http://webpages.charter.net/dawill/tmoranwms/index.

html Go APR MAY JUN

⍰
❎
114 captures
15
f

8 Jun 2003 - 16 Jun 2018 2017 2018 2019 ▾ About this capture

Welcome to my Homepage
 

My personal outpost on the 'net including games, technical reference, stories and projects!

Last Update 12-21-2010.

I bet you thought a Flux Capacitor was make-believe!

Chillin' in front of the Bench...

First off, About Me:

Current Resume

Who am I?
What do I do? - See Projects!
Where do I live?
What Music do I Listen to?
Who are Tim Williams?

 
Projects
Where I do most of my stuff.

Metalworking
Ceramics
Electronics
Chemistry

Reference
Reference Data (electronics, parts, metal, etc.)
Schematics, 2001-2004, 2004-2007, 2008-2010
HTML

Etcetera
Cave of the Mounds tour
Mandelbrot Fractals
An article on solar power
Photography tips
Scifi/horror concept story

Games I Play
DOS games:
Duke Nukum episode 1, 2, 3
Duke Nukem 2
Raptor
Wolfenstein 3D
My Personal Doom Shrine - jump to Doom, Doom II or Levels.
Warcraft II
Windows games:
Quake 2
Homeworld
Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory
Doom III

Links
Metalworking
The Lab - Backyard Metal Casting
Association of BackYard MetalCasters
Dan's Workshop
Frank's Projects and Plans
Rec.crafts.metalworking newsgroup unofficial website
Clint has a foundry page and some other metalworkings.
Electronics
T3h G33k Z0n3
DutchForce Electronics Forum
diyAudio.com
World Tube Audio Portal
German Audio Site
More: Reference Data
 SMPS Designer
Roman Black's Website
A home made Induction Heater similar to my own
W1ngs Electronics
Comics
Dilbert, of course (this link without all the scripts and fluff)
General Protection Fault
CTRL+ALT+DEL (written by a Tim, but not a Tim Williams)
xkcd
Surviving The World
The excellently drawn Questionable Content
Etcetera
Google Search Engine
HTMLHelp.com
My friend Mark's web page
Fred Nachbaur (RIP)'s Dogstar Projects page
The Wisconsin Aviation Academy
Cave of the Mounds website
My brother Nick's webpage, the old-Mini-Cooper freak :)
www.findsomethingandburnit.com What more to say? - Webpage of Jim T. (who resides on the
DutchForce forum), one of the craziest guys I've met!
AfroTechMods.com OMFG, this dude is hilarious. Click now before I railgun you!
Daniel's Jaguar XJ6 Blog

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 0

Induction Heating
It's about time for another installment... I have lots of pictures saved up so I'll spread 'em
around finally. :3

This is the setup as of the last few months (over Christmas '06 and into January '07). On the
left is my scope, the black box at the bottom is the bench supply (±15-18V at a few
amperes), above it, the breadboard containing the power supply, oscillator and control
circuits (see installment 6 for drawings, give or take some modification). Wires lead to the
inverter, which is rigidly attached to the high voltage cap bank (two 8 x 470μF 200V packs in
series for 1880μF 400V, center tapped), which is powered by a bridge rectifier (on heatsink)
and MOT-come-isolation transformer. Above the inverter heatsink is the work coil, with
kaowool insulation in place. To the right, the blue thing is the tank capacitor, barely visible
behind the transformer, milk jug and radiator.
Rear view, a much better angle of the output and water system. A submersion pump in the
milk jug sends water through the capacitors and tank coil. (Unfortunately the pump I have at
the moment is crap for pressure and little flow gets through the 1/4" tubing of the coil. A
positive displacement pump could be nice.) Return flow goes through a former automotive air
conditioning core, equipped with a fan, and drains back into the resivoir.

Click to magnify. This is the special new manufacture part, a 30-80μH (depending on air gap),
80A capacity inductor, for Lmatch. I started by annealing a length of copper pipe, slitting it
lengthwise like a sardine can, hammering it flat and cutting out a relatively straight strip 1/2"
wide, 0.040" thick (give or take a few thousandths) and about 7 feet long. This I wrapped
around a cardboard form, insulating as I went with a strip of 0.010" thick paper. Since 1/2"
wide strip is rather hard to bend sideways, I opted to wind two pancake style coils and
connect them in series for 12 turns. The core comes from four identical flyback transformers,
glued together. Also in this picture, the BNC connector and toroid (covered in masking tape ;)
are my 1:100 current transformer, registering 0.01V/A (i.e., 10 mili trans-ohms, so to
speak). Well, it's actually 220:1, but it has a 2.2 ohm resistor (and RC snubber) so it looks
100:1 on screen.

Closeup of the inverter. (This picture was taken on the carpet, before I moved down to the
Bench.) The power supply rails come in, loaded with film capacitors (2.2 and 0.47uF
polyester, probably inductive wind). 12AWG wire turns to copper strip which the IGBTs are
connected to. Some noninductive capacitors (stolen from the tank cap, so it's 19.8uF, BFD :-
p) keep the rails locally under control. Overall, the trash from commutation is quite
controlled, peak-to-peak about 5% of the supply voltage at 10 or 20A. Also notably, the gate
drives are soldered and local to the inverter heatsink, not all the way over on the control
board (also freeing up some real estate there). The same coupling capacitor, Lmatch and
parallel resonant tank follows from here. I recently had the inverter up to about 80A peak
with no ill results. Don't know if it'll take that constantly though.
These are the tank and inverter current waveforms when heating a steel crucible. Voltage is
pretty low, reflecting the steel's hysteresis loss load on the tank -- the steel is still magnetic.

An odd load this time, potassium chloride tabs. A not unreasonable assignment, as it melts at
1422°F, right about the curie temperature of iron. Coincidentially, I found it begin to melt
right about the time the voltage and frequency started to rise.
 You can't see it well but this is completely transparent, water clear, and as mobile as alcohol.
And I'd wager that if alcohol fumed in air, it would behave exactly like this, sans orange glow.
Chloride salts have low vapor pressures when molten, so all the while there was a light
whispiness coming off here, and I am probably more radioactive for it. (That is to say, slightly
richer in potassium, which is naturally slightly radioactive. . .)

One final treat, a video:

Part Eight

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 0

Induction Heating
Big change since last update. The most important part? LLC sucks. Back on page 4 I said it
sucks using no capacitor at all. Adding a matching inductor keeps the tank cap from blowing
transistors, but it does it at the expense of reactive current. Power factor is still low, typically
0.3. That means for the 10kW output I want, I need 30kVA of inverter output. That's better
than 100kVA, but it's still a lot of trouble to go to, and costs a lot of efficiency.

So, contemplating things one day, I decided to try series resonance instead. Whereas the
tank cap shorts out the inverter when switching a parallel tank, in series the coil handles all
the harmonics, so switching is easy. At resonance, power factor is exactly one, and it's very
easy to find because it's just the classic RLC circuit analyzed by every EE student in the
world. I looked for the largest ferrite core on hand, a rather oversized flyback transformer
core measuring about 3μH/T2 and saturating at 10AT.

This was the setup as I had it, basically the same circuit on the previous page, nailed down to
a plywood board. You can see the transformer, bottom left of center, with about 40 turns
8AWG primary and 6 turns 1/4" copper tubing secondary. This did not work well, because
leakage inductance was bigger than the work coil's inductance! I really should've put the
primary on top of the secondary, but I didn't have much wire, either. A better winding is
definitely needed. Toroidial transformers are excellent for this...
I calculated I need about this much transformer, having the fortune to find a couple of these
rather large high-mu ferrite toroids for very cheap at All Electronics. (As of 12/07/09, it
seems they don't offer them anymore.) I measured one at 6μH/T2 and 10AT saturation,
needing four to run down to 10kHz at 160V supply with 10 turns primary, one secondary. I
forced it into the existing setup, shorting the work coil and tank capacitor together, with this
thing inbetween, with the primary connected directly to the inverter output (still with coupling
capacitor).

The result? Immediate success. Whereas before, I was strugging to get 700W power output
from 240V supply with large reactive inverter currents (> 30ARMS), right away I got over
1000W from 120V supply with unity power factor!
Here are some waveforms. Above resonance, current is low and risetime is long (I still had an
output snubber connected at this time). Closer to (but not at) resonance, current is larger,
and since Q is high, phase is still nearly 90° (note: current transformer was backwards, so
the waveform is upside down). When Q is low enough to safely reach resonance (without
drawing dangerously high currents), current slides right into phase and power output goes
way up.

Next step, simplify. I doubled the number of turns on the output transformer, and doubled
the minimum frequency spec to 20kHz, cutting the required inductance down by a quarter,
allowing me to use just one core. I soldered together a new tank cap of 100 x 0.1μF MKPs
(these gray caps are cheaper and smaller than the blues from before, and don't handle nearly
as much current!).

Moving from proof of concept to prototyping, I put this together. From right to left: the
breadboard handles front panel functions (buttons, controls and lights); main control board
contains power supply, DC-DC converter, startup timer, overload latch and oscillator
(feedback circuit not yet implemented); the two gate drives on individual boards; the nearer
heatsink hides the output transistors, with coupling capacitors, supply capacitors and bridge
rectifier behind; and the output transformer, with tank capacitor and work coil on the far left.
Take a video tour:

And as I note in the video, I really ought to have a control circuit on top of that thing. That
was the very next thing I put together. The circuit is very similar to earlier circuits, with these
changes: feedback can be entirely inverter-side, so instead of taking tank voltage, inverter
current is monitored with a current transformer. Amplitude feedback is now in terms of
current (also from the current transformer), and instead of voltage, current phase is
measured relative to the inverter's output. (For isolation's sake, I get the inverter phase
(minus a few nanoseconds propagation delay) from the oscillator's output.) A type II phase
detector is used to ensure sufficient range (the XOR detector used earlier probably won't
actually work, and definitely won't work with the input phases chosen here.) I got rid of the
gate drives and DC-DC converter, since I'm building a fairly small unit here (I'll save those for
the 10kW model). Instead, the oscillator (a TL494) drives a pulse transformer which drives
the IGBTs directly. To compensate for the desat protection the gate drives had, a peak
current cutoff was added. The general block diagram is shown below.
With the circuit together and working, I put it in a fancy new chassis -- heavy aluminum, to
reflect the magnetic fields inside, whereas steel would absorb it and heat up.

Here's the inside view. Output network on the left, with cooling fan. The inverter board
mounts on the center divider (which keeps strong magnetic fields on the left side and
switching noise on the right), while the control board mounts on the right hand wall. Rectifier
and filter caps are also mounted to the divider. A line filter sits on the bottom.
And here's the look with the lid on. Yeah, it's obviously handmade, but it's not a disaster
either, it worked out fairly well considering it's what I had on hand. Notice the flare
connections on the left side to connect to the work coil, and the holes for water hoses in
front.
And here's what it can do. Now, you can't really tell because the camera doesn't read the
brightness very well, but this is a graphite disk about an inch across being heated to yellow
hot (you can tell the color by the glow on and around the coil). It took about a minute to get
there, drawing pretty close to 1000W, the inverter running at about 60V and 20A RMS, PF =
1.0 (the half-bridge inverter supplies a 160Vp-p square wave, which has an RMS fundamental
component of about 60V which actually drives the tank). A stack of pennies placed between
two wads of ceramic wool will take a few minutes to melt (it goes faster if you use a graphite
crucible, or preheat them because hot copper is fairly resistive).

Update 5/09/2010: Here's video of a properly built model. This is more like a production
model! It was built with homemade PCBs, (almost) all brand-new parts, and the chassis made
according to plan using 0.06" aluminum stock.
 Part Nine

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 Induction Heating
Congratulations are in Order!
I have essentially finished the big 10kW unit.

An in-progress shot, showing the unusually cramped chassis I built from some leftover pieces.
It's just barely enough to fit everything. The cap bank fits in the rear, copper tubes going
past the output transformer, which drives the tank in series resonance. 240V AC power
comes in from the rear, to the contactor. Precharge resistors to the left of the contactor
prevent turn-on surges. Brown wires come around from the bottom of the contactor to the
rectifier, a GBPC5008 50A 800V bridge. The rectifier feeds a bank of 16 × 470μF 200V
capacitors, arranged in series-parallel for a total of 1880μF 400V, with somewhat more ripple
current capacity than an equivalent capacitor in, say, Computer Grade style. Wires come
around the front of the divider, bringing 320VDC to the Inverter Board, which contains a
mess of coupling capacitors and the output transistors. Four FGH80N60DTU IGBTs are wired
in parallel pairs, half bridge, to drive the output transformer. Not visible, on the back side of
this divider, a water cooled heatsink keeps the transistors and rectifier cool. On the far right,
the Control Board supplies signals to the Gate Drive Boards, which are floating loose in this
picture.
This is how the chassis looks, put together. I cut up two aluminum trays, which came from
network hubs I think, and made a sort of clamshell structure, with front and rear cover
panels. Unfortunately, they have these circular indentations, which look really ugly on a front
panel, and make it difficult to mount pots and LEDs there. They can be pounded flat (one
obstructed the tank cap, which I had no choice but to pound out), but this leaves hammer
marks.

I had been having some problems, the main reason I took my time with this model. Here's an
example of the output waveform:
Typical values: inverter output (top), 300Vp-p square wave, 20kHz. Inverter current
(bottom), 80A peak, sinusoidal, nearly in phase (depending on how close to resonance it is).
This is all nice and fairy-tale perfect. Buuut...

This is the same thing, zoomed out, triggered on current spikes. Unfortunately I don't have a
 storage scope to get a proper look at whatever's going on here.

At any rate, what it seems to be is, the high side gate drive is sticking on, causing weirdness
to happen. The sudden change in duty cycle causes a large current spike, introducing an
offset to the voltage waveform as the coupling capacitors charge back up (possibly saturating
the output transformer as it returns to zero).

The reason the high side gate drive might stick on is because I made the unfortunate choice
of 6N136 for the optoisolator driving it. This is a moderate speed opto, composed of a
photodiode driving a regular transistor. The advantage of this over a phototransistor (e.g.,
4N35), is you can bypass the photodiode's supply, cutting Miller capacitance significantly, so
it works faster. The disadvantage is, the base node is incredibly sensitive to noise. The circuit
diagram shows an internal shield protecting it, but it hardly does anything. Part of the
problem is probably having the base brought out on a pin, which makes it very vulnerable.

The problem is common mode immunity. The switching speed of this circuit is around 100ns
to swing 300V, or 3kV/μs. Fairchild rates their 6N136 for 10kV/μs, which should be enough.
But the test is only for a 10V step, which is completely absurd! No kidding it can withstand
10kV/μs, it's injecting only 0.6pF × 10V = 6pC of charge, as long as the edge is faster than
the time constant. The transistor needs more to change state. If they had tested with a more
realistic step, like 100 or 500V, the dV/dt would've been embarassingly small, but at least a
useful measurement.

So what did I do? I shielded the hell out of it. I wrapped the opto with copper foil and
extended the ground on the circuit board. Miraculously, I haven't seen any further problems,
so testing goes on.

Baby's First Test

This is literally the very first time I powered it up on the 240V, 50A circuit -- at the other end
of the basement, because that's where my welder is, and where its circuit was installed. Not
rehearsed, what you see is the whole thing!

The steel pipe in the coil reached a peak temperature around yellow hot in this test. All my
previous videos suck instantly: this thing reaches a much higher temperature in seconds,
which the 1kW model takes a minute to reach! On a later test (I don't have it on video), I
kept heating this pipe. A seam melted right down the side -- that's right, I can melt steel
now.

Using a much larger coil (about 7" dia., wound with 3/8" copper tubing), I can easily
demonstrate skin effect with this steel slab. Video:
 This coil is big enough to fit a #4 crucible, so I shall soon be melting -- that is, as soon as I
get the money to buy a 50A extension cord (no way in hell am I melting steel indoors!) and a
more powerful water pump (I'm still using the same old submersible pump, which is no longer
enough even to keep the water from boiling in the pipes, let alone at the proper operating
temperature)...

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 Induction Heating
Update: I've been doing some hard design work on the final version. I've finished my first draft (the largest
schematic I've ever drawn on computer, 1310 x 1138...ack) and have moved on to the more useful board-oriented
schematics with a few improvements, below. Barring obvious errors I may've totally glazed over, it should be in a
working form. I'll be getting this reviewed by some other minds to make sure it's up to snuff, then test each
seperate segment for operation before connecting everything together and running it to a few kilowatts, then finally
full power. Hum, I hope someone has a 240V isolation transformer I can borrow.

Clarity is why I've broken this intimidating circuit into five interconnected schematics. Not only have I labeled the
parts (something I don't do much anymore in schematics), but I also labeled them by hundreds to be able to refer
to a specific component in a specific circuit segment with no ambiguity. All drawings copyright Tim Williams, 11-1-
2005.

Power Supply

This schematic has three segments to it. First, all three relays are turned off and only T101, R110 and R111 have
power. The resistors charge the high voltage supply capacitors before the main circuit switches on, reducing power-
on surge. Since T102 is off, the circuit is off and there is no high voltage load. Q101, D101, D102, R101 and R102
constitute a constant current source of low current (approximately 190μA) which charges C102 with a constant
slope of 1.9V/s. When it reaches 1/3 of the supply voltage (11.5V/3 ~= 3.8V; the time is thus about 2 seconds), the
bottom comparator switches and RL1 and thus RL2, the main contactor, is engaged, ready to handle full load
current. After another 2 seconds, the top comparator flips and RL3 passes power to T102, which supplies power to
the low-level circuits by FWB2, IC102, IC103 and, for the floating high-side driver, a cute resonant inverter
 consisting of C112, C113, R112 (which supplies base current to start oscillation) and T103, plus a supply bypass of
L103 and C111. Since this oscillator always runs to saturation when operating properly, the peak-to-peak voltage on
T103 is always equal to twice the supply voltage. It should operate over a wide range thanks to Zetex's wonderful
transistors with scary low saturation and massive hFE at high Ic (said ZTX651 is rated for β = 100 at Ic = 2A!).
(T103's secondary should have slighty more turns on the secondary to account for losses. The base drive winding
should be about a tenth of the primary, if even that; a few turns are usually sufficent for circuits like this.) After RL3
is engaged, the circuit turns on and significant current is drawn through FWB3, C103, L101, L102 and C105. C104
and C106 are provided, in addition to others at the inverter itself, for HF filtering, transient protection and peak
current supply for the inverter during switching.

Oscillator, Shutdown Circuitry

The oscillator is centered squarely around IC201 (yeah, so it's a third to the right on the schematic, so sue me!).
The SG3524, and other similar switchmode chips -- MB3759, KA7500, TL494, and others in the SG series -- are
free-running oscillators with pulse-width modulation and a push-pull output. Most come with uncommited output
transistors, meaning you can ground the emitters and use open collectors, or run the collectors to +V and use the
emitters to directly drive a small output transistor (or a large darlington or MOSFET), or whatever else your heart
desires. Here I use the emitters for their low impedance characteristic, one to drive an isolation transformer for the
high side and an equivalent circuit for the low side for timing reasons. (On the high side I have a current-limiting
resistor, R207. You'll see why below.)

The left half of this schematic is dedicated to the overload latch, which clamps duty cycle control in event of a
desaturation event (that is, IGBT collector voltage rising excessively while gate voltage is high) or other overload
situation. (I will put a DC current limit on this circuit later, and it will add another SCR.) Though the SG3524 has a
SHUTDOWN pin provided, I've grounded it because it is active-high; instead I have opted to shunt the control
voltage externally (an action comparable to the internal function of the SHUTDOWN pin). SW201 and the RC
components R208, R209, C205 constitute a turn-off network which gives a negative current pulse through the SCRs
to turn them off, with D201 clamping any excess charge. It should reset the circuit within 20μs, fast enough that it
can re-latch again if a fault condition is still encountered.

Feedback/Control Circuit
 The oscillator is the heart of the beast; the control circuit is the brain (as such). This monitors the vitals: inverter
current (read at the ground return of the AC-coupled output network), inverter voltage (the IGBT square wave
output) and tank voltage, and provides feedback to keep in check whichever has priority. The two voltages are
clipped by diodes D301-D304 and turned into happy square waves by IC301. The phase is detected by an XOR gate
(composed of IC302), filtered by R308 and C303 and compared to a variable voltage to a maximum of +V/2,
corresponding to Θ = 90°. Minus the phase detector, the other two properties -- voltage and current -- undergo
similar comparisons. Note that all three comparators are actually op-amps wired for a gain of ~45. I did this to
"soften" the response of the circuit. No, it won't be able to keep the voltage or current or phase exactly some value
against varying conditions, but I don't want this thing bouncing like the Tacoma Narrows bridge as it tries to settle
on some frequency! Oh, and speaking of frequency, since this varies a local oscillator's frequency in comparison to a
tuned circuit (which has a constant resonance frequency with respect to the circuit), it is a PLL (Phase Locked Loop).
At least...when you have Θ limiting it to a constant (locked) phase. Yeah.

IGBT Drivers, Desat Detectors

 These two very similar circuits drive the IGBTs. I could've gone with just a follower, but it needs biasing, not
something easily passed through an AC-only transformer. (The goal is positive 10-15V "ON"-state gate voltage,
negative 5-10V "OFF"-state.) I also can't go with just transistors, because I was suggested two things: a UVLO
(Under-Voltage Lock Out) and a desat(-uration) detector. Starting with T201, the slightly-greater-than-supply-
voltage signal passed from the oscillator is clamped by diodes D401 and D402, with current limited by R207 (on the
oscillator schematic). This is divided to about 6.4V peak (assuming +V = 12V and -V = -6V) and compared to the
zener reference voltage, 5V. Since 5 < 6.4, the comparator goes low, pulling Q401 on, which yanks Q404 and Q405
away from Q402 (which forms a current mirror with Q403), turning the IGBT "ON". If supply voltage drops below
14V total (i.e., +V - (-V); as shown, total is 18V), the comparator will never pull low.

Drive is made possible by a complementary pair of Zetex transistors, whose high speed and β allow a mere 10-
20mA current source to turn off a pair of chunky International Rectifier IGBTs. Peak current through the driver
should be around an ampere, for maybe half a microsecond total. This high rate of change will make a lot of trouble
so I have indicated bypass capacitors from IGBT to supply. I will also tack one across the ZTX's collectors to be sure
they stay nice and stiff.

Ground notes: see that the top and bottom circuits do NOT share the same ground! If you manage to forget and
connect them anyway, you'll end up shorting the output. The high side ground is local to just the high side driver
circuit. Another ground note: the low side IGBT emitter is already grounded (to main circuit ground, same as in
above schematics), so the mark indicated on this drawing is redundant. I added it here just for emphasis, in case
you forget that the emitter is grounded to the same ground shared by the +12V and -6V supplies.

A short description of the desat detectors before I move on. R407 (R507) couples the collector voltage to the other
comparator half IC401b (IC501b), whose input is clamped within safe limits by diodes D404, D405 (D502, D503).
When collector voltage is greater than the voltage set on the trimpot R408 (R508), the comparator switches high,
unloading D406 (D504). Now, this happens every half cycle no biggie, so we need to logical-AND this with the gate
voltage, hence D407 (D505). If, at any time, gate AND collector voltage happen to be high, Q406 is allowed to rise
and current flows through the optoisolator. On the low side, a transistor and opto aren't necessary so it leads back
with a single wire. In both cases, a TRUE output from the desat detector for more than 5-20μs will trip the
respective SCR on the oscillator circuit, shutting it down without damage to the IGBT junction (hopefully!).

Output Stage
 Simple enough: picking up where the drivers left off, the inverter handles the amps and volts of the device. R601-
604 are recommended for some reason, parasitics I suppose. They limit peak current to about one ampere total,
assuming a perfect risetime from the driver stages. Note the connection points for collector and emitter; with 50A
per transistor switching off in 1μs or faster, the resistance and, more importantly, inductance of just a few inches
can generate significant error voltages. To reduce this as much as possible, I am going to use flat copper to connect
the transistors to bypass capacitors (a few of which are shown here), then to the power supply with stiff wire. I may
also use snubbers and commutation capacitors at each transistor to improve efficiency (i.e., keeping Vc low while Ic
switches off).

After the transistors, C603 blocks DC voltage, since I don't want to use a +/- (bipolar) supply for the circuit. (This
choice simplifies measuring current in the circuit, but makes for an unhappy situation: not only do I have 120VAC
from circuit to ground, I have 50A behind it! A good reason for plastic-handled screwdrivers, ladies and gentlemen.)
L601 is a rather beefy piece of copper and ferrite, required to couple the fast-changing, efficient squarewave output
of the inverter to the round sine wave of the resonant tank. Lmatch has to be rated about 10A at 250μH, on up to
50A or so at 50μH. The former isn't so hard to do (I've wound 18AWG bifilar on an old flyback transformer core for
it, for testing), but I've yet to see a piece of ferrite large enough to do the 50-50 coil. From there, ah yes, the tank
itself. Fill in the blank here: as long as the coil and cap don't melt, you can hook it up and give it some volts!

A great thanks to Terry Given, "The Phantom" and all the others on sci.electronics.design for helping me get things
to this point.

Part Seven

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 Induction Heating
Since last time, I've picked up a bit more knowledge, thanks in some part to various e-mail
and forum discussions. Although the previous circuit will work if scaled up, the MOSFETs have
to handle all of the reactive current. The power supply also needs to be stiffer, although total
power consumption is only equal to the load, since the flyback currents regenerate the supply
- which makes sense, since a pure inductance is entirely lossless. Here, I'll show you the
physics:

Start with a variable dead time square wave. This is fed to a pair of MOSFETs (mind the
transformer polarity). You don't have to use MOSFETs, that's just how I chose to draw it (but
they ARE easier to use). At any rate, starting with the top MOSFET turning on:

Inductor voltage (VL) rises to +V.

Inductor current starts increasing at the rate di/dt = V/L.
When the MOSFET turns off, the current stored in the inductor looks for a way out and the voltage freewheels.
Inductor voltage is clamped by the lower MOSFET, which has an intrinsic body diode. The same equation
applies, and since voltage is negative (from the inductor's point of view), di/dt is negative as well. Current
starts falling.
Depending on the dead time, the flyback pulse may completely discharge the inductor, in which case a certain
amount of dead time may appear where the inductor has little energy in it (undamped, parasitic capacitance
will cause it to ring, excited by the dV/dt of the fall to zero). This is shown on VL as a partial line, and, due to
the low duty cycle, very wide on the oscillograph shown below.
 After the initial charging peak, the MOSFET releases the inductor, which flies back to the opposing MOSFET whose body
diode clamps the pulse to the supply rail (which due to poor regulation is a bit higher in voltage, thus narrower in width
than the charging pulse. The ringing is probably due to the solderless breadboard). Dampened ringing is seen after the
pulse; without a snubber, it's downright ugly.

If the MOSFET does turn on as its terminal voltage is reversing (remember, during the flyback pulse, the
junction is reverse-biased, with the body diode sinking inductor current, which is dropping towards zero then
reversing), the waveform is a continuous square wave.
Inductor current IL ideally follows a triange wave, but loss including supply resistance, Rds drop,
induced/radiated power and others contribute to an RL exponential curve instead.

And lastly, to complete this discussion: with lossless devices, power consumption is zero
because if you follow the amperes, you'll notice that, during a half cycle, one MOSFET first
sinks current back into the power supply rail, before drawing it back out to charge the
inductor so the opposing 'FET can do the same.

Now - why the above sucks

Although it does have full control of the inductor (and very simple ways to control power
output: supply voltage, driven frequency or duty cycle), that control comes at the price of
carrying all the reactive current. Just how much?

Well, if you consider the coupling factor K of the work coil to the work (imagine the work as a
one-turn coil, loaded with resistance equal to the circumference's resistance) is roughly
proportional to the ratio of their areas, then say you have a 2" dia. coil working into a 1" rod:
the diameter is half, area is quarter and K ~= 0.25. That represents a circuit composed of
roughly 3/4 of the work coil's (empty) inductance, which is lossless, plus a small (1/4)
resistive component that actually dissipates power. As such, Q is around 3 or 4 (again, very
roughly...I'm not doing mutual inductance or phased vectors here). And, as such, that means
for every ampere of current sent to the inductor that's causing the work to heat, three amps
go along just to make the inductor bounce! (Contrast this with a power transformer, where
due to the high permeability iron core, inductance is high and reactive current is low, a mere
fraction of total current capacity. This is the advantage of cored channel induction furnaces,
which are unfortunately impractical on this scale.)

In a perfect world, these extra amps go along for the ride and come back to the power supply
on the next cycle, and indeed it does, but we need to swap this current through real-world
devices, which tend to get very expensive and power-consuming when you push a hundred or
two amperes through them.

So let's cancel that nasty little reactive inductance. How do we do that? The exact opposite of
inductance, capacitance. Now, there's two ways, series and parallel - series doesn't really
work, because in a series circuit, current must be equal. (Voltage is canceled instead.) So we
need a parallel resonant circuit to cancel the current. Voltage isn't an issue since devices
which can handle upwards of 800V are easy to find.

Since the work coil is small, to get a reasonable frequency (usually in the range of 300Hz to
50kHz), a large capacitance is necessary, say 1 to 100uF. The low L/C ratio means large
currents, which though bypassed away from our precious transistors, are now having a free-
for-all at the capacitor. This needs stiff capacitors. Aside from industrial grade units
manufactured specifically for this service, your best bet is probably polypropylene - anything
rated for rough use; high pulse or continuous currents and so forth.

Now that we've got the reactive currents in check, we need to drive it efficiently. The most
efficient choice by far is class D, that is, switching. If you operate your transistors in only two
states, fully OFF (zero current) or fully ON (zero voltage), they never dissipate any power!
Reality sticks us with leakage current, switching time and forward voltage, but we can still get
85% easily - that means 175W dissipated for a cool kilowatt output. But there's a catch: that
capacitance doesn't like to be switched. The harmonics from shifting just a few volts in a
quarter microsecond will draw tens of amperes! One easy way to allow things to change
voltage rapidly is to add inductance, so let's add another circuit element.

I've split the tank capacitance into two elements, Cmatch and CT, because that's how it
actually works. Since Cmatch must vary with Lmatch for a given frequency, varying just L
varies the resonant frequency of the tank (if you don't provide a seperate Cmatch). This
actually means we are series resonant with Lmatch and Cmatch, while the tank is still parallel
resonant. Viola!

More detailed info on the subject at Richie Burnett's Induction Heater.

One final blurb in this page before I say goodnight: I updated my driver schematic. It's a bit
faster and a bit more powerful now.
I knew from day one the previous double-buffered drive was slow, but I didn't bother to fix it
because I already had the SG3524 tacked between +V and GND on the breadboard. I got off
my ass today and rearranged it, updated the follower with some faster transistors (fT typ
8MHz instead of 3MHz) and wound a somewhat larger driver transformer (with 24AWG wire)
as well. The G.P. PNP needs to be rated for supply voltage and at least 100mA; at +/-17V,
2N4403 is a close call but will work. I've got a 2SA1015 in there right now (complement to
the oft-seen C1815); the last version had a pair of A970's. It pushes a 15 ohm resistor
cleanly, so it's got plenty of current capacity. The oscillographs below are with 47 ohm >
2.7nF loads on each winding.

Medium duty cycle, 90kHz. Slight overshoot. "Gate" waveform (load capacitor voltage);
winding side waveform is only slightly sharper.
 Full duty cycle, no shoot-through that I can tell. A welcome change from the TIP31/32
follower I had previously which couldn't go much over 35% duty cycle!

8kHz waveform. You can start to see transformer inductance cutting into the flat areas. Much
lower and flyback current upsets the null areas. I don't know what the step is on the positive
pulse.

Oh yes, the induction heater! Next test I'm planning involves a half bridge of my six
remaining STW11NB80's and whatever voltage I feel like bringing it up to. I need the tank
capacitors first.

Part Five
 Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 0

Induction Heating
Now I've got the basic idea down, time to scale it up. Bipolars aren't easy to get in this size --
say, 400V 30A -- so I'm going to try MOSFETs. (Yeah, I know, a few HOT's like 2SD1887 and
its cousins, paralleled, would make a skookum BJT for this. But I had already ordered 10 x
MJE18008 from Digi-Key before I realized I could find those cheap from replacement
suppliers..)

So anyways, here's the spread: 100V power transformer (two MOT primary windings, one is
smaller apparently, hence the non 120V output), FWB and cap bank, as well as two strings
each of 10 x 0.1 and 10 x 0.47μF capacitors, one set for power supply bypass and the other
for resonating directly on the coil. And of course, the 10 x STW11NB80's (the other six are in
the baggie) which I ordered from Mouser.

Since MOSFETs switch so nicely, it would be a mistake to try a negative resistance situation
like a self-excited oscillator with their fragile gates. So I tried shooting for class D instead,
using my signal generator to drive them. Two in parallel for starters.

BIIIIG mistake. I hadn't realized that MOSFETs don't much like fighting against 6 microfarads
of drain load and the switching harmonics essentially exploded them. Instantaneously, what
happened is: signal, gate rises. MOSFET turns on. Drain current goes through the roof. Drain
voltage starts to move. Slowly. Drain current still high. Voltage slightly lower.
Can't....hold....much....longer.....*pow*. We're talking instantaneous dissipation of around
500W, or more. But...the part that really pisses me off is, they felt like failing by shorting
exactly three leads together. Which means I got +100V on the (unisolated) input of my signal
generator. Shit. To add insult to injury, I didn't notice what was making that smell until the
damaged parts had smouldered away a bit inside the generator, fully preventing any hope of
replacing the toasted resistors and transistors.

So screwed out of a signal source, I'll have to go back to self-excited. Or a breadboarded

oscillator, like uh, a 555 or something stupid. Not very PWM enabled, so it's back to the
bipolars. (You can do self-excited class C with BJT's because collector current depends on
base current, and the drive winding is easier constant current due to the weak coupling. It
also means power is consumed, which makes the drive winding feel useful.) Well, I've got
these MJE18008's and the power supply, but no heatsink for them. Guess I'll have to cast
one. Yeah...like that'll happen! Eventually I scratched up 6 x 2SC2625s, which are popular in
AT size computer supplies. Then, I have absolutely no idea how, I managed to squentially
blow each and every one, in order. I'm guessing parasitics, but we'll never know. I had them
paralleled with 0.15 ohm Re's, so it can't be that bad. That never got any heat output, though
I got oscillations for about a second before the next transistor failed shorted.

Enter the NON resonant system. I finally decided that I'll have to bite the bullet and eat
reactive current through the switching devices and power supply. On the other hand, no
capacitive reactance means the system can respond in nanoseconds (50 or so), practically
eliminating commutation loss. But you can't just feed PWM to a common half bridge circuit
such as this:

Because the FETs take time to turn off, but nearly none to turn on, you will get feedthrough
currents momentarily shorting the power supply, and costing dissipation to boot. Hence the
dead time illustrated in the input waveform. (Not shown on the above: gate slow-down
resistors, possibly gate-clamping zeners and the intrinsic diodes in the MOSFETs.) So I need
to generate that somehow. It just so happens I have an SG3524 on hand, which used to be a
popular switchmode PWM generator chip. With a little extra help, it's basically perfect for the
application. Here's the latest breadboarding exercise:

The chip is wired almost like the test circuit, except the current-limiting amp (pins 4 and 5) is
disconnected. The open collector outputs, pins 12 and 13, pull current from a pair of PNP's
which then control the complementary follower. (Yes, I know if I grounded the chip to the
negative rail instead, I could remove two transistors.) The G.P. transistors need only to
handle the voltage and moderate current; I used 2SA970 and 2SC2362. The TIP31/32C
follower is overkill, but for some reason it dissipates a lot of power so I even have little
heatsinks on them. Go figure. The transformer is on a toroidial black powdered iron core,
which seems to perform quite nicely. Coupling and inductance are very good; with the turns
 and voltage shown, saturation doesn't occur until 10kHz at 49% duty cycle.

The circuit appears to operate as it should, at least with a resistive load. An inductor just
screws it up though, and I have no idea why. At the very least, it appears to saturate at
+/-10V, meaning the transistors are somehow dropping 7V *in both directions* (turned ON,
then reverse-biased as the intrinsic diode handles the flyback). That has me stump-diddly-
umped...

Part Four

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 0

Induction Heating
Yes, I'm real late in putting this up. So it's going up with number three. *shrug* Anyways,
where I left off was here:

Heating the getter of a 12AT7, I think, for no reason at all (you could invision "reflashing the
getter" and selling them for tens of dollars apiece, which I probably should do, but mind you
no actual metal is evaporated - the getter is fully flashed from the factory). With the setup I
could get most of the insides of such a tube red hot - about 20W plate dissipation!

This is the same exact circuit as the previous page, except with two 2SC3519's in parallel
(with 0.15 ohm emitter resistors to share the current). I had originally set this up on the
bench supply, but after figuring I couldn't possibly torture the poor thing any more (it was
 dragging the +/-15V supply down to 20V!), I switched to a different transformer. This one
seen here was supposed to be a Tiny Tim Mk.2, but didn't have enough voltage (only 18V) so
it was laying around until now. It's still not enough voltage, so I used a beefy double diode
(on the black heatsink) and some capacitors to double it, netting 45VDC or so. I measured
40V at 5A load current at one point, so the circuit was drawing 200W -- not bad for just
swapping a transformer!

Here I am using it to heat a strip of transformer iron. It is worth note that this new coil is
eight times the volume, yet reaches higher temperatures! The center of the hot spot is
probably a bit over the curie temperature. Until I get a much greater power density, I'm not
going to be getting much hotter than that, since the hysteresis loss and focusing effects
contribute a lot of heating.

Part Three

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 0

Induction Heating
Few have attempted this. A quick Google on "induction furnace" would give you the
impression it's purely an industrial persuit in the megawatt range! Indeed, probably the
cheapest unit you'll find is around $10,000. To date I haven't seen ONE functional purpose-
built ameteur made induction heating unit. The closest anyone has come seems to be
PowerLabs - a successful, though inefficient and massively RFI emitting setup. Dan has lots of
information and looks to be halfway there but hasn't updated his page in years..

Theory
You know how transformers work, right? Voltage in, voltage out... Well what happens when
you short the winding? Gets hot right? By George, you've just discovered induction heating.
Not much use (channel induction furnaces aside), so let's open up the coil. Say, solenoid.
Switch to air core (so we can fit the work in it instead) and higher frequency (so we don't
need a massive air core coil) and you're pretty much there. But coupling rears its ugly head:
you no longer get 1 volt/turn in, 1 volt/turn out. So you need a lot of voltage on the coil to
get any power in the work. But it also doesn't need much - at least at the power level on this
page - I was suprised to see it works much better with 12 turns instead of 6; and most online
examples have far fewer than that!

My Circuit


This is my simple circuit: a 2SC3519 on stilts on a breadboard, a few support components

and The Coil© (wound on an empty solder spool). Didn't get a pic of the scope trace but it's
just a 50kHz sine wave with peak amplitude convieniently equal to supply voltage (minus
saturation voltage, that is), a little junk at the bottom when the transistor switches and AM-
style ripple on top. Fully self-excited class C operation: self-adjusting to match the load (often
a load, particularly iron, will reduce the resonant frequency). The one turn pickup winding can
be a piece of wire running loosely around the coil, or maybe one loop (aka two turns) if you
need more drive.

Mind the parts - the coil needs to be of heavy wire (drive winding doesn't matter) and the
resonant capacitor has to be rated for high current. A later test used 2.2uH at 110kHz and
25Vrms - that's 16 amperes between the cap and coil!
So how does it do?
 Now this is a REALLY, really bad photograph. Apparently this room is so damned dark that the
camera (not the bad camera, mind you) picks up about 3 bits of intensity information. And I
always figured my room was brighter than the foundry area at night! (I've taken some dark
pics there and they came out fine.) Oh well. I'll try to explain anyway: the thick black line
coming from the left is a coathanger. The four smaller lines are leads for the coil and pickup
winding (two turns here to account for the 20T coil). So what's that bright spot in the middle?
Incandescence! :D To be exact, it was about 1400°F, near (though not quite at) the curie
point.

Other things I've heated: transformer laminations (1" and 1/2" wide), steel washers, pennies,
aluminum heatsink, popcan (the last three don't work too well, probably too conductive),
tube shields (these work well), tubes (6AU6, 12AU7, etc.), and anything else that fits inside
the coil while being conductive. The coathanger is all I've managed to heat red hot though.

The nice thing about induction is it exactly follows the laws of electromagnetism, so with
some computing you can come up with coil geometries to evenly and quickly (or if the case,
slowly or unevenly) heat just about any shape. Some good examples here.

And that's it. Next time -- increased output power. Or, since I can't get any more power out
of this dinky supply (it's only 50W - maybe 75 if I punish it), I'll try the same things with
tubes. Start with a 6BG6 then gradually move up to a pair of 4CX250R's... :D

Part Two

Return to Electronics

Web page maintained by Tim Williams. All rights reserved.

 Find price and inventory from the leading distributors:

{term)
FIND PARTS

 News Articles Biblio Circuits Datasheets Sites Devices Prices Forum More  

Search by section Circuits ... Search  Arduino  Manufacturers

  Circuits  Arduino  Supply  TinyUPS - Uninterruptible Power …

TinyUPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply based on ATtiny13A

08-12-2020
Stefan Wagner

github.com

Overview
TinyUPS is a simple 5 V/2.5 A uninterruptible power supply with a li-ion battery as a buffer, a load
sharing power path management system and an ATtiny13 for monitoring power supply and battery
charge level as well as for communication with the connected device (Figure 1). TinyUPS Block
Slices 
diagram shown in Figure 2, you can see Project page on github.com [1].
• Microcontrollers

• e-Newsletter Subscription
• Contacts

   

• Privacy Policy
• Change Privacy Settings

Figure 1. TinyUPS is a simple 5 V/2.5 A uninterruptible power supply with a li-ion battery.

Figure 2. TinyUPS Block diagram.

Working Principle
If external power is connected to the tinyUPS the input voltage or vcc of the ATtiny13 is delivered by
this source, otherwise by the battery. The ATtiny13 monitors the input voltage and tells the connected
device to shutdown by pulling the SHUTDOWN-line low when the input voltage falls below a certain
threshold (SHUTDOWNLEVEL). This happens when the external power source is diconnected or
disabled and the battery level falls below this threshold. After waiting a certain time
(SHUTDOWNTIMER) to allow the connected device to safely shut down, the ATtiny13 deactivates the
boost converter and turns off the power to the connected device. If the input voltage rises again above
a certain threshold (POWERONLEVEL) it activates the boost converter and turns on the power to the
connected device. This happens when the external power source is available again. When power is
turned on a BOOTUPTIMER starts to count. If a shutdown is initiated before the boot up is completed,
the left-over time is added to the SHUTDOWNTIMER in order to allow the connected device to
completely boot up and shut down. A shutdown can also be initiated by pressing and holding the
button or by setting the REQUEST-line to high (>0.7 V) for 2 seconds. After such shutdowns the power
will not be turned on again automatically. The power to the connected device can be turned on
manually by pressing the button or setting the REQUEST-line to high if the battery level is above a
certain threshold (USERPOWERLEVEL) or the external power source is connected.

The SHUTDOWN pin of the tinyUPS is an open collector output. The connected device must have an
internal or external pullup resistor on the SHUTDOWN line! This is necessary because of the different
voltage levels.

The ATtiny13 spends most of the time in power-down sleep mode to save energy. The watch dog
timer wakes it up every 8 seconds. It will also wake up if the button was pressed or the REQUEST-line
was changed (pin change interrupt). After doing its stuff the ATtiny13 sleeps again. The current status
of the tinyUPS is indicated by 5 LEDs (Table 1).

Table 1. Current status of the tinyUPS.

LED State

VIN: on external power is connected

CHARGE: on battery is charging

FULL: on battery is fully charged (is only shown if external power is connected)

STATUS: steady on normal power-on operation

STATUS: blinking in shutdown sequence

STATUS: short flashes in standby (short flash occurs every 8 seconds)

VOUT: on output power is turned on

For battery charging the TP4056 is used. The TP4056 is a complete constant-current/constant-voltage
linear charger for single cell lithium-ion batteries (Figure 3). The charge voltage is fixed at 4.2 V and
the charge current (max 1000 mA) can be programmed externally with a single resistor (R3). The
TP4056 automatically terminates the charge cycle when the charge current drops to 1/10th the
programmed value after the final float voltage is reached. Other features include current monitor, under
voltage lockout and automatic recharge.

Figure 3. TinyUPS Schematic Daigram.

For the battery protection (overcharge, overdischarge, overcurrent and short circuit protection) the
DW01A is used in combination with two FS8205 dual MOSFETs in parallel. The DW01A is constantly
measuring the voltage across the battery and the current flowing in (when charging) or coming out
(when discharging). If something goes wrong it takes the battery out of the circuit by closing the
MOSFETs which act like a switch between the negative side of the battery (B-) and ground. The
overcurrent protection works by comparing the voltage drop across the MOSFET with the internal
150 mV reference of the DW01A. As the RDS(on) of one FS8205 is around 2×25 mOhm, the DW01A
would close the MOSFET at 150 mV/50 mOhm = 3 A if only one FS8205 were used. By using two
FS8205 in parallel, the resistance is cut in half, so the DW01A shuts down at 150 mV/25 mOhm = 6 A
and one FS8205 must only handle half of the current (3 A) which is well within its specs. In this way,
up to 6 amps can flow from the battery into the boost converter with a maximum voltage drop of
150 mV.

To step up the voltage to 5 V the FP6277 low-cost synchronous boost converter is used. Instead of a
diode that is used in conventional boost converters, it switches a second built-in MOSFET in sync with
the first via the PWM signal. This significantly increases efficiency and thus higher output currents are
possible.

The entire project is available in EasyEDA [3] and in download section.

Although it would be possible to supply the connected device via the battery and charge the battery at
the same time, this is absolutely not a recommended way. In this case, most charging ICs such as the
TP4056 are unable to determine whether the battery is fully charged because the current never drops
below 1/10th of the programmed charging current value which would tell the device to terminate the
charging cycle. The battery would be charged forever, which would destroy it in the long run. A load
sharing system was therefore integrated, which separates the battery from the load when an external
power is present. While the battery is being charged, the connected device is powered by the external
power supply. For more details on the working principle of the load sharing power path management
circuit refer to [2].

Performance
External power supply should be capable of delivering enough power to charge the battery and to
power the connected device simultaneously. The maximum battery charging current is set to 1000 mA
but you can set a lower limit by selecting a different value of R3. The output voltage of the external
power supply must not exceed 5.2 V (Table 2)! Choose a good 18650 Li-Ion battery with a low internal
resistance which is capable of delivering up to 6 A!

Figure 4 shows the oscillogram of the TinyUPS output voltage when the external power source is
disconnected and switches to battery. Channel 1 (yellow) - external power supply voltage, channel 2
(blue) - UPS output voltage. Figure 5 is a waveform of the TinyUPS output voltage when the external
power source is turned on (switching from backup battery to external source) .The output voltage ripple
at 1 A output current is shown in Figure 6.

Table 2. TinyUPS Technical specification.

Parameter Value

Input Voltage 4.5 - 5.2 V

Output Voltage 4.8 - 5.2 V

Output Current Max 2.5 A

Charging Current Max 1000 mA

Standby Current 95 uA

 
 Figure 4. TinyUPS output voltage when the external power source is disconnected and switch to battery

Figure 5. TinyUPS output voltage when the external power source is turned on

Figure 6. TinyUPS Output voltage ripple at 1 A output current.

Notes
The EP plate of the FP6277 requires a good conductive connection to the corresponding plate on the
PCB.

References
1. Project page on github.com
2. Designing A Li-Ion Battery Charger and Load Sharing System
3. TinyUPS project in EasyEDA

Downloads
1. Schematic and PCB files, Arduino scketch, Software and instructions for Raspberry Pi
 Subscribe e-Newsletter to Stay Informed on New Materials of Our Website!

You may have to register before you can post comments User Name User Name Remember Me?
and get full access to forum. Password Log in

Related publications 

• Circuits  Uninterruptible Alarm Power Supply

• News  Cymbet Launches CBC3105 Uninterruptible Power Supply in a Chip — EnerChip CC CBC3105
• News  International Rectifier Introduces Highly Efficient, Industrial-Qualified MOSFETs for Uninterruptible
Power Supply and Motor Control — IRF8010, IRF8010L, IRF8010S
• Circuits  Power Supply Analyzer with USB Interface based on ATtiny814
• News  IBM delivers Power-based chip for Microsoft Xbox 360 worldwide launch
0 SEP OCT NOV
http://webpages.charter.net/dawill/tmoranwms/Circuits_2010/Resistor_Grid_5.png
Go

⍰
❎
1 capture 27
f

27 Oct 2015 2014 2015 2016 ▾ About this capture

0
Internet Archive logo A line
Search Metadata drawing of the OF
USER ICON AN ILLUSTRATION Internet Archive HEAD AND CHEST.
A PERSON'S
SIGN UP FOR FREE
headquarters building façade LOG IN

Search text contents

DONATE

Search TV news captions

Search radio transcripts

http://webpages.charter.net/dawill/tmoranwms/Circuits_2010/Resistor_Grid_4.png
Search archived websites
replay
Latest
Advanced Search
urlquery
Show All

Hrm.
The Wayback Machine has not archived that URL.

This page is not available on the web

because of server error

Click here to search for all archived pages under

http://webpages.charter.net/dawill/tmoranwms/Circuits_2010/

The Wayback Machine is an initiative of the

Internet Archive

,
a 501(c)(3) non-profit, building a digital library of
Internet sites and other cultural
artifacts in digital form.

Other

projects

include

Open Library

&

archive-it.org

.
Your use of the Wayback Machine is subject to the Internet Archive's

Terms of Use