Dijital Pazarlama

Final Ödevi

Hazırlayan: Abdurrahman ÇAVUŞ

No.: 2128206064

2022
İşletme Yüksek Lisans

Öğretim Görevlisi: Dr. Öğr. Üyesi HASAN TERZİ

 1- ONTOLOGY:
Humans like to classify things; we have spent our intellectual history taking apart the universe
and creating (or some would say discovering) the underlying structure of all things from chains
of galaxies to quarks. We love structure; it allows us to put knowledge into more easily
understood, more easily disseminated boxes that allow for clearer systems of formal
classification.
The Ancient Greeks are often acknowledged as establishing the basis of western formal thought
structures and systems of critical analysis known collectively as philosophy. The term is
generally credited to the great Ionian mathematician, scientist, and religious mystic Pythagoras
who lived circa 570 BCE. Parmenides, circa 500 BCE, is given credit for the first discussions on
the ontological categorization of existence (though the dates are not entirely agreed upon).
Etymologically the term ontology, like most philosophical terminology, comes from Greek and
means essentially “the study or theory of being or that which is.” Yet, historically the first
known written use of the word comes from the Latin ontologia in the early 17th century.
Ontology is the theory of objects and their ties. It provides criteria for distinguishing different
types of objects (concrete and abstract, existent and nonexistent, real and ideal, independent
and dependent) and their ties (relations, dependencies and predication).
In contemporary philosophy, formal ontology has been developed in two principal ways. The
first approach has been to study formal ontology as a part of ontology, and to analyze it using
the tools and approach of formal logic: from this point of view formal ontology examines the
logical features of predication and of the various theories of universals. The use of the specific
paradigm of the set theory applied to predication, moreover, conditions its interpretation.
This approach is best exemplified by Nino Cocchiarella; according to whom "Formal Ontology is
the result of combining the intuitive, informal method of classical ontology with the formal,
mathematical method of modern symbolic logic, and ultimately of identifying them as different
aspects of one and the same science. That is, where the method of ontology is the intuitive
study of the fundamental properties, modes, and aspects of being, or of entities in general, and
the method of modern symbolic logic is the rigorous construction of formal, axiomatic systems,
formal ontology, the result of combining these two methods, is the systematic, formal,
axiomatic development of the logic of all forms of being. As such, formal ontology is a science
prior to all others in which particular forms, modes, or kinds of being are studied."
The second line of development returns to its Husserlian origins and analyses the fundamental
categories of object, state of affairs, part, whole, and so forth, as well as the relations between
parts and the whole and their laws of dependence -- once all material concepts have been
replaced by their correlative form concepts relative to the pure 'something'. This kind of
analysis does not deal with the problem of the relationship between formal ontology and
material ontology."
Some Examples of Ontologies:
There are literally thousands of existing ontologies in the world today in virtually every industry
from software engineering to medical research, e-commerce to banking, linguistic processing to
document publishing and so forth. Even in the Data Management industry alone there are too
many to easily discuss. Thus, to distill the topic down to give some well-defined examples, only
a few mentioned in a recent DATAVERSITY™ webinar will be noted:
Dublin Core® MetaData Initiative (DCMI): First conceived in 1994 during the 2nd International
World Wide Web Conference, DCMI was created to provide “core metadata vocabularies in
support of interoperable solutions for discovering and managing resources.” Grounded in the
The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, DCMI works to promote open consensus building in the
development and maintenance of metadata vocabularies, worldwide participation in the
project, encouragement of neutrality in the adoption and use of the standards and a
comprehensive cross-disciplinary focus to break down “information silos” so that all data is
shared data.
Good Relations Ontology: Started in 2008, Good Relations is a simple but powerful e-commerce
ontology for “vocabulary for publishing all of the details of your products and services in a way
friendly to search engines, mobile applications, and browser extensions.” It seeks to streamline
the e-commerce process and is the only OWL DL ontology that both Yahoo! and Google
support. It comes with a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, so it is Open Source.
Web Ontology Language (OWL): The OWL was created to facilitate “greater machine
interpretability of Web content than that supported by XML, RDF, and RDF Schema (RDF-S) by
providing additional vocabulary along with a formal semantics,” especially for the Semantic
Web. A W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) standard, OWL is hoped to aid in the structuring of
the Semantic Web through the adoption of common systems of processing Web content.

2- EPISTEMOLOGY:
Epistemology has always been concerned with issues such as the nature, extent, sources
and legitimacy of knowledge. Over the course of western philosophy, philosophers have
concentrated sometimes on one or two of these issues to the exclusion of the others; rarely
has a philosopher addressed all of them. Some central questions are:

 What is knowledge – what is the correct analysis or definition of the concept of

knowledge?
 What is the extent of our knowledge – about what sorts of things is knowledge
actually held?
 What are the sources of knowledge – how is knowledge acquired?
 Is there any genuine knowledge?
Concern with the first question has predominated in philosophy since the mid-twentieth
century, but it was also discussed at some length in antiquity. Attention to the second
question seems to have begun with Plato, and it has continued with few interruptions to the
present day. The third question was also important in antiquity, but has also been a central
focus of epistemological discussion through the medieval and early modern periods. The
fourth question raises the issue of scepticism, a topic which has generated interest and
discussion from antiquity to the present day, though there were some periods in which
sceptical worries were largely ignored.
epistemology, the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.
The term is derived from the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason”), and
accordingly the field is sometimes referred to as the theory of knowledge. Epistemology has
a long history within Western philosophy, beginning with the ancient Greeks and continuing
to the present. Along with metaphysics, logic, and ethics, it is one of the four main branches
of philosophy, and nearly every great philosopher has contributed to it.
Examples of Epistemology:
1. Legal Affairs
Epistemology plays a prominent role in the production of knowledge in legal affairs. It is
responsible for creating awareness of certain aspects of reality by analysing logical facts and
pieces of evidence available. It involves a detailed investigation of the crime scene and a
brief overview of similar cases to impart new information and produce a justification for the
knowledge.
2. Changing the Password
Whenever you forget the password of your online social media handle and try to reset it, a
verification code is sent to confirm the identity of the user. This process of verifying the
validity of the user is an epistemic issue. Similarly, manual assigning of profile credentials at
an office makes use of the concept of epistemology.
3. Security Issues
A number of technical security issues are resolved with the help of epistemology. To verify
the authenticity of the websites and online blogs, an SSL certificate is issued that establishes
a security protocol and creates an encrypted link between the web server and the browser.
It saves the website’s identity and user’s privacy. The concept of epistemology arises when
it is required to confirm the genuineness of the SSL certificate. For instance, an online
shopping platform such as Amazon tends to buy the authentication certificate from a
domain name service providing organisation say, Verisign. Now, if a person is trying to verify
the originality of the authenticity certificate itself, he/she is knowingly or unknowingly
employing the concept of epistemology during the process.
4. Scientific Discoveries
Epistemology plays a significant role in scientific inventions and discoveries. This is because
scientific developments necessarily require rational thinking of ideas and strong observation
of the experiments. In such a case, the main purpose of epistemology is to produce new
knowledge with minimum or no error.
5. Decision Making
Decision making is a tedious task that involves gathering information, evaluating all the
possible pros and cons, estimating alternative solutions to the problem, calculating risks,
and making the appropriate choice as per the situation. The decision may include
distinguishing between true and false, choosing the most appropriate option amongst
various attributes, etc. The concept of epistemology in decision making serves to be a
beneficial tool that simplifies and refines the process.
6. Critical Thinking
Epistemology helps in improving the critical thinking ability of an individual. It helps in
broadening one’s senses and helps a person to evaluate the world from a broad
perspective. The questions such as how do we think?, What is knowledge?, Why is it
required to associate justification with knowledge?, etc., help a person get a clear
understanding of the universe and to explore various phenomena occurring in nature.
Epistemology helps humans make the best possible use of their thinking ability, improves
their potential to reason and differentiate between good and bad, true and false, etc.
7. Confirming the Existence of Extraterrestrial Life
The existence of extraterrestrial life has always been a topic of debate. The questions like
‘are we alone in the universe?’ tend to stir all the knowledge a person possesses. To reach a
common and well-framed answer to this query, one can use the epistemological approach.
Primarily, epistemology tends to focus on the justification of the already existing
knowledge, i.e., if aliens do exist, how do they look like? Has anyone ever seen them? If
 someone has seen them, do they have a recorded proof to support their claim? If a justified
response to all such questions is available, then it is preferred to evaluate the other aspects
and thoroughly brainstorm the question until a reliable and appropriate response is
achieved. Hence, epistemology helps a person acquire knowledge in an authentic and
scientific manner by considering all the facts.
8. Validating News
Epistemology finds its prime application to validate a piece of news or a report. For
instance, a news headline read “I have not been a part of any unethical practice held at the
bank.” Here, epistemology can be used to identify whether or not the news headline is
genuine. The process begins with the identification of the person whose exact words have
been published as the news headline. The next step is to confirm the bank where he/she
was employed and the unethical practice that took place. Deep investigation and proper
research are used to validate if the person is lying or not.

3- References:
1- Al-Saadi, H. (2014). Demystifying Ontology and Epistemology in research methods. Research
gate, 1(1), 1-10.

2- Roe, C. (2012, June 7). A Short History of Ontology: It’s not just a Matter of Philosophy

Anymore - DATAVERSITY. DATAVERSITY. https://www.dataversity.net/a-short-history-

of-ontology-its-not-just-a-matter-of-philosophy-anymore/#.

3- Ontology: Theory and History. (2022). Ontology.co. https://www.ontology.co/.

4- Pappas, G.(1998). Epistemology, history of. In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 7 Jan. 2023, from

https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/epistemology-history-of/v-1.

doi:10.4324/9780415249126-P018-1.

5- Sharma, C. (2021, September 10). 10 Epistemology Examples in Real Life. Studiousguy.com;

StudiousGuy. https://studiousguy.com/epistemology-examples/.