Statistics Using Technology Second Edition By Kathryn Kozakena Creative Commons Attribution Sharealike. This license is considered to be some to be the most open license. It allows reuse, remixing, and distribution (including commercial), but requires any remixes use the same license as the original. This limits where the content can be remixed into, but on the other hand ensures that no-one can remix the content then put the remix under a more restrictive license 2015 Kathryn Kozak BN: 978-1-329-75725-7Statistics Using Technology Table of Content: Preface iii Chapter 1: Statistical Basics 1 Section 1.1: What is Statisties? 1 Section 1.2: Sampling Methods 8 Section 1.3: Experimental Design 14 Section 1.4: How Not to Do Statistics 19 Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 25 Section 2.1: Qualitative Data 25 Section 2.2: Quantitative Data 37 Section 2.3: Other Graphical Representations of Data 59 Chapter 3: Numerical Descriptions of Data 5 Section 3.1: Measures of Center 75 Section 3.2: Measures of Spread 90 Section 3.3: Ranking 107 Chapter 4: Probability 121 Section 4.1: Empirical Probability 121 Section 4.2: Theoretical Probability 124 Section 4.3: Conditional Probability 140 Section 4.4: Counting Techniques 152 Chapter 5: Discrete Probability Distributions 157 Section 5.1: Basics of Probability Distributions 157 Section 5.2: Binomial Probability Distribution 167 Section 5.3: Mean and Standard Deviation of Binomial Distribution 181 Chapter 6: Continuous Probability Distributions 187 Section 6.1: Uniform Distribution. 187 Section 6.2: Graphs of the Normal Distribution 190 Section 6.3: Finding Probabilities for the Normal Distribution 193 Section 6.4: Assessing Normality 203 Section 6.5: Sampling Distribution and the Central Limit Theorem 216Statistics Using Technology Chapter 7: One-Sample Inference Section 7.1: Basics of Hypothesis Testing Section 7.2: One-Sample Proportion Test Section 7.3: One-Sample Test for the Mean Chapter 8: Estimation Section 8.1: Basics of Confidence Intervals Section 8.2: One-Sample Interval for the Proportion Section 8.3: One-Sample Interval for the Mean Chapter 9: Two-Sample Inference Section 9.1: Two Proportions Section 9.2: Paired Samples for Two Means Section 9.3: Independent Samples for Two Means Section 9.4: Which Analysis Should You Conduct? Chapter 10: Regression and Correlation Section 10.1: Regression Section 10.2: Correlation Section 10.3: Inference for Regression and Correlation Chapter 11: Chi-Square and ANOVA Tests Section 11.1: Chi-Square Test for Independence Section 11.2: Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Section 11.3: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Appendix: Critical Value Tables ‘Table A.1: Normal Critical Values for Confidence Levels Table A.2: Critical Values for t-Interval Answers to Odd Questions Index 229 229 242 249 263 263 267 272 283 283 293 313 339) 343 343 363 371 393 393 ail 419 433 434 435 439 447 iitStatistics Using Technology Preface: Lhope you find this book useful in teaching statistics. When writing this book, I tried to follow the GAISE Standards (GAISE recommendations. (2014, January 05). Retrieved from http://www.amstat org/education/gaise/GAISECollege Recommendations.pdf ), which are 1.) Emphasis statistical literacy and develop statistical understanding. 2.) Use real data. 3.) Stress conceptual understanding, rather than mere knowledge of procedure. 4.) Foster active learning in the classroom. 5.) Use technology for developing concepts and analyzing data. ‘To this end, 1 ask students to interpret the results of their calculations. I incorporated the use of technology for most calculations. Because of that you will not find me using any of the computational formulas for standard deviations or correlation and regression since I prefer students understand the concept of these quantities. Also, because I utilize technology you will not find the standard normal table, Student’s t-table, binomial table, chi-square distribution table, and F-distribution table in the book. The only tables I provided were for critical values for confidence intervals since they are more difficult to find using technology. Another difference between this book and other statistics books is the order of hypothesis testing and confidence intervals. Most books present confidence intervals first and then hypothesis tests. I find that presenting hypothesis testing first and then confidence intervals is more understandable for students. Lastly, Ihave de- emphasized the use of the z-test. In fact, I only use it to introduce hypothesis testing, and. never utilize it again. You may also notice that when I introduced hypothesis testing and confidence intervals, proportions were introduced before means. However, when two sample tests and confidence intervals are introduced I switched this order. ‘This i because usually many instructors do not discuss the proportions for two samples, However, you might try assigning problems for proportions without discussing it in class. After doing two samples for means, the proportions are similar, Lastly, to aid student understanding and interest, most of the homework and examples utilize real data. Again, Thope you find this book useful for your introductory statisties class. I want to make a comment about the mathematical knowledge that I assumed the students possess. The course for which I wrote this book has a higher prerequisite than most introductory statistics books. However, I do feel that students can read and understand this book as long as they have had basic algebra and can substitute numbers into formulas. 1 do not show how to create most of the graphs, but most students should have been exposed to them in high school. So I hope the mathematical level is appropriate for your course. The technology that I utilized for creating the graphs was Microsoft Excel, and T utilized the TI-83/84 graphing calculator for most calculations, including hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and probability distributions. This is because these tools are readily available to my students. Please feel free to use any other technology that is more appropriate for your students. Do make sure that you use some technology iiStatistics Using Technology Acknowledgments: I would like to thank the following people for taking their valuable time to review the book. Their comments and insights improved this book immensely. Jane Tanner, Onondaga Community College Rob Farinelli, College of Southern Maryland Carrie Kinnison, retired engineer Sean Simpson, Westchester Community College Kim Sonier, Coconino Community College Jim Ham, Delta College David Straayer, Tacoma Community College Kendra Feinstein, Tacoma Community College Students of Coconino Community College Students Tacoma Community College Talso want to thank Coconino Community College for granting me a sabbatical so that I would have the time to write the book. Lastly, T want to thank my husband Rich and my son Dylan for supporting me in this project. Without their love and support, I would not have been able to complete the book. New to the Second Edition: The additions to this edition mostly involve adding the commands to create graphs, compute descriptive statistics, finding probabilities, and computing inferential analysis using the open source software R. Another change involve adding an example at the end of chapter 3 that shows analyzing a data set using graphical and numerical descriptions. Another major change was adding a section 9.4 that gives some insight into which inferential analysis should be completed based on a series of questions that should be asked, Lastly, minor explanations were made and corrections were made where necessary. On a personal note, I wanted to thank my brother, John Matic, his wife Jenelle, and their children Hannah and Eli for their hospitality when writing the first edition. In addition to allowing my family access to their home, John provided numerous examples and data sets for business applications in this book. | inadvertently left this thank you out of the first edition of the book, and for that I apologize. His help and his family’s hospitality were invaluable to me. ivChapter 1: Statistical Basies Chapter 1: Statistical Basics Section 1.1: What is Statistics? You are exposed to statistics regularly. If you are a sports fan, then you have the statistics for your favorite player. If you are interested in politics, then you look at the polls to see how people feel about certain issues or candidates. If you are an environmentalist, then you research arsenic levels in the water of a town or analyze the global temperatures. If you are in the business profession, then you may track the monthly sales of a store or use quality control processes to monitor the number of defective parts manufactured. If you are in the health profession, then you may look at how successful a procedure is or the percentage of people infected with a disease. There are many other examples from other areas. To understand how to collect data and analyze it, you need to understand what the field of statistics is and the basic definitions. Statistics is the study of how to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret data collected from a group. There are two branches of statistics. One is called descriptive statisties, which is where you collect and organize data, The other is called inferential statistics, which is where you analyze and interpret data. First you need to look at descriptive statistics since you will use the descriptive statistics when making inferences. To understand how to create descriptive statistics and then conduct inferences, there are a few definitions that you need to look at. Note, many of the words that are defined have common definitions that are used in non-statistical terminology. In statistics, some have slightly different definitions. tis important that you notice the difference and utilize the statistical definitions. The first thing to decide in a statistical study is whom you want to measure and what you want to measure, You always want to make sure that you can answer the question of whom you measured and what you measured. The who is known as the individual and the what is the variable. Individual — a person or object that you are interested in finding out information about, Variable — the measurement or observation of the individual. If you put the individual and the variable into one statement, then you obtain a population. Population — set of all values of the variable for the entire group of individuals. Notice, the population answers who you want to measure and what you want to measure. Make sure that your population always answers both of these questions. If it doesn’t, then you haven't given someone who is reading your study the entire picture. As an example, if you just say that you are going to collect data from the senators in the U.S. Congress, you haven’t told your reader want you are going to collect. Do you want toChapter 1: Statistical Basies know their income, their highest degree earned, their voting record, their age, their political party, their gender, their marital status, or how they feel about a particular issue? Without telling what you want to measure, your reader has no idea what your study is actually about. ‘Sometimes the population is very easy to collect. Such as if you are interested in fin: the average age of all of the current senators in the U.S. Congress, there are only 100 senators. This wouldn't be hard to find. However, if instead you were interested in knowing the average age that a senator in the U.S. Congress first took office for all senators that ever served in the U.S. Congress, then this would be a bit more work. It is still doable, but it would take a bit of time to collect. But what if you are interested in finding the average diameter of breast height of all of the Ponderosa Pine trees in the Coconino National Forest? This would be impossible to actually collect. What do you do in these cases? Instead of collecting the entire population, you take a smaller group of the population, kind of a snap shot of the population. This smaller group is called a sample. ‘Sample — a subset from the population. It looks just like the population, but contains less data, How you collect your sample can determine how accurate the results of your study are. There are many ways to collect samples. Some of them create better samples than others. No sampling method is perfect, but some are better than others. Sampling techniques will be discussed later. For now, realize that every time you take a sample you will find different data values. The sample is a snapshot of the population, and there is more information than is in the picture. The idea is to try to collect a sample that gives you an accurate picture, but you will never know for sure if your picture is the correct picture. Unlike previous mathematics classes where there was always one right answer, in statistics there can be many answers, and you don’t know which are right. Once you have your data, either from a population or a sample, you need to know how you want to summarize the data. “As an example, suppose you are interested in finding the proportion of people who like a candidate, the average height a plant grows to using a new fertilizer, or the variability of the test scores. Understanding how you want to summarize the data helps to determine the type of data you want to collect. Since the population is what we are interested in, then you want to calculate a number from the population. This is known as a parameter. As mentioned already, you can’t really collect the entire population. Even though this is the number you are interested in, you can’t really calculate it. Instead you use the number calculated from the sample, called a statistic, to estimate the parameter. Since no sample is exactly the same, the statistic values are going to be different from sample to sample. They estimate the value of the parameter, but again, you do not know for sure if your answer is corrChapter 1: Statistical Basies Parameter — a number calculated from the population. Usually denoted with a Greek letter. This number is a fixed, unknown number that you want to find. Statistic —a number calculated from the sample. Usually denoted with letters from the Latin alphabet, though sometimes there is a Greek letter with a * (called a hat) above it. Since you can find samples, it is readily known, though it changes depending on the sample taken. It is used to estimate the parameter value. ‘One last concept to mention is that there are two different types of variables — qualitative and quantitative. Each type of variable has different parameters and statistics that you find. It is important to know the difference between them. ‘Qualitative or categorical variable — answer is a word or name that describes a quality of the individual. Quantitative or numerical variable — answer is a number, something that can be counted or measured from the individual, Example #1.1.1: Stating Definitions for Qualitative Variable In 2010, the Pew Research Center questioned 1500 adults in the U.S. to estimate the proportion of the population favoring marijuana use for medical purposes. It was found that 73% are in favor of using marijuana for medical purposes. State the individual, variable, population, and sample. Solution: Individual —a U.S. adult Variable — the response to the question “should marijuana be used for medical purposes?” This is qualitative data since you are recording a person’s response — yes or no. Population - set of all responses of adults in the U.S. Sample — set of 1506 responses of U.S. adults who are questioned Parameter — proportion of those who favor marijuana for medical purposes calculated from population Statistic— proportion of those who favor marijuana for medical purposes calculated from sample Example #1.1.2: Stating Definitions for Qualitative Variable A parking control officer records the manufacturer of every 5" car in the college parking lot in order to guess the most common manufacturer, Solutio Individual — a car in the college parking lot Variable - the name of the manufacturer. This is qualitative data since you are recording a car type. Population — set of all names of the manufacturer of cars in the college parking lot. Sample — set of recorded names of the manufacturer of the cars in college parking lot Parameter — proportion of each car type calculated from population Statistic — proportion of each car type calculated from sampleChapter 1: Statistical Basies Example #1.1.3: Stating Definitions for Quantitative Variable A biologist wants to estimate the average height of a plant that is given a new plant food. She gives 10 plants the new plant food. State the individual, variable, population, and sample, Solution: Individual — a plant given the new plant food Variable the height of the plant (Note: it is not the average height since you cannot measure an average ~ it is calculated from data.) This is quantitative data since you will have a number. Population — set of all the heights of plants when the new plant food is used Sample — set of 10 heights of plants when the new plant food is used Parameter — average height of all plants Statistic — average height of 10 plants Example #1.1.4: Stating Definitions for Quantitative Variable ‘A doctor wants to see if a new treatment for cancer extends the life expectancy of a patient versus the old treatment. She gives one group of 25 cancer patients the new treatment and another group of 25 the old treatment. She then measures the life expectancy of each of the patients. State the individuals, variables, populations, and samples. Solution: In this example there are two individuals, two variables, two populations, and two samples. Individual 1: cancer patient given new treatment Individual 2: cancer patient given old treatment Variable I: life expectancy when given new treatment, This is quantitative data since you will have a number. Variable 2: life expectancy when given old treatment. This is quantitative data since you will have a number. Population 1: set of all life expectancies of cancer patients given new treatment Population 2: set of all life expectancies of cancer patients given old treatment Sample 1: set of 25 life expectancies of cancer patients given new treatment Sample 2: set of 25 life expectancies of cancer patients given old treatment Parameter 1 — average life expectancy of all cancer patients given new treatment Parameter 2 — average life expectancy of all cancer patients given old treatment Statistic 1 — average life expectancy of 25 cancer patients given new treatment Statistic 2 — average life expectancy of 25 cancer patients given old treatment There are different types of quantitative variables, called discrete or continuous. The difference is in how many values can the data have. If you can actually count the number of data values (even if you are counting to infinity), then the variable is called discrete, If it is not possible to count the number of data values, then the variable is called continuous. Discrete data can only take on particular values like integers, Discrete data are usually things you count. Continuous data can take on any value, Continuous data are usually things you measureChapter 1: Statistical Basies Example #1.1.5: Discrete or Continuous Classify the quantitative variable as discrete or continuous. a.) The weight of a cat Solution: This is con inuous since it is something you measure. b,) The number of fleas on a cat. Solution: This is discrete since it is something you count. ¢.) The size of a shoe. Solution: This is discrete since you can only be certain valu 9. You can’t buy a 9.73 shoe. , such as 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, There are also are four measurement scales for different types of data with each building on the ones below it. They are: Measurement Scales: Nominal — data is just a name or category. There is no order to any data and since there are no numbers, you cannot do any arithmetic on this level of data. Examples of this are gender, car name, ethnicity, and race. Ordinal — data that is nominal, but you can now put the data in order, since one value is more or less than another value. You cannot do arithmetic on this data, but you can now put data values in order. Examples of this are grades (A, B, C, D, F), place value in a race (Ist, 2nd, 3rd), and size of a drink (small, medium, large) Interval — data that is ordinal, but you can now subtract one value from another and that subtraction makes sense, You can do arithmetic on this data, but only addition and subtraction. Examples of this are temperature and time on a clock, Ratio — data that is interval, but you can now divide one value by another and that ratio makes sense. You can now do all arithmetic on this data. Examples of this are height, weight, distance, and time. Nominal and ordinal data come from qualitative variables. Interval and ratio data come from quantitative variables. Most people have a hard time deciding if the data are nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. First, if the variable is qualitative (words instead of numbers) then it is either nominal or ordinal. Now ask yourself if you can put the data in a particular order. If you can it is ordinal. Otherwise, it is nominal. If the variable is quantitative (numbers), then it is either interval or ratio, For ratio data, a value of 0 means there is no measurement, This is known as the absolute zero. If there is an absolute zero in the data, then it means it is ratio. If there is no absolute zero, then the data are interval. An example of an absolute zer0 is if you have $0 in your bank account, then you are without money. ‘The amount ofChapter 1: Statistical Basies money in your bank account is ratio data, Word of caution, sometimes ordinal data is displayed using numbers, such as 5 being strongly agree, and 1 being strongly disagree. These numbers are not really numbers. Instead they are used to assign numerical values to ordinal data. In reality you should not perform any computations on this data, though many people do. If there are numbers, make sure the numbers are inherent numbers, and not numbers that were assigned. Example #1.1.6: Measurement Scale State which measurement scale each is. a.) Time of first class Solution: This is interval since it is a number, but 0 o’clock means midnight and not the absence of time. b.) Hair color Solutio This is nominal since it is not a number, and there is no specific order for hair color. c) Length of time to take a test Solution: This is ratio since it is a number, and if you take 0 minutes to take a test, it ‘means you didn’t take any time to complete it. 4.) Age groupings (baby, toddler, adolescent, teenager, adult, elderly) Solution: This is ordinal since it is not a number, but you could put the data in order from youngest to oldest or the other way around. Section 1.1: Homework 1) 2) Suppose you want to know how Arizona workers age 16 or older travel to work. To estimate the percentage of people who use the different modes of travel, you take a sample containing 500 Arizona workers age 16 or older. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. You wish to estimate the mean cholesterol levels of patients two days after they had a heart attack. To estimate the mean you collect data from 28 heart patients. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic.Chapter 1: Statistical Basies 4) 5) 6) 1 &) 9) 10.) Print-O-Matic would like to estimate their mean salary of all employees. To accomplish this they collect the salary of 19 employees. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. To estimate the percentage of households in Connecticut which use fuel oil as a heating source, a researcher collects information from 1000 Connecticut households about what fuel is their heating source. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. The U.S. Census Bureau needs to estimate the median income of males in the USS., they collect incomes from 2500 males. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. The U.S. Census Bureau needs to estimate the median income of females in the US., they collect incomes from 3500 females. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. Eyeglassmatic manufactures eyeglasses and they would like to know the percentage of each defect type made, They review 25,891 defects and classify each defect that is made. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic. ‘The World Health Organization wishes to estimate the mean density of people per square kilometer, they collect data on 56 countries. State the individual, variable, population, sample, parameter, and statistic State the measurement scale for each. a.) Cholesterol level b.) Defect type ©.) Time of first class 4.) Opinion on a 5 point scale, with 5 being strongly agree and 1 being strongly disagree State the measurement scale for each. a.) Temperature in degrees Celsius b.) Ice cream flavors available ©.) Pain levels on a scale from 1 to 10, 10 being the worst pain ever 4.) Salary of employeesChapter 1: Statistical Basies Section 1.2: Sampling Methods As stated before, if you want to know something about a population, itis often impossible or impractical to examine the whole population. It might be too expensive in terms of time or money. It might be impractical - you can’t test all batteries for their length of lifetime because there wouldn't be any batteries left o sell. You need to look at a sample, Hopefully the sample behaves the same as the population. When you choose a sample you want it to be as similar to the population as possible. If you want to test a new painkiller for adults you would want the sample to include people Who are fat, skinny, old, young, healthy, not healthy, male, female, etc. There are many ways to collect a sample. None are perfect, and you are not guaranteed to collect a representative sample, ‘That is unfortunately the limitations of sampling, However, there are several techniques that can result in samples that give you a se accurate picture of the population. Just remember to be aware that the sample may not be representative. As an example, you can take a random sample of a group of people that are equally males and females, yet by chance everyone you choose is female. If this happens, it may be a good idea to collect a new sample if you have the time and money. There are many sampling techniques, though only four will be presented here. ‘The simplest, and the type that is strived for is a simple random sample. This is where you pick the sample such that every sample has the same chance of being chosen. This type of sample is actually hard to collect, since it is sometimes difficult to obtain a complete list of all individuals. There are many cases where you cannot conduct a truly random sample. However, you can get as close as you can. Now suppose you are interested in what type of music people like. It might not make sense to try to find an answer for everyone in the U.S. You probably don’t like the same music as your parents. The answers vary so much you probably couldn’t find an answer for everyone all at once. It might make sense to look at people in different age groups, or people of different ethnicities. This is called a stratified sample. The issue with this sample type is that sometimes people subdivide the population too much. It is best to just have one stratification. Also, a stratified sample has similar problems that a simple random sample has. If your population has some order in it, then you could do a systematic sample. This is popular in manufacturing. The problem is that it is possible to miss a ‘manufacturing mistake because of how this sample is taken. If you are collecting polling data based on location, then a cluster sample that divides the population based on geographical means would be the easiest sample to conduct, The problem is that if you are looking for opinions of people, and people who live in the same region may have similar opinions. As you can see each of the sampling techniques have pluses and minuses. Include convenience ‘A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is a sample that is selected from a population in a way that ensures that every different possible sample of size 7 has the same chance of being selected. Also, every individual associated with the population has the same chance of being selected.Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Ways to select a simple random sample: Put all names in a hat and draw a certain number of names out. Assign each individual a number and use a random number table or a calculator or computer to randomly select the individuals that will be measured. Example #1.2.1: Choosing a Simple Random Sample Describe how to take a simple random sample from a classroom. Solution: Give each student in the class a number. Using a random number generator you could then pick the number of students you want to pick Example #1.2.2: How Not to Choose a Simple Random Sample ‘You want to choose $ students out of a class of 20. Give some examples of, samples that ate not simple random samples: Solution: Choose 5 students from the front row. The people in the last row have no chance of being selected. Choose the 5 shortest students. The tallest students have no chance of being selected. Stratified sampling is where you break the population into groups called strata, then take a simple random sample from each strata, For example: If you want to look at musical preference, you could divide the individuals into age groups and then conduct simple random samples inside each group. If you want to calculate the average price of textbooks, you could divide the individuals into groups by major and then conduct simple random samples inside each group. Systematic sampling is where you randomly choose a starting place then select every Ath individual to measure For example: You select every 5 item on an assembly line You select every 10" name on the list You select every 3 customer that comes into the store. Cluster sampling is where you break the population into groups called clusters. Randomly pick some clusters then poll all individuals in those clusters. For example: A large city wants to poll all businesses in the city. They divide the city into sections (clusters), maybe a square block for each section, and use a randomChapter 1: Statistical Basies number generator to pick some of the clusters. ‘Then they poll all businesses in each chosen cluster You want to measure whether a tree in the forest is infected with bark beetles. Instead of having to walk all over the forest, you divide the forest up into sectors, and then randomily pick the sectors that you will travel to. Then record whether a tree is infected or not for every tree in that sector. Many people confuse stratified sampling and cluster sampling. In stratified sampling you use all the groups and some of the members in each group. Cluster sampling is the other way around. It uses some of the groups and all the members in each group. The four sampling techniques that were presented all have advantages and disadvantages. There is another sampling technique that is sometimes utilized because either the researcher doesn’t know better, or it is easier to do. This sampling technique is known as. a convenience sample. This sample will not result in a representative sample, and should be avoided. ‘Convenience sample is one where the researcher picks individuals to be included that are easy for the researcher to collect. ‘An example of a convenience sample is if you want to know the opinion of people about the criminal justice system, and you stand on a street corner near the county court house, and questioning the first 10 people who walk by. The people who walk by the county court house are most likely involved in some fashion with the criminal justice system, and their opinion would not represent the opinions of all individuals. On a rare occasion, you do want to collect the entire population, In which ease you conduct a census. ‘A census is when every individual of interest is measured, Example #1.2.3: Sampling type Banner Health is a several state nonprofit chain of hospitals. Management wants to assess the incident of complications after surgery. They wish to use a sample of surgery patients, Several sampling techniques are described below. Categorize each technique as simple random sample, stratified sample, systematic sample, cluster sample, or convenience sampling a.) Obtain a list of patients who had surgery at all Banner Health facilities. Divide the patients according to type of surgery. Draw simple random samples from each group. Solution This is a stratified sample since the patients where separated into different stratum and then random samples were taken from each strata. The problem with this is 10Chapter 1: Statistical Basies that some types of surgeries may have more chances for complications than others. Of course, the stratified sample would show you this. b,) Obtain a list of patients who had surgery at all Banner Health facilities. Number these patients, and then use a random number table to obtain the sample. Solution This is a random sample since each patient has the same chance of being chosen. ‘The problem with this one is that it will take a while to collect the data, c.) Randomly select some Banner Health facilities from each of the seven states, and then include all the patients on the surgery lists of the states. Solution This is a cluster sample since all patients are questioned in each of the selected hospitals. The problem with this is that you could have by chance selected hospitals that have no complications. 4.) At the beginning of the year, instruct each Banner Health facility to record any complications from every 100" surgery. Solution This is a systematic sample since they selected every 100 surgery. The problem with this is that if every 90 surgery has complications, you wouldn’t see this come up in the data, €.) Instruct each Banner Health facilities to record any complications from 20 surgeries this week and send in the results. Solution This is a convenience sample since they left it up to the facility how to do it. The problem with convenience samples is that the person collecting the data will probably collect data from surgeries that had no complications. irChapter 1: Statistical Basies Section 1.2: Homework 1) 2) 4) 5) Researchers want to collect cholesterol levels of U.S. patients who had a heart attack two days prior. The following are different sampling techniques that the researcher could use. Classify each as simple random sample, stratified sample, systematic sample, cluster sample, or convenience sample. a.) The researchers randomly select 5 hospitals in the U.S. then measure the cholesterol levels of all the heart attack patients in each of those hospitals. b.) The researchers list all of the heart attack patients and measure the cholesterol level of every 25" person on the list ¢.) The researchers go to one hospital on a given day and measure the cholesterol level of the heart attack patients at that time. 4) The researchers list all of the heart attack patients. ‘They then measure the cholesterol levels of randomly selected patients. €.) The researchers divide the heart attack patients based on race, and then measure the cholesterol levels of randomly selected patients in each race grouping. The quality control officer at a manufacturing plant needs to determine what percentage of items in a batch are defective, The following are different sampling techniques that could be used by the officer. Classify each as simple random sample, stratified sample, systematic sample, cluster sample, or convenience sample, a.) The officer lists all of the batches in a given month, The number of defective items is counted in randomly selected batches. b.) The officer takes the first 10 batches and counts the number of defective items. ¢.) The officer groups the batches made in a month into which shift they are made. The number of defective items is counted in randomly selected batches in each shift. 4.) The officer chooses every 15 batch off the line and counts the number of defective items in each chosen batch. e.) The officer divides the batches made in a month into which day they were made. Then certain days are picked and every batch made that day is counted to determine the number of defective items, ‘You wish to determine the GPA of students at your school. Describe what process you would go through to collect a sample if you use a simple random sample, You wish to determine the GPA of students at your school. Describe what process you would go through to collect a sample if you use a stratified sample. ‘You wish to determine the GPA of students at your school. Describe what process you would go through to collect a sample if you use a systematic sample. 126) 7) Chapter 1: Statistical Basies You wish to determine the GPA of students at your school. Deseribe what process you would go through to collect a sample if you use a cluster sample. ‘You wish to determine the GPA of students at your school. Deseribe what process you would go through to collect a sample if you use a convenience sample.Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Section 1.3: Experimental Design The section is an introduction to experimental design. This is how to actually design an experiment or a survey so that they are statistical sound. Experimental design is a very involved process, so this is just a small introduction. Guidelines for planning a statistical study 1 Identify the individuals that you are interested in. Realize that you can only make conclusions for these individuals. As an example, if you use a fertilizer on a certain genus of plant, you can’t say how the fertilizer will work on any other types of plants. However, if you diversify too much, then you may not be able to tell if there really is an improvement since you have too many factors to consider Specify the variable, You want to make sure this is something that you can measure, and make sure that you control for all other factors too. As an example, if you are trying to determine if a fertilizer works by measuring the height of the plants on a particular day, you need to make sure you can control how much fertilizer you put on the plants (which would be your treatment), and make sure that all the plants receive the same amount of sunlight, water, and temperature. Specify the population. This is important in order for you know what conclusions you can make and what individuals you are making the conclusions about. Specify the method for taking measurements or making observations. Determine if you are taking a census or sample. If taking a sample, decide on the sampling method. Collect the data, Use appropriate descriptive statistics methods and make decisions using appropriate inferential statistics methods. Note any concerns you might have about your data collection methods and list any recommendations for future There are two types of studies: ‘An observational study is when the investigator collects data merely by watching or asking questions. He doesn’t change anything, An experiment is when the investigator changes a variable or imposes a treatment to determine its effect, Example #1.3.1: Observational Study or Experiment State if the following is an observational study or an experiment. a.) Poll students to see if they favor increasing tuition. Solution: This is an observational study. You are only asking a question, 14Chapter 1: Statistical Basies ».) Give some students a tutor to see if grades improve. Soluti This is an experiment, The tutor is the treatment, Many observational studies involve surveys. A survey uses questions to collect the data and needs to be written so that there is no bias. Inan experiment, there are different options. Randomized two-treatment experiment: in this experiment, there are two treatments, and individuals are randomly placed into the two groups. Either both groups get a treatment, or one group gets a treatment and the other gets either nothing or a placebo. The group getting either no treatment or the placebo is called the control group. The group getting the treatment is called the treatment group. The idea of the placebo is that a person thinks they are receiving a treatment, but in reality they are receiving a sugar pill or fake treatment. Doing this helps to account for the placebo effect, which is where a person’s mind makes their body respond to a treatment because they think they are taking the treatment when they are not really taking the treatment. Note, not every experiment needs a placebo, such when using animals or plants. Also, you can’t always use a placebo or no treatment. As an example, if you are testing a new blood pressure medication you can’t give a person with high blood pressure a placebo or no treatment because of moral reasons. Randomized Block Design: a block is a group of subjects that are similar, but the blocks differ from each other. Then randomly assign treatments to subjects inside each block. An example would be separating students into full-time versus part-time, and then randomly picking a certain number fulltime students to get the treatment and a certain number part-time students to get the treatment, This way some of each type of student gets the treatment and some do not. Rigorously Controlled Design: carefully assign subjects to different treatment groups, so that those given each treatment are similar in ways that are important to the experiment. An example would be if you want to have a full-time student who is male, takes only night classes, has a full-time job, and has children in one treatment group, then you need to have the same type of student getting the other treatment. This type of design is hard to implement since you don’t know how many differentiations you would use, and should be avoided. Matched Pairs Design: the treatments are given to two groups that can be matched up with each other in some ways. One example would be to measure the effectiveness of a muscle relaxer cream on the right arm and the left arm of individuals, and then for each individual you can match up their right arm measurement with their left arm. Another example of this would be before and after experiments, such as weight before and weight after a diet No matter which experiment type you conduct, you should also consider the following: Replication: repetition of an experiment on more than one subject so you can make sure that the sample is large enough to distinguish true effects from random effects. It is also the ability for someone else to duplicate the results of the experiment. 15Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Blind study is where the individual does not know which treatment they are getting or if they are getting the treatment or a placebo. Double-blind study is where neither the individual nor the researcher knows who is. getting which treatment or who is getting the treatment and who is getting the placebo. This is important so that there can be no bias created by either the individual or the researcher. One last consideration is the time period that you are collecting the data over. ‘There are three types of time periods that you can consider. Cross-sectional study: data observed, measured, or collected at one point in time. Retrospective (or case-control) study: data collected from the past using records, interviews, and other similar artifacts. Prospective (or longitudinal or cohort) study: data collected in the future from groups sharing common factors. Section 1.3: Homework 1.) You want to determine if cinnamon reduces a person’s insulin sensitivity. You give patients who are insulin sensitive a certain amount of cinnamon and then measure their glucose levels. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why? 2.) You want to determine if eating more fruits reduces a person’s chance of developing cancer. You watch people over the years and ask them to tell you how ‘many servings of fruit they eat cach day. You then record who develops cane: Is this an observation or an experiment? Why? 3.) A researcher wants to evaluate whether countries with lower fertility rates have a higher life expectancy. ‘They collect the fertility rates and the life expectancies of countries around the world. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why? 4.) To evaluate whether a new fertilizer improves plant growth more than the old fertilizer, the fertilizer developer gives some plants the new fertilizer and other the old fertilizer. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why? 5.) Arresearcher designs an experiment to determine if a new drug lowers the blood pressure of patients with high blood pressure. The patients are randomly selected to be in the study and they randomly pick which group to be in. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not? 6.) Doctors trying to see iffa new stint works longer for kidney patients, asks patients if they are willing to have one of two different stints put in. During the procedure the doctor decides which stent to put in based on which one is on hand at the time. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not? 7.) A researcher wants to determine if diet and exercise together helps people lose ‘weight over just exercising. The researcher solicits volunteers to be part of the study, randomly picks which volunteers are in the study, and then lets each 16Chapter 1: Statistical Basies 8) 9) 10.) 1) 12.) 13.) 14) 15.) 16.) 17) volunteer decide if they want to be in the diet and exercise group or the exercise only group. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not? To determine if lack of exercise reduces flexibility in the knee joint, physical therapists ask for volunteers to join their trials. They then randomly select the volunteers to be in the group that exercises and to be in the group that doesn’t exercise. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not? You collect the weights of tagged fish in a tank, You then put an extra protein fish food in water for the fish and then measure their weight a month later. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not? A mathematics instructor wants to see if'a computer homework system improves the scores of the students in the class. The instructor teaches two different sections of the same course. One section utilizes the computer homework system and the other section completes homework with paper and pencil. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why ot why not? A business manager wants to see if'a new procedure improves the proce: for a task. The manager measures the processing time of the employe trains the employees using the new procedure. Then each employee performs the task again and the processing time is measured again. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not? The prices of generic items are compared to the prices of the equivalent named brand items. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not? A doctor gives some of the patients a new drug for treating acne and the rest of the patients receive the old drug. Neither the patient nor the doctor knows who is getting which drug. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why? One group is told to exercise and one group is told to not exercise. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why? The researchers at a hospital want to see if a new surgery procedure has a better recovery time than the old procedure. The patients are not told which procedure that was used on them, but the surgeons obviously did know. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why? To determine if a new medication reduces headache pain, some patients are given the new medication and others are given a placebo. Neither the researchers nor the patients know who is taking the real medication and who is taking the placebo. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why? A new study is underway to track the eating and exercise patterns of people at different time periods in the future, and see who is afflicted with cancer later in 7Chapter 1: Statistical Basies 18) 19.) 20.) 21) life, Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prosp. Why? To determine if a new medication reduces headache pain, some patients are given the new medication and others are given a placebo. The pain levels of a patient, are then recorded. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why? ve study? To see if there is a link between smoking and bladder cancer, patients with bladder cancer are asked if they currently smoke or if they smoked in the past. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why? ‘The Nurses Health Survey was a survey where nurses were asked to record their cating habits over a period of time, and their general health was recorded. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why? Consider a question that you would like to answer. Deseribe how you would design your own experiment. Make sure you state the question you would like to answer, then determine if an experiment or an observation is to be done, decide if the question needs one or two samples, if two samples are the samples matched, if this is a randomized experiment, if there is any blinding, and if this is a cross- sectional, retrospective, or prospective study. 1BChapter 1: Statistical Basies Section 1.4: How Not to Do Statistics Many studies are conducted and conclusions are made. However, there are occasions where the study is not conducted in the correct manner or the conclusion is not correctly made based on the data. There are many things that you should question when you read a study. There are many reasons for the study to have bias in it, Bias is where a study may have a certain slant or preference for a certain result. The following are a list of some of the questions or issues you should consider to help decide if there is bias in a study. One of the first issues you should ask is who funded the study. If the entity that sponsored the study stands to gain either profits or notoriety from the results, then you should question the results. It doesn’t mean that the results are wrong, but you should serutinize them on your own to make sure they are sound. As an example if'a study says that genetically modified foods are safe, and the study was funded by a company that sells genetically modified food, then one may question the validity of the study. Since the company funds the study and their profits rely on people buying their food, there may be bias. An experiment could have lurking or confounding variables when you cannot rule out the possibility that the observed effect is due to some other variable rather than the factor being studied. An example of this is when you give fertilizer to some plants and no fertilizer to others, but the no fertilizer plants also are placed in a location that doesn’t receive direct sunlight. You won't know if the plants that received the fertilizer grew taller because of the fertilizer or the sunlight. Make sure you design experiments to climinate the effects of confounding variables by controlling all the factors that you can, Overgeneralization is where you do a study on one group and then try to say that it will happen on all groups. An example is doing cancer treatments on rats. Just because the treatment works on rats does not mean it will work on humans, Another example is that until recently most FDA medication testing had been done on white males of a particular age. There is no way to know how the medication affects other genders, ethnic groups, age groups, and races. The new FDA guidelines stresses using individuals from different, groups. Cause and effect is where people decide that one variable causes the other just because the variables are related or correlated. Unless the study was done as an experiment where a variable was controlled, you cannot say that one variable caused the other. Most likely there is another variable that caused both. As an example, there is a relationship between number of drownings at the beach and ice cream sales. This does not mean that ice cream sales increasing causes people to drown. Most likely the cause for both increasing is the heat. Sampling error: This is the difference between the sample results and the true population results. This is unavoidable, and results in the fact that samples are different from each other. As an example, if you take a sample of 5 people’s height in your class, you will get S numbers. If you take another sample of 5 people’s heights in your class, you will likely get 5 different numbers 19Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Nonsampling error: This is where the sample is collected poorly either through a biased sample or through error in measurements. Care should be taken to avoid this error. Lastly, there should be care taken in considering the difference between statistical significance versus practical significance. This is a major issue in statistics Something could be statistically significance, which means that a statistical test shows there is evidence to show what you are trying to prove. However, in practice it doesn’t ‘mean much or there are other issues to consider. As an example, suppose you find that a new drug for high blood pressure does reduce the blood pressure of patients. When you ook at the improvement it actually doesn’t amount to a large difference. Even though statistically there is a change, it may not be worth marketing the product because it really isn’t that big of a change. Another consideration is that you find the blood pressure medication does improve a person’s blood pressure, but it has serious side effects or it costs a great deal for a prescription. In this case, it wouldn't be practical to use it. In both cases, the study is shown to be statistically significant, but practically you don’t want to use the medication. The main thing to remember in a statistical study is that the statistics is only part of the process. You also want to make sure that there is practical significance too. Surveys have their own areas of bias that can occur. A few of the issues with surveys are in the wording of the questions, the ordering of the questions, the manner the survey is conducted, and the response rate of the survey The wording of the questions can cause hidden bias, which is where the questions are asked in a way that makes a person respond a certain way. An example is that a poll was done where people were asked if they believe that there should be an amendment to the constitution protecting a woman's right to choose, About 60% of all people questioned said yes. Another poll was done where people were asked if they believe that there should be an amendment to the constitution protecting the life of an unborn child. About 60% of all people questioned said yes. ‘These two questions deal with the same issue, though giving opposite results, but how the question was asked affected the outcome. The ordering of the question can also cause hidden bias. An example of this is if you were asked if there should be a fine for texting while driving, but proceeding that question is the question asking if you text while drive. By asking a person if they actually partake in the activity, that person now personalizes the question and that might affect how they answer the next question of creating the fine Non-response is where you send out a survey but not everyone retums the survey. You can calculate the response rate by dividing the number of returns by the number of surveys sent. Most response rates are around 30-50%. A response rate less than 30% is very poor and the results of the survey are not valid. To reduce non-response, it is better to conduct the surveys in person, though these are very expensive. Phones are the next best way to conduct surveys, emails can be effective, and physical mailings are the least desirable way to conduct surveys. 20Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Voluntary response is where people are asked to respond via phone, email or online. The problem with these is that only people who really care about the topic are likely to call or email, These surveys are not scientific and the results from these surveys are not valid. Note: all studies involve volunteers. The difference between a voluntary response survey and a scientific study is that in a scientific study the researchers ask the individuals to be involved, while in a voluntary response survey the individuals become involved on their own choosing. Example #1.4.1: Bias ina Study Suppose a mathematics department at a community college would like to assess whether computer-based homework improves students’ test scores. They use computer-based homework in one classtoom with one teacher and use traditional paper and pencil homework in a different classroom with a different teacher. The students using the computer-based homework had higher test scores. What is wrong with this experiment? Solution Since there were different teachers, you do not know if the better test scores are because of the teacher or the computer-based homework. A better design would be have the same teacher teach both classes. The control group would utilize traditional paper and pencil homework and the treatment group would utilize the computer-based homework. Both classes would have the same teacher, and the students would be split between the two classes randomly. The only difference between the two groups should be the homework method. Of course, there is still variability between the students, but utilizing the same teacher will reduce any other confounding variables. Example #1.4.2: Cause and Effect Determine if the one variable did cause the change in the other variable. a.) Cinnamon was giving to a group of people who have diabetes, and then their blood glucose levels were measured a time period later. All other factors for each person were kept the same. Their glucose levels went down. Did the cinnamon cause the reduction? Solution: Since this was a study where the use of cinnamon was controlled, and all other factors were kept constant from person to person, then any changes in glucose levels can be attributed to the use of cinnamon. b.) There is a link between spray on tanning products and lung cancer. Does that mean that spray on tanning products cause lung cancer? Solution: Since there is only a link, and not a study controlling the use of the tanning spray, then you cannot say that increased use causes lung cancer. You can say that there is a link, and that there could be a cause, but you cannot say for sure that the spray causes the cancer. 2Chapter 1: Statistical Basies Example #1. Generalizations a.) A researcher conducts a study on the use of ibuprofen on humans and finds that it is safe. Does that mean that all species can use ibuprofen? Solution: No. Just because a drug is safe to use on one species doesn’t mean it is safe to use for all species. In fact, ibuprofen is toxie to cats. bb.) Aspirin has been used for years to bring down fevers in humans. Originally it ‘was tested on white males between the ages of 25 and 40 and found to be safe. Is it safe to give to everyone? Solution: No. Just because one age group can use it doesn’t mean it is safe to use for all age groups. In fact, there has been a link between giving a child under the age of 19 aspirin when they have a fever and Reye’s syndrome, Section 1.4: Homework i) 2) 4) 5) Suppose there is a study where a researcher conducts an experiment to show that deep breathing exercises helps to lower blood pressure. The researcher takes two groups of people and has one group to perform deep breathing exercises and a series of aerobic exercises every day and the other group was asked to refrain from any exercises. The researcher found that the group performing the deep breathing exercises and the acrobic exercises had lower blood pressure. Discuss any issue with this study. Suppose a car dealership offers a low interest rate and a longer payoff period to customers or a high interest rate and a shorter payoff period to customers, and most customers choose the low interest rate and longer payoff period, does that ‘mean that most customers want a lower interest rate? Explain. Over the years it has been said that coffee is bad for you. When looking at the studies that have shown that coffee is linked to poor health, you will see that people who tend to drink coffee don’t sleep much, tend to smoke, don’t eat healthy, and tend to not exercise. Can you say that the cofiee is the reason for the poor health or is there a lurking variable that is the actual cause? Explain. When researchers were trying to figure out what caused polio, they saw a connection between ice cream sales and polio. As ice cream sales increased so did the incident of polio. Does that mean that eating ice cream causes polio? Explain your answer. There is a positive correlation between having a discussion of gun control, which usually occur after a mass shooting, and the sale of guns. Does that mean that the discussion of gun control increases the likelihood that people will buy more guns? Explain, 22Chapter 1: Statistical Basies 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 1) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16.) ‘There is a study that shows that people who are obese have a vitamin D deficiency. Does that mean that obesity causes a deficiency in vitamin D? Explain. A study was conducted that shows that polytetrafluoroethylene (PFOA) (Teflon is made from this chemical) has an increase risk of tumors in lab mice. Does that mean that PFOA’s have an increased risk of tumors in humans? Explain. Suppose a telephone poll is conducted by contacting U.S. citizens via landlines about their view of gay marriage. Suppose over 50% of those called do not support gay marriage. Does that mean that you can say over 50% of all people in the U.S. do not support gay marriage? Expiain. Suppose that it can be shown to be statistically significant that a smaller percentage of the people are satisfied with your business. ‘The percentage before was 87% and is now 85%. Do you change how you conduct business? Explain? You are testing a new drug for weight loss. You find that the drug does in fact statistically show a weight loss. Do you market the new drug? Why or why not? There was an online poll conducted about whether the mayor of Auckland, New Zealand, should resign due to an affair. The majority of people participating said he should. Should the mayor resign due to the results of this poll? Explain. An online poll showed that the majority of Americans believe that the government covered up events of 9/11. Does that really mean that most Americans believe this? Explain. A survey was conducted at a college asking all employees if they were satisfied with the level of security provided by the security department. Discuss how the results of this question could be biased. An employee survey says, “Employees at this institution are very satisfied with working here. Please rate your satisfaction with the institution.” Discuss how this question could create bias. A survey has a question that says, “Most people are afraid that they will lose their house due to economic collapse. Choose what you think is the biggest issue facing the nation today. a) Economic collapse, b) Foreign policy issues, c) Environmental concerns.” Discuss how this question could create bias. A survey says, “Please rate the career of Roberto Clemente, one of the best right field baseball players in the world.” Discuss how this question could create bias.Chapter 1: Statistical Basics 24Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data In chapter 1, you were introduced to the concepts of population, which again is a collection of all the measurements from the individuals of interest. Remember, in most cases you can’t collect the entire population, so you have to take a sample. Thus, you collect data either through a sample or a census. Now you have a large number of data values. What can you do with them? No one likes to look at just a set of numbers. One thing is to organize the data into a table or graph. Ultimately though, you want to be able to use that graph to interpret the data, to describe the distribution of the data set, and to explore different characteristics of the data. The characteristics that will be discussed in this chapter and the next chapter are: Center: middle of the data set, also known as the average. Variation: how much the data varies. Distribution: shape of the data (symmetric, uniform, or skewed). Qualitative data: analysis of the data Outliers: data values that are far from the majority of the data. ‘Time: changing characteristics of the data over time. AuawNe This chapter will focus mostly on using the graphs to understand aspects of the data, and. not as much on how to create the graphs. There is technology that will create most of the graphs, though it is important for you to understand the basics of how to create them. Section 2.1: Qualitative Data Remember, qualitative data are words describing a characteristic of the individual. There are several different graphs that are used for qualitative data, ‘These graphs include bar graphs, Pareto charts, and pie charts. Pie charts and bar graphs are the most common ways of displaying qualitative data, A. spreadsheet program like Excel can make both of them. The first step for either graph is to make a frequency or relative frequency table. A frequency table is a summary of the data with counts of how often a data value (or category) occurs. Example #2.1.1: Creating a Frequency Table Suppose you have the following data for which type of car students at a college drive? Ford, Chevy, Honda, Toyota, Toyota, Nissan, Kia, Nissan, Chevy, Toyota, Honda, Chevy, Toyota, Nissan, Ford, Toyota, Nissan, Mercedes, Chevy, Ford, Nissan, Toyota, Nissan, Ford, Chevy, Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Porsche, Hyundai, Chevy, Chevy, Honda, Toyota, Chevy, Ford, Nissan, Toyota, Chevy, Honda, Chevy, Saturn, Toyota, Chevy, Chevy, Nissan, Honda, Toyota, Toyota, NissanChapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data A listing of data is too hard to look at and analyze, so you need to summarize it First you need to decide the categories. In this case it is relatively easy; just use the car type. However, there are several cars that only have one car in the list. In that case itis easier to make a category called other for the ones with low values. Now just count how many of each type of cars there are. For example, there are 5 Fords, 12 Chevys, and 6 Hondas. This can be put in a frequency distribution: ‘Table #2.1.1: Frequency Table for Type of Car Data (Category _| Frequency [Ford 5 (Chevy 12 [Honda 6 [Toyota 12 issan 10 [Other 5 [Total 30 ‘The total of the frequency column should be the number of observations in the data, Since raw numbers are not as useful to tell other people it is better to create a third column that gives the relative frequency of each category. This is just the frequency divided by the total. As an example for Ford category: relative frequency = 2 =0.10 This can be written as a d frequency distribution: mal, fraction, or percent, You now have a relative ‘Table #2.1.2: Relative Frequency Table for Type of Car Data Relative Category | Frequene Frequency [Ford 5 0.10 (Chevy 12 0.24 iHonda 6 0.12 [Toyota 12 0.24 INissan 10 0.20 (Other 5 0.10 [Total 30 1.00 The relative frequency column should add up to 1,00, It might be off a little due to rounding errors. 26Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Now that you have the frequency and relative frequency table, it would be good to display this data using a graph. There are several different types of graphs that can be used: bar chart, pie chart, and Pareto charts. Bar graphs or charts consist of the frequencies on one axis and the categories on the other axis. Then you draw rectangles for cach category with a height (if frequency is on the vertical axis) or length (if frequency is on the horizontal axis) that is equal to the frequency. All of the rectangles should be the same width, and there should be equally width gaps between each bar. Example #2.1.2: Drawing a Bar Graph Draw a bar graph of the data in example #2.1.1. ‘Table #2.1.2: Frequency Table for Type of Car Data Relative Category |_Frequene Frequency [Ford 3 0.10 (Chevy 12 0.24 [Honda 6 0.12 [Toyota 12 0.24 INissan 10 0.20 (Other 5 0.10 [Total 30 1.00 Put the frequency on the vertical axis and the category on the horizontal axis. ‘Then just draw a box above each category whose height is the frequency. Al graphs are drawn using R. The command in R to create a bar graph is: variable<-c(type in percentages or frequencies for each class with commas in between values) barplot(variablenames.arg=c("type in name of 1“ category”, "type in name of 2 category",...,"type in name of last category"), ylim=c(0,number over max), xlab="type in label for x-axis", ylab="type in label for y-axis" ylim=e(0,number above maximum y value), main"type in title", col="type in a color”) — creates a bar graph of the data in a color if you want. For this example the command would be: car<-c(5, 12, 6, 12, 10, 5) barplot(car, names.arg-c("Ford”, "Chevy", "Honda", "Toyota", "Nissan", "Other", xlab="Type of Car", ylab="Frequency", ylim=c(0,12), main="Type of Car Driven by College Students”, col="blue") 27Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.1.1: Bar Graph for Type of Car Data ‘Type of Car Driven by College Students Fort chew Toyta Honda Notice from the graph, you can see that Toyota and Chevy are the more popular car, with Nissan not far behind. Ford seems to be the type of car that you can tell was the least liked, though the cars in the other category would be liked less than a Ford. Frequency ‘ 6 es 9 «2 2 Nissan Other Typeotcar Some key features of a bar graph: Equal spacing on each axis. Bars are the same width. ‘There should be labels on each axis and a title for the graph, There should be a scaling on the frequency axis and the categories should be listed on the category axis. ‘The bars don’t touch, You can also draw a bar graph using relative frequency on the vertical axis. This is useful when you want to compare two samples with different sample sizes. The relative frequency graph and the frequency graph should look the same, except for the scaling on the frequency axis. Using R, the command would be: car<-c(0.1, 0.24, 0.12, 0.24, 0.2, 0.1) 28Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data barplot(car, names.arg-c("Ford”, "Chevy", "Honda", "Toyota", "Nissan", "Other"), xlab="Type of Car", ylab="Relative Frequency", main="Type of Car Driven by College Students", col="blue", ylim=c(0,.25)) Graph #2.1.2: Relative Frequency Bar Graph for Type of Car Data ‘Type of Car Driven by College Students . | | 2 ord chewy Handa Toyota Nissan Ofer Type of Car Another type of graph for qualitative data is a pie chart. A pie chart is where you have a circle and you divide pieces of the circle into pie shapes that are proportional to the size of the relative frequency. There are 360 degrees in a full circle. Relative frequency is just the percentage as a decimal. All you have to do to find the angle by multiplying the relative frequency by 360 degrees. Remember that 180 degrees is half circle and 90 degrees is a quarter of a circle. Example #2.1.3: Drawing a Pie Chart Draw a pie chart of the data in example #2.1.1. First you need the relative frequencies. 29Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data ‘Table #2.1.2: Frequency Table for Type of Car Data ‘Table #2.1.3: Pie Chart Angles for Type of Car Data Relative (Category _| Frequency | Frequency Ford 3 0.10 Chevy 2 0.24 Honda 6 0.12 Toyota 12 0.24 Nissan 10 0.20 (Other 5 0.10 frotal 50 1.00 Then you multiply each relative frequency by 360° to obtain the angle measure for each category. ‘Angle (in Relative degrees Category | Frequency ©) Ford 0.10 36.0 ‘Chev 0.24 86.4 Honda 0.12 43.2 Toyota 0.24 86.4 Nissan 0.20 72.0 ‘Other 0.10 36.0 Total 1.00 360.0 Now draw the pie chart using a compass, protractor, and straight edge. ‘Technology is preferred. If you use technology, there is no need for the relative frequencies or the angles. You can use R to graph the pie chart, In R, the commands would be: For thi pie(variable,labels=c("type in name of 1 category", "type in name of 2 category",...,"type in name of last category"),main="type in title”, col=rainbow(number of categories) — creates a pie chart with a title and rainbow of colors for each category example, the commands would be: car<-c(5, 12, 6, 12, 10, 5) pie(car, labels=c("Ford, 10%", "Chevy, 24%", "Honda, 12%", "Toyota, 24%", "Nissan, 20%", "Other, 10%"), main="Type of Car Driven by College Students", col=rainbow(6)) 30Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.1 : Pie Chart for Type of Car Data ‘Type of Car Driven by College Students Chevy, 24% Ford, 10% ‘Other, 10% As you can see from the graph, Toyota and Chevy are more popular, while the cars in the other category are liked the least. Of the cars that you can determine from the graph, Ford is liked less than the others. Pie charts are useful for comparing sizes of categories. Bar charts show similar information. It really doesn’t matter which one you use. It really is a personal preference and also what information you are trying to address. However, pie charts are best when you only have a few categories and the data can be expressed as a percentage. The data doesn’t have to be percentages to draw the pie chart, but if'a data value can fit into multiple categories, you cannot use a pie chart. As an example, if you asking people about what their favorite national park is, and you say to pick the top three choices, then the total number of answers can add up to more than 100% of the people involved. So you cannot use a pie chart to display the favorite national park. A third type of qualitative data graph is a Pareto chart, which is just a bar chart with the bars sorted with the highest frequencies on the left. Here is the Pareto chart for the data in Example #2.1.1.Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.1.4: Pareto Chart for Type of Car Data ‘Type of Gar Driven by College Students Chevy Toyota. Nissan Honda.= Ford. «(Other ‘Type of Car 12 10 Frequency 4 6 2 The advantage of Pareto charts is that you can visually see the more popular answer to the least popular. This is especially useful in business applications, where you want to know what services your customers like the most, what processes result in more injuries, which issues employees find more important, and other type of questions like these. There are many other types of graphs that can be used on qualitative data. There are spreadsheet software packages that will create most of them, and it is better to look at them to see what can be done. It depends on your data as to which may be useful. The next example illustrates one of these types known as a multiple bar graph Example #2.1.4: Multiple Bar Graph In the Wii Fit game, you can do four different types if exercises: yoga, strength, aerobic, and balance. The Wii system keeps track of how many minutes you spend on each of the exercises everyday. The following graph is the data for Dylan over one week time period. Discuss any indication you can infer from the graph. 32Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.1.5: Multiple Bar Chart for Wii Fit Data Wii Fit Credits so 4s Bs : 30 Eas = Yoga 72 strength Eas Fo = nerobic : Balance Solutio Ttappears that Dylan spends more time on balance exercises than on any other exercises on any given day. He seems to spend less time on strength exercises on a given day. There are several days when the amount of exercise in the different categories is almost equal. The usefulness of a multiple bar graph is the ability to compare several different categories over another variable, in example #2.1.4 the variable would be time. This allows a person to interpret the data with a little more ease. Section 2.1: Homework i) Eyeglassomatic manufactures eyeglasses for different retailers. The number of lenses for different activities is in table #2.1.4. Table #2.1.4: Data for Eyeglassomatic ‘Activity | Grind | Multicoat | Assemble | Make | Receive | Unknown frames _| finished Number [18872 [12105 | 4333 25880 [26991 | 1508 of lenses Grind means that they ground the lenses and put them in frames, multicoat means that they put tinting or seratch resistance coatings on lenses and then put them in frames, assemble means that they receive frames and lenses from other sources and put them together, make frames means that they make the frames and put lenses in from other sources, receive finished means that they received glasses from other source, and unknown means they do not know where the lenses came from. Make a bar chart and a pie chart of this data. State any findings you can see from the graphs.Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 2) 4) To analyze how Arizona workers ages 16 or older travel to work the percentage of workers using carpool, private vehicle (alone), and public transportation was collected. Create a bar chart and pie chart of the data in table #2.1.5. State any findings you can see from the graphs. ‘Table #2.1.5: Data of Travel Mode for Arizona Workers Transportation type Percentage ‘Carpool 11.6% Private Vehicle (Alone 75.8% Public Transportation 2.0% ‘Other 10.6% ‘The number of deaths in the US due to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning from generators from the years 1999 to 2011 are in table #2.1.6 (Hinatov, 2012). Create a bar chart and pie chart of this data. State any findings you see from the graphs. ‘Table #2.1.6: Data of Number of Deaths Due to CO Poisoning Region Number of deaths from CO while using a generator Urban Core 401 Sub-Urban 97 Large Rural 86 Small Rural/Isolated il In Connecticut households use gas, fuel oil, or electricity as a heating source. Table #2.1.7 shows the percentage of households that use one of these as their principle heating sources ("Electricity usage," 2013), ("Fuel oil usage," 2013), ("Gas usage," 2013). Create a bar chart and pie chart of this data. State any findings you see from the graphs. ‘Table #2.1.7: Data of Household Heating Sources Heating Source | Percentage Electricity 15.3% Fuel Oil 46.3% Gas 35.6% Other 2.8% 34Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 6) Eyeglassomatic manufactures eyeglasses for different retailers. They test to see how many defective lenses they made during the time period of January 1 to March 31, Table #2.1.8 gives the defect and the number of defects. Create a Pareto chart of the data and then describe what this tells you about what causes the most defects. ‘Table #2.1.8: Data of Defect Type Defect type s Scratch Right shaped — small Flaked Wrong axis ‘Chamfer wrong (Crazing, cracks ‘Wrong shape Wrong PD Spots and bubbles ‘Wrong height Right shape — big Lost in lab Spots/bubble — inten: People in Bangladesh were asked to state what type of birth control method they use. The percentages are given in table #2.1.9 ("Contraceptive use," 2013) c a Pareto chart of the data and then state any findings you ean from the ‘Table #2.1.9: Data of Birth Control Type Method Percentage (Condom 4.50%] Pint 28.50%| [Periodic Abstinence 4.90%) Injection 7.00%] [Female Sterilization 5.00%] up 0.90%] [Male Sterilization 0.70%] [Withdrawal 2.90%) (Other Modern Methods 0.70%) [Other Traditional Methods 0.60%]Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 7.) The percentages of people who use certain contraceptives in Central American countries are displayed in graph #2.1.6 ("Contraceptive use," 2013). State any findings you can from the graph. Graph #2. : Multiple Bar Chart for Contraceptive Types Contraceptive Types Used in Central American Countries 38.0% $$ = condom ‘Female Steriiztion ‘injection wo “hale Steriizabon other Modern Methods ‘Other Traditional Methods ce Periodic Abstinence =a withdrawal s00% i Belize Costa Rca El Sahador Guatemala Honduras. Nicaragua 0.00% Countries 36Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Section 2.2: Quantitative Data ‘The graph for quantitative data looks similar to a bar graph, except there are some major differences. First, in a bar graph the categories can be put in any order on the horizontal axis. There is no set order for these data values. You can’t say how the data is distributed based on the shape, since the shape can change just by putting the categories in different orders. With quantitative data, the data are in specific orders, since you are dealing with numbers. With quantitative data, you can talk about a distribution, since the shape only changes a litte bit depending on how many categories you set up. This is called a frequency distribution. This leads to the second difference from bar graphs. In a bar graph, the categories that you made in the frequency table were determined by you. In quantitative data, the categories are numerical categories, and the numbers are determined by how many categories (or what are called classes) you choose. If two people have the same number of categories, then they will have the same frequency distribution. Whereas in qualitative data, there can be many different categories depending on the point of view of the author. The third difference is that the categories touch with quantitative data, and there will be no gaps in the graph. The reason that bar graphs have gaps is to show that the categories do not continue on, like they do in quantitative data. Since the graph for quantitative data is different from qualitative data, itis given a new name. The name of the graph is a histogram. To create a histogram, you must first create the frequency distribution. The idea of a frequency distribution is to take the interval that the data spans and divide it up into equal subintervals called classes. Summary of the steps involved in making a frequency distributio 1. Find the range = largest value — smallest value 2. Pick the number of classes to use. Usually the number of classes is between five and twenty. Five classes are used if there are a small number of data points and twenty classes if there are a large number of data points (over 1000 data points). (Note: categories will now be called classes from now on.) range Helasses answer is already a whole number go to the next integer). If you don’t do this, your last class will not contain your largest data value, and you would have to add another class just for it. If you round up, then your largest data value will fall in the last class, and there are no issues, 4. Create the classes. Each class has limits that determine which values fall in each class, To find the class limits, set the smallest value as the lower class limit for the first class. ‘Then add the class width to the lower class limit to get the next lower class limit. Repeat until you get all the classes. The upper class limit for a class is one less than the lower limit for the next class. 5. In order for the classes to actually touch, then one class needs to start where the previous one ends. This is known as the class boundary. To find the class .. Always round up to the next integer (even if the 37Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data boundaries, subtract 0.5 from the lower class limit and add 0.5 to the upper class limit, 6. Sometimes it Midpoint 7. To figure out the number of data points that fall in each class, go through each data value and see which class boundaries it is between. Utilizing tally marks may be helpful in counting the data values. The frequency for a class is the number of data values that fall in the class. useful to find the class midpoint. The process is _ lower limit +-upper limit Note: the above description is for data values that are whole numbers. If you data value has decimal places, then your class width should be rounded up to the nearest value with the same number of decimal places as the original data. In addition, your class boundaries should have one more decimal place than the original data. As an example, if your data have one decimal place, then the class width would have one decimal place, and the class boundaries are formed by adding and subtracting 0.05 from each class limit. Example #2.2.1: Creating a Frequency Table Table #2.21 contains the amount of rent paid every month for 24 students from a statistics course. Make a relative frequency distribution using 7 classes. Table #2.2.1: Data of Monthly Rent 1500 1350 350 1200 850 900 1500 1150) 1500 900 1400 1100 1250 600 610 960 890 1325 900 800 2550 495 1200 690 Solution: 1) Find the range: largest value — smallest value = 2550 — 350 = 2200 2) Pick the number of classes: The directions say to use 7 classes. 3) Find the class width: range _ 2200 widll = 314.286 7 7 Round up to 315. Always round up to the next integer even if the width is already an integer. 38Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 4) Find the class limits: Start at the smallest value. This is the lower class limit for the first class. Add the width to get the lower limit of the next class. Keep adding the width to get all the lower limits, 350+ 315= 665, 665+315=980, 980+315=1295, = The upper limit is one less than the next lower limit: so for the first class the upper class limit would be 665 —1= 664. When you have all 7 classes, make sure the last number, in this case the 2550, is at least as large as the largest value in the data. If not, you made a mistake somewhere. 5) Find the class boundaries: Subtract 0.5 from the lower class limit to get the class boundaries. Add 0.5 to the upper class limit for the last class’s boundary. 350-0.5 = 349.5, 665—0.5 = 664.5, 980-0.5= 979.5, 1295-0.5= 1294.5, = Every value in the data should fall into exactly one of the classes, No data values should fall right on the boundary of two classes. 6) Find the class midpoints: midpoint = 10% Hit = upper limit 3504664 5 6654979 _ 822, 7) Tally and find the frequency of the data: Go through the data and put a tally mark in the appropriate class for each piece of data by looking to see which class boundaries the data value is between, Fill in the frequency by changing each of the tallies into a number. 39Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data ‘Table #2.2.2: Frequency Distribution for Monthly Rent Class Class Class Limits | Boundaries _|Midpoint| Tally| Frequency 350-664 | 3495-6645 | 507 | Ill 4 665-979 | 6645-9795 | 822 _| IM Ill 8 980-1294 | 979.5~ 1294.5 |_1137_| If 3 1295 — 1609 | 1294.5~1609.5| 1452 [IML] 6 0 0 1 1610— 1924 | 1609.5 — 1924.5| 1767 19252239 | 19245 ~2239.5| 2082 22402554 [2239.5 - 25545] 2397 | | Make sure the total of the frequencies is the same as the number of data points. R command for a frequency distribution: To create a frequency distributio summary(variable) — so you can find out the minimum and maximum. breaks = seq(min, number above max, by = class width) breaks — so you can see the breaks that R made. variable.cut=cut( variable, breaks, right=-FALSE) — this will cut up the data into the classes. variable.freq=table(variable.cut) — this will create the frequency table. variable. freq — this will display the frequency table. For the data in Example #2.2.1, the R command would be: rent<-c(1500, 1350, 350, 1200, 850, 900, 1500, 1150, 1500, 900, 1400, 1100, 1250, 600, 610, 960, 890, 1325, 900, 800, 2550, 495, 1200, 690) summary(rent) Output: Min, Ist Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. 350.0 837.5 1030.0 1082.0 1331.0 2550.0 breaks=seq(350, 3000, by = 315) breaks Output, [1] 350 665 980 1295 1610 1925 2240 2555 2870 These are your lower limits of the frequency distribution. You can now write your own table. rent.cut=cut(rent, breaks, right=FALSE) rent.freq=table(rent.cut) 40Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data rent.freq Output: rent.cut [350,665) _[665,980) _[980,1.3e#03) [1.3e+03,1.61e+03) 4 8 5 6 [1.61e+03,1.92e+03) [1.92¢#03,2.24e+03) [2.24e+03,2.56e+03) 0 1 0 Itis difficult to determine the basic shape of the distribution by looking at the frequency distribution. It would be easier to look at a graph. ‘The graph of a frequency distribution for quantitative data is called a frequency histogram or just histogram for short. Histogram: a graph of the frequencies on the vertical axis and the class boundaries on the horizontal axis, Rectangles where the height is the frequency and the width is the class width are draw for each class. Example #2.2.2: Drawing a Histogram Draw a histogram for the distribution from example #2.2.1 Solution: The class boundaries are plotted on the horizontal axis and the frequencies are plotted on the vertical axis. You can plot the midpoints of the classes instead of the class boundaries. Graph #2.2.1 was created using the midpoints because it was easier to do with the software that created the graph. On R, the command is hist(variable, col="type in what color you want", breaks, main="type the title you want", xlab"type the label you want for the horizontal axis", ylim=c(0, number above maximum frequency) — produces histogram with specified color and using the breaks you made for the frequency distribution. For this example, the command in R would be (assuming you created a frequency distribution in R as described previously): hist(rent, col="blue", breaks, right=FALSE, main="Monthly Rent Paid by Students", ylim=e(0,8) xlab="Monthly Rent ($)") 41Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.2.1: Histogram for Monthly Rent Monthly Rent Paid by Students Fraquaney 4 500 1000 150020002500 Monthy Rent) If no frequency distribution was created before the histogram, then the command would be: hist(variable, col="type in what color you want", number of classes, main="type the title you want", xlab="type the label you want for the horizontal axis") — produces histogram with specified color and number of classes (though the number of classes is an estimate and R will create the number of classes near this value). For this example, the R command without a frequency distribution created first would be: hist(rent, col="blue", 7, main="Monthly Rent Paid by Students", xlab="Monthly Rent ($)") Notice the graph has the axes labeled, the tick marks are labeled on each axis, and there is a title Reviewing the graph you can see that most of the students pay around $750 per month for rent, with about $1500 being the other common value. You can see from the graph, that most students pay between $600 and $1600 per month for rent. Of course, these values are just estimates from the graph. There is a large a2Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data gap between the $1500 class and the highest data value. ‘This seems to say that one student is paying a great deal more than everyone else. This value could be considered an outlier. An outlier is a data value that is far from the rest of the values. It may be an unusual value or a mistake. It is a data value that should be investigated. In this case, the student lives in a very expensive part of town, thus the value is not a mistake, and is just very unusual. There are other aspects that can be discussed, but first some other concepts need to be introduced. Frequencies are helpful, but understanding the relative size each class is to the total is also useful. To find this you can divide the frequency by the total to create a relative frequency. If you have the relative frequencies for all of the classes, then you have a relative frequency distribution. Relative Frequency Distribution A variation on a frequency distribution is a relative frequency distribution, Instead of giving the frequencies for each class, the relative frequencies are calculated. frequency Relative fequaney = 5 a os This gives you percentages of data that fall in each class. Example #2.2.3: Creating a Relative Frequency Table Find the relative frequency for the grade data, Solution: From example #2.2.1, the frequency distribution is reproduced in table #2.2.2. Table #2.2.2: Frequency Distribution for Monthly Rent Class Class Class Limits | Boundaries _|Midpoint| Frequenc) 350-664 | 3495-6645 | 507 4 665-979 | 6645-9795 | 822 980-1294 | 979.5— 1294.5 | 1137 1295 — 1609 | 1294.5 ~ 1609.5] 1452 1610 — 1924 | 1609.5 - 1924.5|_1767 1925 — 2239 | 1924,5-2239.5| 2082 2240 — 2554 [2239.5 2554.5] 2397 Divide each frequency by the number of data points. 4-017, 5-033, 2-021, @ 24 24 24Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Table #2.2.3: Relative Frequency Distribution for Monthly Rent Class Class Relative Class Limits | Boundaries _|Midpoint| Frequency | Frequene 350-664 | 3495-6645 | 507 4 0.17 665-979 | 6645-9795 | 922 8 033 ‘9801294 | 979.5— 1294.5 | 1137 5 0.21 1295 — 1609 | 1294.5 - 1609.5] 1452 6 0.25 1610 — 1924 | 1609.5 — 1924.5|_ 1767 0 oO 1925 — 2239 | 1924.5 ~ 2239.5 | 2082 0 o 2240-2554 | 2239.5 -2554.5| 2397 1 0.04 Total 24 1 The relative frequencies should add up to 1 or 100%. (This might be off alittle due to rounding errors.) The graph of the relative frequency is known as a relative frequency histogram. It looks identical to the frequency histogram, but the vertical axis is relative frequency instead of just frequencies. Example #2.2.4: Drawing a Relative Frequeney Histogram Draw a relative frequency histogram for the grade distribution from example #2.2.1. Solution: The class boundaries are plotted on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies are plotted on the vertical axis. (This is not easy to do in R, so use another technology to graph a relative frequency histogram.) : Rel Graph #2. e Frequency Histogram for Monthly Rent Monthly Rent Paid by Students Monty Rent 8) Notice the shape is the same as the frequency distribution,Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Another usefill piece of information is how many data points fall below a particular class boundary. As an example, a teacher may want to know how many students received below an 80%, a doctor may want to know how many adults have cholesterol below 160, or a manager may want to know how many stores gross less than $2000 per day. This is known as a cumulative frequency. If you want to know what percent of the data falls below a certain class boundary, then this would be a cumulative relative frequency. For cumulative frequencies you are finding how many data values fall below the upper class limit. To create a cumulative frequency distribution, count the number of data points that are below the upper class boundary, starting with the first class and working up to the top class. The last upper class boundary should have all of the data points below it. Also include the number of data points below the lowest class boundary, which is zero. Example #2.2.5: Creating a Cumulative Frequency Distribution Create a cumulative frequency distribution for the data in example #2.2.1 Solution: ‘The frequency distribution for the data is in table #2.2.2. Table #2.; Frequency Distribution for Monthly Rent Class Class Class Limits | Boundaries __|Midpoint| Frequency 350-664 349.5 - 664.5 507 4 665-979 | 6645-9795 | 822 ‘980 - 1294 | 979.5— 1294.5 |_1137 1295 ~ 1609 | 1294.5 ~ 1609.5] 1452 1610— 1924 | 1609.5 ~ 1924.5 | 1767 1925 — 2239 | 1924,5~ 2239.5 | 2082. 2240 — 2554 [2239.5 ~ 2554.5] 2397 Now ask yourself how many data points fall below each class boundary. Below 349.5, there are 0 data points. Below 664.5 there are 4 data points, below 979.5, there are 4 + 8 = 12 data points, below 1294.5 there are 4 + 8 + 5 = 17 data points, and continue this process until you reach the upper class boundary. This is summarized in Table #2.2.4. To produce cumulative frequencies in R, you need to have performed the commands for the frequency distribution. Once you have complete that, then use variable.cumfreq=cumsum(variable.freq) — creates the cumulative frequencies for the variableChapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data cumfireq0=e(0,variable.cumfreq) — ¢1 variable. cumfreq0 — displays the cumulative frequency table. a cumulative frequency table for the For this example the command would be: rent.cumfreq=cumsum(rent.freq) cumfreq0=o(0,tent.cumfreq) cumfireqd Output: (350,665) 665,980) _[980,1.3e+03) 0 4 2 17 [1.3e+03,1.61e+03) [1.61e+03,1.92e+03) [1.92e+03,2.24e+03) [2.24e+03,2.56¢+03) 2B 2B 2B 4 [2.56e+03,2.87e+03) 24 Now type this into a table, See Table #2.2.4 Table #2.2.4: Cumulative Distribution for Monthly Rent Class Class Cumulative Class Limits | Boundaries _|Midpoint Frequeney | Frequenc; 350-664 | 3495-6645 | 507 4 4 665-979 | 6645-9795 | 822 8 12 ‘9801294 | 979.5~ 1294.5 | 1137 5 7 1295 — 1609 | 1294.5 - 1609.5] 1452 6 23 1610= 1924 | 1609.5 - 1924.5 |_1767 0 23 1925 — 2239 | 1924.5 2230.5] 2082 0 23 2240-2554 | 2239.5 - 2554.5] _2397 1 24 Again, it is hard to look at the data the way it is, A graph would be useful. The graph for cumulative frequency is called an ogive (o-jive). To create an ogive, first create a scale on both the horizontal and vertical axes that will fit the data. Then plot the points of the class upper class boundary versus the cumulative frequency. Make sure you include the point with the lowest class boundary and the 0 cumulative frequency. Then just connect the dots. Example #2.2.6: Drawing an Ogive Draw an ogive for the data in example #2.2.1. Solution: In R, the commands would be: 46Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data plot(breaks,cumfieq0, main~"title you want to use", xlab="label you want to use", ylab="label you want to use", ylim=e(0, number above maximum, cumulative frequency) — plots the ogive lines(breaks,cumfreq0) — connects the dots on the ogive For this example, the commands would be: Plot(breaks,cumfreq0, main="Cumulative Frequency for Monthly Rent”, xlab="Monthly Rent (S)”, ylab="Cumulative Frequency”, ylim=e(0,25)) lines(breaks,cumtfreq) Graph #2.2.3: Ogive for Monthly Rent ‘Cumulative Frequency for Monthly Rent 6 20 Cumulative Frequency 10 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Monthly Rent ($) The usefulness of a ogive is to allow the reader to find out how many students pay less than a certain value, and also what amount of monthly rent is paid by a certain number of students. As an example, suppose you want to know how many students pay less than $1500 a month in rent, then you can go up from the $1500 until you hit the graph and then you go over to the cumulative frequency axes to see what value corresponds to this value. It appears that around 20 students pay less than $1500. (See graph #2.2.4,) a7Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.2.4: Ogive for Monthly Rent with Example Cumutasive Frequency for Monthy Rent : moray) Also, if you want to know the amount that 15 students pay less than, then you start at 15 on the vertical axis and then go over to the graph and down to the horizontal axis where the line intersects the graph. You can see that 15 students pay less than about $1200 a month. (See graph #2.2.5.) Graph #2.2.5: Ogive for Monthly Rent with Example ‘Cumulative Frequency for Monthly Rent -_, ony tert) a8Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data If you graph the cumulative relative frequency then you can find out what percentage is below a certain number instead of just the number of people below a certain value. Shapes of the distribution: When you look at a distribution, look at the basic shape. There are some basic shapes that are seen in histograms. Realize though that some distributions have no shape. The common shapes are symmetric, skewed, and uniform. Another interest is how many peaks a graph may have. This is known as modal. ‘Symmetric means that you can fold the graph in half down the middle and the two sides will line up. You can think of the two sides as being mirror images of each other. ‘Skewed means one “tail” of the graph is longer than the other. The graph is skewed in the direction of the longer tail (backwards from what you would expect). A uniform graph has all the bars the same height. Modal refers to the number of peaks. Unimodal has one peak and bimodal has two peaks. Usually if a graph has more than two peaks, the modal information is not longer of interest. Other important features to consider are gaps between bars, a repetitive pattern, how spread out is the data, and where the center of the graph is. Examples of graphs: This graph is roughly symmetric and unimos Graph #2.2.6: Symmetric, Unimodal Graph Roughly Symmetric Graph ®Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data This graph is symmetric and bimodal: Graph #2.2.7: Symmetric, Bimodal Graph Bimodal and Symmetric Graph ‘This graph is skewed to the right: Graph #2.2.8: Skewed Right Graph Skewed Right Graph 50Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data This graph is skewed to the left and has a gap: Graph #2.2.9: Skewed Left Graph Skewed Left Graph This graph is uniform since all the bars are the same height: Graph #2.2.10: Uniform Graph Uniform Graph 31Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Example #2.2.7: Creating a Frequency Distribution, Histogram, and Ogive The following data represents the percent change in tuition levels at public, four- year colleges (inflation adjusted) from 2008 to 2013 (Weissmann, 2013). Create a frequency distribution, histogram, and ogive for the data. ‘Table #2.2.5: Data of Tuition Levels at Public, Four-Year Colleges 19.5%] 40.8%] 57.0%] 15.1% 17.4%] 5.2%] 13.0% 15.6%] 51.5% 15.6%] 14.5%] 22.4% 19.5%] 31.3%] 21.7%| 27.0% 13.1%) 26.8% 24.3% 38.0% 21.1% 9.3% 46.7% 14.5%) 78.4% 67.3%] 21.1%] 22.4% 5.3%] 17.3%] 17.5% 36.6% 72.0% 63.2%] 15.1%] 2.2% 17.5%] 36.7%] 2.8%| 16.2% 20.5%) 17.8% 30.1%) 63.6%) 17.8%| 23.2%) 25.3% 21.4%) 28.5% 9.4%] Solution: 1) Find the range: largest value — smallest value = 78.4% —2.2% = 76.2% 2) Pick the number of classes: Since there are 50 data points, then around 6 to 8 classes should be used. Let’s use 8, 3) Find the class width: range 76.2% width = = 9.525% 8 Since the data has one decimal place, then the class width should round to one decimal place. Make sure you round up. width = 9.6% 4) Find the class limits: 2.2% + 9.6% =11.8%, 11.8% + 9.6% = 21.4%, 21.4% + 9.6% = 31.0%, > 32Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 5) Find the class boundaries: Since the data has one decimal place, the class boundaries ‘two decimal places, so subtract 0.05 from the lower cla class boundaries, Add 0.05 to the upper class limit for the last class's boundary. 2.2-0.05=2.15%, 11.80.05 Every value in the data should fall into exactly one of the classes. No data values should fall right on the boundary of two classes. 6) Find the class midpoints: lower limt + upper limit midpoint = 7) Tally and find the frequency of the data: =16.55%, = hould have limit to get the 1.75%, 21.4-0.05 = 21.35%, = ‘Table #2.2.6: Frequency Distribution for Tuition Levels at Public, Four-Year Colleges Class Class Relative [Cumulative Class Limits | Boundaries _| Midpoint | Tally _|Frequency| Frequency | Frequency 22-117 | 24s-1175 | 695 | If 6 0.12 6 JAC HE 1s-213 | 1175-2135 | 16.55 20 | 040 26 214-309 | 2135-3095 | 2615 | Ifill u 0.22 37 310-405 | 3095-4055 | 35.75 | Ill 4 0.08 4 40.6~50.1 | 40.55—50.15 | 45.35 mn 2 0.04) 4 50.2-59.7 | 50.15—59.75 | 54.95 mn 2 0.04) 45 59.8 69.3 | 59,75-69.35 | 64.55 il 3 0.06 48 69.4789 | 69.35—78.95 |_74.15 mn 2 0.04 50 Make sure the total of the frequencies is the same as the number of data points.Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.2.11: Histogram for Tuition Levels at Public, Four-Year Colleges Percentage Change in Tuton Levels Qriation Adjusted) 2008 102012 3 This graph is skewed right, with no gaps. This says that most percent increases in tuition were around 16.55%, with very few states having a percent increase greater than 45.35%. Graph #2.2.11: Ogive for Tuition Levels at Public, Four-Year Colleges ‘Percentage Change in Tun Levets (Inflation Adjusted) 2008 fo 201: Camuatv Frequney 34Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Looking at the ogive, you can see that 30 states had a percent change in tuition levels of about 25% or less. There are occasions where the class limits in the frequency distribution are predetermined. Example #2.2.8 demonstrates this situation. Example #2.2.8: Creating a Frequency Distribution and Histogram The following are the percentage grades of 25 students from a statisties course. Make a frequency distribution and histogram. ‘Table #2.2.7: Data of Test Grades 62 [87 [81 [69 |87 [62 [45 [95 | 16 [76 62 [71 [65 [67 | 72 [80 |40 |77_|87 [58 x4 [73 [93 [64 [89 Solution: Since this data is percent grades, it makes more sense to make the classes in multiples of 10, since grades are usually 90 to 100%, 80 to 90%, and so forth. It is easier to not use the class boundaries, but instead use the class limits and think of the upper class limit being up to but not including the next classes lower limit. ‘As an example the class 80 ~ 90 means a grade of 80% up to but not including a 90%. A student with an 89.9% would be in the 80-90 class. ‘Table #2.2.8: Frequency Distribution for Test Grades Class Class Limit _| Midpoint | Tally | Frequene; 40-50 45 m 2 50-60 55 l 1 0-70 65 it 7 70-80 8 HEL 6 80-90 85 it 7 90 = 100 95 tl 2Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.2.12: Histogram for Test Grades Frequony Grades for Statistics Class Percentage Grae It appears that most of the students had between 60 to 90%. ‘This graph looks somewhat symmetric and also bimodal. The same number of students earned between 60 to 70% and 80 to 90%. There are other types of graphs for quantitative data, They will be explored in the next section. Section 2.2: Homework 1.) The median incomes of males in each state of the United States, including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are given in table #2.2.9 ("Median income of,” 2013). Create a frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution, and cumulative frequency distribution using 7 classes. ‘Table #2.2.9: Data of Median Income for Males $42,951 | $52,379 $42,544 [$37,488 | $49,281] $50,987] _ $60,705 $50,411 | $66,760 [$40,951 | _$43,902 | $45,494] $41,528] $50,746 $45,183 | $43,624 [$43,993 | S41,012 | $46,313 | $43,944 | $56,708 $60,264 | $50,053 [$50,580 | $40,202 | $43,146 | $41,635 | $42,182 $41,803 | $53,033 [$60,568 | $41,037] $50,388) S41,950 | $44,660 $46,176 | $41,420 | $45,976 | _ $47,956 | $22,529 | _S48,842 | $41,464 $40,285 | $41,309 | $43,160 | $47,573 | $44,057 |__S52,805 | _$53,046 $42,125 | $46,214 | $51,630 36Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 2) ‘The median incomes of females in each state of the United States, including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are given in table #2.2.10 ("Median income of," 2013). Create a frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution, and cumulative frequency distribution using 7 classes. ‘Table #2.2.10: Data of Median Income for Females 331,862 | $40,550 | $36,048 | $30,752 | $41,817 | $40,236] $47,476 | $40,500 $60,332 | $33,823 [$35,438 | $37,242 | $31,238 | $39,150 | $34,023 | _§: a5, $33,269 | $32,684 [$31,844 | $34,599 | $48,748 | $46,185 | S36 $40,416 $29,548 | $33,865 | $31,067 | $33,424 | $35,484 | $41,021 | $47,155 | $32,316 $42,113 | $ 3,459 | $32,462 | $35,746 | $31,274 | $36,027 | $37,089 | $22,117 $41,412 | $31,330 [$31,329 | 83 184 | $35,301 | $32,843 | $38,177 | $40,969 $40,993 | $29,688 [$35,890 [$34,381 3) 4) The density of people per square kilometer for African countries is in table #2.2.11 ("Density of people," 2013). Create a frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution, and cumulative frequency distribution using 8 classes. Table #2.2.11: Data of Density of People per Square Kilometer Is] 16] 81] 3) 62] 367[ 42] 123 8] 9) 337, 2] 297 Ol 39) 83 26) SI] 79) 6) 157) Ws[ Bl 45 72| 72] 37) 4) 36 12 630) 72) 29) 3) 13] 176) 341 15 65) 194) 75) 16| 41) 18 oo] 49[ tal os[ 143] 2] is] 31 The Affordable Care Act created a market place for individuals to purchase health care plans. In 2014, the premiums for a 27 year old for the bronze level health insurance are given in table #2.2.12 ("Health insurance marketplace," 2013), Create a frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution, and cumulative frequency distribution using 5 classes. ‘Table #2.2.12: Data of Health Insurance Premiums S14] S19] S121] sia] S132] $139 S139] S141) $143] S145) SISI | S153 S156] S159] $162] S163 | S165 | S166 S170] Si70| S176] S177 | S181 | S185 S185 |_S186| S186 | S189] S190 S192 si96] $203] 204] s2i9[ $254] $286 Create a histogram and relative frequency histogram for the data in table #2.2.9. Describe the shape and any findings you can from the graph. 37Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 1) 12.) 13.) 14) Create a histogram and relative frequency histogram for the data in table #2.2.10. Describe the shape and any findings you can from the graph. Create a histogram and relative frequency histogram for the data in table #2.2.11 Describe the shape and any findings you can from the graph. Create a histogram and relative frequency histogram for the data in table #2.2.12. Describe the shape and any findings you can from the graph. Create an ogive for the data in table #2.2.9. Describe any findings you can from the graph. Create an ogive for the data in table #2.2.10. Describe any findings you can from the graph, Create an ogive for the data in table #2.2.11. Describe any findings you can from the graph, Create an ogive for the data in table #2.2.12. Describe any findings you can from the graph. Students in a statistics class took their first test. The following are the scores they eared. Create a frequency distribution and histogram for the data using class limits that make sense for grade data. Describe the shape of the distribution. Table #2.2.13: Data of Test 1 Grades 80] 79] 89] 74] 73) 67] 79 93[ 70| 70] 76[ 88) 83] 73 si] 79] 80] 85| 79) 80] 79 ss[93] 94[ 74 Students in a statistics class took their first test. The following are the scores they eamed. Create a frequency distribution and histogram for the data using class limits that make sense for grade data. Describe the shape of the distribution. Compare to the graph in question 13. ‘Table #2.2.14: Data of Test 1 Grades 67[ 67] 76] 47[ 85) 70 87[ 76| 80| 72] 84) 98 e4[ 64] 65| 82] 81) 81 ee [74] 87[ 83 38Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Section 2.3: Other Graphical Representations of Data ‘There are many other types of graphs. Some of the more common ones are the frequency polygon, the dot plot, the stem plot, scatter plot, and a time-series plot. There are also many different graphs that have emerged lately for qualitative data. Many are found in publications and websites. The following is a description of the stem plot, the scatter plot, and the time-series plot. Stem Plots Stem plots are a quick and easy way to look at small samples of numerical data, You can look for any patterns or any strange data values. It is easy to compare two samples using stem plots. ‘The first step is to divide each number into 2 parts, the stem (such as the leftmost digit) and the leaf (such as the rightmost digit). There are no set rules, you just have to look at the data and see what makes sense. Example #2.3.1: Stem Plot for Grade Distribution ‘The following are the percentage grades of 25 students from a statistics course. Draw a stem plot of the data. Table #2.3.1: Data of Test Grades [87 [sl [69 [87 | [4 [95 [76 [76 o2_ [71 [6s [67 [72 (80 [40 [7 [87 [58 84 [73 [93 [64 [89 Solution: Divide each number so that the tens digit is the stem and the ones digit is the leaf 62 becomes 6)2. Make a vertical chart with the stems on the left of a vertical bar. Be sure to fill in any missing stems. In other words, the stems should have equal spacing (for example, count by ones or count by tens). ‘The graph #2.3.1 shows the stems for this example. Graph #2. 1: Stem plot for Test Grades Step 1 wean 59Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Now go through the list of data and add the leaves. Put each leaf next to its corresponding stem, Don’t worry about order yet just get all the leaves down, When the data value 62 is placed on the plot it looks like the plot in graph #2.3.2 Graph #2.3.2: Stem plot for Test Grades Step 2 ewan When the data value 87 is placed on the plot it looks like the plot in graph #2.3.3. Graph #2. : Stem plot for Test Grades Step 3 ewan Filling in the rest of the leaves to obtain the plot in graph #2.3.4. Graph #2.3.4: Stem plot for Test Grades Step 4 4|50 5|8 6|2922574 7/661273 8/7170749 953 ‘Now you have to add labels and make the graph look pretty. You need to add a label and sort the leaves into increasing order. You also need to tell people what the stems and leaves mean by inserting a legend. Be careful to line the leaves up in columns. You need to be able to compare the lengths of the rows when you interpret the graph. The final stem plot for the test grade data is in graph #2.3.5 60Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Graph #2.3.5: Stem plot for Test Grades Test Scores 4 |0=40% RuN sak saw aan © eeuaus worn © wenn Now you can interpret the stem-and-leaf display. ‘The data is bimodal and somewhat symmetric, There are no gaps in the data, The center of the distribution is around 70. ‘You can create a stem and leaf plot on R. the command is: stem( variable) — creates a stem and leaf plot, if you do not get a stem plot that shows all of the stems then use scale = a number. Adjust the number until you see all of the stems. So you would have stem(variable, scale = a number) For Example #2.3.1, the command would be grades<-c(62, 87, 81, 69, 87, 62, 45, 95, 76, 76, 62, 71, 65, 67, 72, 80, 40, 77, 87, 58, 84, 73, 93, 64, 89) stem(grades, seale = 2) Output: The decimal point is | digit(s) to the right of the | 405 5|8 6 | 2224579 7 | 123667 8 |0147779 9135 Now just put a title on the stem plot Scatter Plot Sometimes you have two different variables and you want to sec if they are related in any way. A scatter plot helps you to see what the relationship would look like. A scatter plot is just a plotting of the ordered pairs. Example #2.3.2: Scatter Plot Is there any relationship between elevation and high temperature on a given day? The following data are the high temperatures at various cities on a single day and the elevation of the city. 61Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Table #2.3.2: Data of Temperature versus Elevation Elevation (in feet) | 7000 [ 4000 | 6000 | 3000 [ 7000 [4500 [ 5000 Temperature @F) 50 0 48 70 35 55 60 Solution: Preliminary: State the random variables Let x = altitude y=high temperature Now plot the x values on the horizontal axis, and the y values on the vertical axis. Then set up a scale that fits the data on each axes. Once that is done, then just plot the x and y values as an ordered pair. In R, the command is: independent variable<-c(type in data with commas in between values) dependent variable<-c(type in data with commas in between values) plot(independent variable, dependent variable, main="type in a title you want", xlab="type in a label for the horizontal axis", ylab="type in a label for the vertical axis", ylim=c(0, number above maximum y value) For this example, that would be: elevation<-c(7000, 4000, 6000, 3000, 7000, 4500, 5000) temperature<-c(50, 60, 48, 70, 55, 55, 60) plot(elevation, temperature, main="Temperature versus Elevation", xlab="Elevation (in feet)", ylab="Temperature (in degrees F)", ylim=c(0, 80)) Graph #2.3.6: Scatter Plot of Temperature versus Elevation “Temperature versus Elevation = 2 z 8 even fet 62Chapter 2: Graphical Descriptions of Data Looking at the graph, it appears that there is a linear relationship between temperature and elevation. It also appears to be a negative relationship, thus as elevation increases, the temperature decreases. Time Series A time-series plot is a graph showing the data measurements in chronological order, the data being quantitative data. For example, a time-series plot is used to show profits over the last 5 years. To create a time-series plot, the time always goes on the horizontal axis, and the other variable goes on the vertical axis. Then plot the ordered pairs and connect the dots. The purpose of a time-series graph is to look for trends over time. Caution, you ‘must realize that the trend may not continue. Just because you see an increase, doesn’t mean the increase will continue forever. As an example, prior to 2007, many people noticed that housing prices were increasing. The belief at the time was that housing prices would continue to increase. However, the housing bubble burst in 2007, and many houses lost value, and haven’t recovered. Example #2.3.3: Time-Series Plot The following table tracks the weight of a dieter, where the time in months is ‘measuring how long since the person started the diet. Table #2.3.3: Data of Weights versus Time [rime (months) | __0 1 2 3 4 5 [Weight (pounds)[_200 | 195 192 193 190 187, Make a time-series plot of this data Solution: InR, the command would be: variable|<-c(type in data with commas in between values, this should be the time variable) variable2<-c(type in data with commas in between values) plot(variablel, variable2, ylim=c(0,number over max), main="type in a title you want", xlab="type in a label for the horizontal axis", ylab="type in a label for the vertical axis") lines(variablel, variable2) — connects the dots. For this example: time

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5813)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1092)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (844)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (608)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1716)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1104)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (897)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (348)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1018)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (822)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1850)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1947)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (401)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4611)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4203)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (807)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1898)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2522)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Mga Likas Na Yaman

  

  Document4 pages

  Mga Likas Na Yaman

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• Fos Week 1

  

  Document31 pages

  Fos Week 1

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• Please Read

  

  Document1 page

  Please Read

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• Kabanata 03 - Group 2

  

  Document52 pages

  Kabanata 03 - Group 2

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• Bade Assignment 3

  

  Document4 pages

  Bade Assignment 3

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• TEMPLATE

  

  Document2 pages

  TEMPLATE

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet
• Solid

  

  Document1 page

  Solid

  Saint J Bade

  No ratings yet