, it can also be seen that the fabricated device can charge the capacitor for
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several times, which proves the reproducibility of the PNG under cyclic charging and

discharging condition. We have carried out the charging and discharging experiment for
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twice wherein each step the maximum voltage of the capacitor reached up to 7.65 V, which
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also proves the reproducibility of the PNG. The charging and discharging behaviour of
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different capacitors with different capacitances has been shown in Fig 6c. From these results,

we can conclude that the capacitors of different capacitance can be charged up by the PNG to

a certain voltage under a specific time, which will be useful for further utilization. The

maximum voltage of the capacitors of capacitances 4.7 and 10 µF reached up to 4.1 V (372

sec) and 2.16 V (466 sec), respectively. This combination of PNG and the energy storage

device paves a potential solution to the frequent replacement of the discharged batteries. This

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also suggests that the integration can be of great potential for effective power generation and

energy storage from human movements for powering small portable electronics.

Fig. 6d shows the variation of the output voltage from the 2.0ZTO/PVDF PNG under

various load resistances. The output voltage constantly increases with increasing load

resistance and becomes saturated at infinitesimally high resistance, as shown in Fig 6d. It can

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also be seen that power density of the devices steadily increases to a maximum value with

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load resistance and then decreases. We have calculated the theoretical maximum power

density (8.22 µW/cm2) using the formula P=V2/RA at 20M ohm resistance which is well

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agreed with the previously reported literature [9, 14]. We also calculated theoretical current

(1.4 µA) from maximum output power value with corresponding load resistance using the

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formula P=I2R and compared with the experimental value. The theoretical current is
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comparatively higher than the experimental value which may be due to the power
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consumption by measuring unit present in the device during the measurements [64].

The output performance of the PNG is very much dependent on the various
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frequencies of the applied pressure due to variability in the various mechanical sources. To
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study the outer performance of the nanogenerator under various frequencies (1-10Hz), a

human finger-imparting test was conducted with the PNG of area 4.6 cm2, as shown in Fig
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6e. As can be seen, the output voltage of the PNG follows a gradually increasing manner with
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the increasing the frequency of human finger imparting. This may happen due to the change
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in the impedance of nanocomposite, which decreases with an increase in strain rate [29]. The

reason behind this phenomenon is that, under low frequency of mechanical pressure, the

reduction in the accumulated or released charges on the electrodes occurs due to the quite

slow electron flow on the external circuit, and under the high frequency of tapping, the

developed positive and negative charges are not completely neutralized before further

tapping, resulting in more electrons flow toward electrodes and shows higher voltage [22].

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This experiment displays the possibility of using the PNG to harvest energy at the low and

high-frequency range of motion for powering portable electronic appliances.

The output voltage performance of PNG is directly dependent on applied pressure. Fig

S7 shows the output voltages generated from of the 2.0ZTO/PVDF PNG device under

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applied pressure from 1 KPa to 25 KPa. Fig S7 shows that the output voltages will increase

with the increase of applied pressure up to a certain level (16.5 KPa) and after that, the

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voltage will not increase with the input pressure. The reason behind this phenomenon is that

large pressure will cause large deformation of the piezoelectric materials and at 16.5 KPa

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pressure will cause the maximum crystal deformation of the semicrystalline polymeric

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materials [14].
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To investigate the endurance of the fabricated PNG, we have performed a durability

test of the PNG under human finger imparting at a frequency of ~3 Hz for about four weeks
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(1200 cycles, 400 sec per week). Fig 6f shows that the PNG has excellent stability and retains
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its stability for a longer period without a significant drop in output voltage generation. To
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check its elongated stability of PNG, durability test of PNG device have performed under

sewing machine which was shown in Fig S9 (3600 sec). Additionally, we have studied the
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microstructure of the PVDF/ZTO composite film embedded into the device after repeated

imparting on the PNG, through the FESEM analysis (Fig S10). From the FESEM image, it
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can be seen that there is no fault, breakage or fracture formation in the composite film even
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after several repeating operations. This implies that the PNG can show excellent performance

under the irregular stressed condition without any degradation.

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Fig. 6 (a) Rectified voltage signal using full wave bridge rectifier circuit at a frequency of 3

Hz, (b) the accumulated voltage across a single capacitor (power of 2.2 µF) charged by
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2.0ZTO/PVDF PNG with the same frequency (the inset shows the zoom portion of charging

and respective schematic circuit diagrams), (c) charging behavior of various load capacitors
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(2.2 µF, 4.7 µF, and 10 µF) through 2.0ZTO/PVDF PNG device, (d) at a cyclic frequency of
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3 Hz with a fixed load, the output voltage and area power density dependence on the load

resistance of the ZTO/PVDF PNG device are presented, (e) performance of the PNG under

different operating frequencies, and (f) stability and durability test of the PNG under human

finger imparting.

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To investigate the energy storage capability of the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite, the

displacement-electric field (D−E) loops were measured at various electric fields. Fig 7a

shows D−E loops of the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite with various weight percent (wt %) of

ZTO nanoparticles. The D value of the ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite noticeably increases in

comparison with the pure PVDF and increases considerably with the increase of the contents

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of ZTO NPs under the same electric field (Fig 7a). The maximum electric displacement

increased monotonically and reached to 1.28 µC/cm2 for the nanocomposite with 2 wt% ZTO

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at 600 kV/cm. Generally, the energy density of the dielectric materials has been calculated

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from the electric D−E loops using the following equation [65].

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U = ∫ E dD (5)
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Where E is the applied electric field and D is the electric displacement. The energy
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density of the nanocomposite filled with ZTO nanoparticles as a function of electric field is

shown in Fig 7c, and the energy density was calculated using the equation 5. It was found
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that the energy density gradually increased with the increase of electric field. For example,
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the energy density of the 2.0ZTO/PVDF nanocomposite increased from 46 × 10−3 to 267 ×

10−3 J/cm3, when the electric field was increased from 100 to 600 kV/cm. It is reported in the
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literature, that increasing the electric field strength to a high value, 500 kV/cm or more, the

energy density is also increased, simultaneously [66]. Fig 7d shows that the energy storage
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density of nanocomposite gradually increases with increasing of ZTO loading under a given

electric field. In addition, the loss energy density marginally decreases with respect to the

released energy density. The 2.0ZTO/PVD film achieves an energy density of 267 × 10−3

J/cm3, which is four times higher than that (0.08 J /cm3) of pure PVDF. The results indicate

that nanocomposite have higher energy density compared to pure PVDF, which can be

attributed mainly to the increase in dielectric constant due to homogeneous distribution of

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ZTO NPs and the improvement in interface compatibility in the polymer matrix, and

development of higher amount of γ-phase (~ 99%) in the 2.0ZTO/PVDF film. The γ-phase

containing PVDF film has more energy density compared to PVDF containing other phases

(α or β), due to the maximum polarization, lower remnant polarization, larger breakdown

strength and absence of early D saturation [67]. The above results indicate that the

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nanocomposite is suitable for high capacity storage materials at a very low loading of ZTO in

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PVDF matrix.

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Fig. 7 (a) Electric displacement vs electric field (D−E) loops of PVDF, ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite at different wt% ZTO loadings, (b) D−E loop of 2.0ZTO/PVDF

nanocomposite film which shows the released energy density and energy loss density, (c)

energy density of nanocomposite films with varying electric field, and (d) variation of the

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released energy density and loss energy density at different wt% ZTO loadings at same

electric field.

In order to explore the energy generated from the PNG in practical purpose i.e. for the

realistic applications of the PNG, we have demonstrated the process of power up various

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electronic devices such as a calculator, wristwatch, mobile LCD screen, and a number of

commercial red LEDs using the PNG device, as shown in Fig 8. Under finger imparting, the

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2.0ZTO/PVDF PNG is capable of lighting up instantaneously 12 red LEDs (connected in

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series) and 8 red LEDs (connected in a parallel) without connecting a capacitor, as shown in

Fig 8d and e, respectively. By charging a capacitor of 2.2 µF using the fabricated PNG, we

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can also drive calculator, wristwatch, and LCD screen, separately (shown in Fig 8a, b, and c).
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The corresponding videos are given in the SV1 (SI).
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Fig. 8 Practical implementation of the generated power from the PNG (digital

calculator, wristwatch, LCD screen, 12 red LEDs (series connection) and 8 red LEDs
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(parallel connection).
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In our surroundings, there is the accessibility of various mechanical energy sources

that are related to human body movements such as walking, running, finger tapping, and arm

movements. To examine the sensitivity of the nanogenerator towards various human

movements, we have measured the piezoelectric performances of PNG under various

conditions e.g., bending, twisting, heel pressing, and leg palm pressing, as shown in Fig 9 (a-

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d). As can be seen, during bending and twisting modes, the PNG generates low output

voltage compared to that under walking and heel pressing. The output performance of PNG

mainly depends on the alignment of the different dipoles of PVDF chains and nanofiller in

the nanocomposite. In absence of any electrical polling, the alignment of dipoles mainly

depends on the stress applied to the nanocomposite film. The reason behind the generating

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low output voltage under bending and twisting mode is the accessibility of less active area of

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the film and less deformation of the crystal structure under applying force in the

nanocomposite. These results show the practicability of the PNG in the development of the

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human-based self-powered device to harvest energy from various biomechanical sources.

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Fig. 9 Output voltage of PNG under (a) heel pressing, (b) walking, (c) bending, and (d)

twisting modes.

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4. Conclusions

In summary, a self-poled flexible PNG was fabricated with the use of ZTO NPs and

ferroelectric PVDF by a simple solution casting method. The crystalline ZTO NPs were

synthesized by the sonochemical method. Here, the ZTO NPs stabilizes and enhances the

electroactive γ-phase of PVDF and due to its ferroelectric nature, the piezoelectric

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performances of the film increases effectively. The fabricated self-poled 2.0ZTO/PVDF

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nanocomposite based PNG device can generate average peak-to-peak voltage and currents

(25.7 V and 1.2 µA) upon an applied pressure of 16.5 KPa, which is comparatively higher

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than many other lead-free-based PNG devices. For long-term use, the durability of the PNG

was conducted for about four weeks (1600 cycles), which suggests the potential of the PNG

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to generate power under harsh condition. More importantly, the instantaneous power
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generated from PNG is sufficient to drive low power red LEDs and by storing the output
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power generated from PNG in a capacitor, one can power up the commercial mobile screen,

watch, and a calculator without the use of any battery. Furthermore, the inclusion of ZTO
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NPs in the PVDF matrix not only increases the piezoelectricity through the γ-phase formation
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but also enhances the energy storage capability of the nanocomposite. Based on structure,

fabrication, output, and durability of PNG, it can be concluded that the PNG can be designed
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in large scale for efficient power source and an active sensor.

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Acknowledgements
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The authors acknowledge the financial support provide by Indian Institute of

Technology Kharagpur, India and also acknowledge Kousik Bhunia and Krishnedu Sarkar

for assisting in measuring the output performance of PNG.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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Highlights

• Flexible and durable PNG based on ZnTiO3/PVDF nanocomposite.

• High stabilization of piezoelectric γ-phase in PVDF through low loading of ZnTiO3.

• The PNG shows VOC of∼25.7 V, ISC ∼1.2 µA and power density of ~8.22 µW.cm−2.

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• It can power up 10 red LEDs, mobile screen, wrist watch and calculator.

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