JIMMA UNIVERSITY SPECIAL SECONDARY SCHOOL.

CHEMISTRY GRADE 11 SHORT NOTES ON UNIT THREE. DECEMBER, 2015.

CHAPTER THREE
CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE
A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule, compound, or a crystal lattice.
Q.1. Why do atoms readily combine to form molecule? Ans: 1. In order to attain a stable electron configuration
like noble gases electron configuration. 2. In order to possess lower energy potential.
Q.2. Why do atoms or elements combine in certain fixed ration? Ans: In a molecule there will always be integer
numbers of a certain atom. Atoms are singular units of molecules. For example you can never have 3.5 oxygen
atoms or 2.494 chlorine atoms in a compound.
 Noble gases have very stable electron arrangement such as 2; 2, 8; 2, 8, 8; 2, 8, 18, 8; 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, and
their outer shells are fully saturated. Except helium al noble gases have a stable ns 2np6 electron
configuration.
 Octet rule states that during the formation of a chemical compound, each atom has octet (8) electrons in its
highest occupied energy level by gaining, losing or sharing of electrons. For example CH 4, CO2, NH3 obey
the octet rule.
Types of Chemical Bonding
There are three main types of chemical bonds, covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds.
A. Ionic bonding. It is also called electrovalent bonding. Ionic bonding is formed by electron transfer from
a metal to a non-metal with different electronegativity values.
Fore ample the formations of sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2Na+Cl-(s)
3s1 3s23p5 [Ne][Ar]
When particles have opposite electric charges, a force of attraction, exists b/n them; known as electrostatic force of
attraction. Metal + Non-metal Ionic compound; except NH4+ it is not a metal
Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols
The American Chemist Gilbert N. Lewis (1875–1946) created a simple shorthand system for depicting the
electrons involved in bonding and the sequence of atoms in a molecule. In a Lewis electron-dot symbol of an
atom, the element symbol represents the nucleus and inner electrons, (core electrons), and it is surrounded by a
number of dots equal to the number of valence electrons.
For example the Lewis dot symbol for phosphorus atom can be written as :
Example-1 Write the Lewis electron-dot symbol for:- A. Nitrogen B. Sulphur C. Chlorine D. Neon E. Carbon
F. Oxygen
Example-2 Use Lewis electron-dot symbols to show the transfer of electron from magnesium atoms to nitrogen
atoms to form ions with noble gas electron configurations. What is the formula and name of the product?

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The Lewis Electron Dot Symbols of the Main group Elements IA-VIIIA

Formation of Ionic Bonding

Lattice Energy (U. L.E): Is the energy released when one mole of cations and one mole of anions combine
together to form one mole of ionic compound. It is also the energy required to break one mole of ionic solid into
isolated ions.
It affects strength, melting point, hardness, and solubility of ionic compounds. It can not be measured directly. But
the lattice energy of many compounds have been determined by using Hess’s law of heat summation, which states
that an over all reaction’s enthalpy change is the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual reactions that make
it up. i.e ∆Htotal = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3 +...
Lattice energies can be calculated through a Born-Haber cycle, in which a series of steps from elements to ionic
compounds for which all the change in enthalpies are known except the lattice energy.
For example, the formations of sodium chloride NaCl;

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Fig: The Born-Haber cycle for NaCl

Example -1 Using the following data:
Enthalpy of sublimation of Ca = +178.2 kJ mol–1; Enthalpy of dissociation of Cl2 = +243.4 kJ mol–1; Enthalpy of
formation of CaCl2 = –795.8 kJ mol–1; First and second Ionization energies for Ca are +590 kJ mol–1 and +1145
kJ mol–1 respectively. The electron affinity of Cl = –348.7 kJ mol–1. Determine the lattice energy of CaCl2
Answer: UCaCl2 =-2255KJ/mole
Example-2 Draw Born-Haber cycle for the formation of strontium chloride?
Example-3 Use the following data to calculate the enthalpy of formation of strontium chloride. You must write all
thermochemical equations for the steps of the cycle. The enthalpy of sublimation of strontium = + 164 kj/mole;
First ionization energy for strontium = + 549 kj/mole ;Second ionization energy for strontium = + 1064 kj/mole;
The enthalpy of dissociation of chlorine, Cl2 = + 243 kj/mole; The electron affinity of chlorine, Cl = - 349 kj/mole
Lattice energy of strontium chloride = - 2150 kj/mole. Answer= - 828 Kj.
Example-4 Use the following data to calculate the lattice energy of calcium oxide. You must write all
thermochemical equations for the steps of the cycle.

The enthalpy of formation of calcium oxide (solid) = - 636 kj/mole; The enthalpy of sublimation of calcium= + 192
kj/mole; First ionization energy of Ca = + 590 kj/mole; Second ionization energy of Ca= +1145 kj/mole; The
enthalpy of dissociation of O2 (g) = + 494 kj/mole; First electron affinity of O (g) = - 141 kj/mole; Second electron
affinity of O (g) = + 845 kj/mole. Answer : -3514 Kj.
Factors Affecting Formation of Ionic Bonding
The formation of ionic bonding is mainly affected by:
1. Ionization energy (IE): low ionization energy of metallic elements favors the formation of an ionic bond. That is
why alkali and alkaline earth metals form ionic compounds.
2. Electron affinity (EA): the elements having higher electron affinity (non-metals) favor the formation of an ionic
bond. Halogens have high electron affinities, and therefore halogens generally form ionic compounds when they
react with metals.
3. Lattice energy (U): Larger lattice energy would favor the formation of an ionic bond. Lattice energy is a measure
of coulombic attractive force between the combining ions. If the coulombic attraction forces are stronger, then
more energy gets released and a more stable or a stronger ionic bond is formed. The lattice energy (U) of an ionic
compound depends directly on the product of the ionic charges (q1 × q2), and inversely on the distance (r) between
them. U∝ q1Xq2/r; where q1 and q2 are the charges on +ve and –ve ions respectively, and r is the distance between
the charges q1 and q2.
Note: The smaller the size and the larger the magnitude of the charge, the higher is the lattice energy.
For example: The lattice energy of LiCl is greater than CsCl because lithium gas smaller size than cesium.
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Lattice energy of MgO is greater than that of NaF because the charge of Mg is +2 while that of Na is +1.
Exceptions to Octet Rule in Ionic Compounds
1. Less than Octet (Central Atom is Deficient of Electrons): Ions of some elements which are near to helium in the
periodic table do not obey the octet rule. These ions are H –, Li+, Be2+, B3+are isoelectronic with He. compounds like
LiH, BeCl2 and BF3 are stable, but they do not obey octet rule. H, Li, Be, B they obeyed duplet rule/ rule of two.
2. More than Octet (18-Electron Rule): The ions of some transition elements and post-transition elements do not
usually obey the octet rule. Transition metals, obey the 18-electron rule, due to the involvement of “d” orbitals of
these atoms.
For example: Electron Configurations of Iron: 26Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Fe2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6; 26Fe3+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 Fe2+ is a well-known stable ion with a valence shell
26

electron configuration 3s23p63d6 which is not isoelectronic with any of the noble gases.
Electron configurations of zinc: 30Zn2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 is not isoelectronic with any of the noble gases.
Electron configurations of gallium: The post-transition element gallium (Ga) loses electrons first from the 4p
orbital and then from the 4s orbital to from a Ga3+ ion as: 31Ga: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
31Ga+3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p63d10 : [Ar]3d10 . Zn2+ and Ga3+, obeyed the 18 electron rule.
 The heavier post-transition elements like Pb and Sn lose the p electrons or both the p
and s electrons from the valence shell.
Sn: [Kr]5s24d105p2; 50Sn2+: [Kr]5s24d10; 50Sn4+: [Kr]4d10
50

Generally, these properties are exhibited by ions of elements from

i) Group IB and Group IIB (transition elements) and ii) Group IIIA and Group IVA (heavier post-transition
elements)
Neither of these configurations are noble gas configurations.
General Properties of Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. The fundamental units of ionic solid are
positive and negative ions;
 They usually have high melting and boiling points;
 They are usually brittle and non-conductors of electricity in the solid state;
 They are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in aqueous solutions;
 Ionic compounds are nonvolatile;
 Ionic compounds are usually soluble in inorganic solvents (water is the most common solvent for ionic
compounds) but insoluble in organic solvents like benzene, ethanol and carbon tetrachloride.
COVALENT BONDING AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Formation of Covalent Bonding

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A covalent bond is formed when pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
For example, HCl, H2S, C2H4, N2, CCl4, NH3, SO2, PCl5, O3, BCl3 etc. are covalent molecules.
Representation of Covalent Bond (Drawing Lewis Structures)
Rules for writing Lewis structures of Covalent Compounds:
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons.
2. Write the skeletal structure. The most electropositive atom usually occupies the central position. Except
hydrogen,
it is always a terminal atom. Connect bonded atoms with an electron pair bond (a dash)
3. Place electron pairs around terminal atoms so that each (except hydrogen) has an octet.
4. Assign any remaining electrons as lone-pairs around the central atom.
5. If at this stage, a central atom has fewer than eight electrons, a multiple bond(s) is likely. Move one or more
lone-pair of electrons from a terminal atom(s) to a region between it and the central atom to form a double or a
triple bond.
EXAMPLE-1 Determine the total number of valence electrons for the following species.
A. CO2 B. SO4-2 C. PO4-3 D. NH3 E. CCl4 F. NH2- G. H2SO4 H. HNO3 I. HCl J. NO2
Eample-2 Draw a Lewis structure for A. CO3-2 B. COCl2 (phosgene) C. COS(Carbonylsulphide)
D. ClO3-(chlorate ion) E. S2F2 F. CH3CHO
Solution. A. CO3-2 step-1 Determine the total valance electron C=4, O=18 = 4+18+2 =24 electrons
Step-2 Write the skeletal structure by identifying the central atom.

Step-3 Put the remaining electrons around the terminal atoms as pair.

Step-4 and 5

Coordinate covalent Bonding

A covalent bond in which both electrons are donated by one of the atoms is called a coordinate covalent bond or
dative ore donor-acceptor bond. An atom which has a lone pair (a pair of electrons uninvolved in bonding) of

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electrons can form a coordinate bond with the empty orbital of another atom. It essentially donates an electron into
this orbital which when formed, acts the same as a normal covalent bond. A coordinate bond therefore contains a
shared pair of electrons that have come from one atom.
Coordinate-covalent bond examples POCl3, NH4+, O3, NH3BF3, SOCl2(Thionyl chloride), HNO3

Resonance Structures
Resonance: is a condition occurring when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a particular
molecule. Any of two or more possible structures of the same compound that have identical geometry, but different
arrangement of their paired electrons is called resonance structures or contributing structures. Usually indicated by
double-headed arrows (↔).
Resonance hybrid is intermediate to those represented by the contributing structure.
Delocalization: the process by which electron density is spread over several atoms rather than remaining between
two.
Example-1 Draw all the possible resonance structure for the following compound.
A. O3 B. CO3-2 C. NO3- D. NO2- E. SO3 F. CO3-2 G. HNO3 H. HCO2- J. SO2
Solution A. O3 resonance hybrid/ real /actual/more stable structure

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Note: In molecules such as CH4, H2S, NF3, PF5, SF6, etc., in which resonance is not involved.
Exceptions to the Octet rule in Covalent Bonding
1. Less than octet (central atom is deficient of electrons): Molecules whose central atoms have fewer than eight
electrons (Below octet). This group consists of molecules containing central atoms from Group IIA and IIIA.
Like BeCl2, BF3 and AlCl3 are typical examples.
2. More than octet (central atom has excess of electrons): Molecules whose central atoms have more than eight
electrons (Expanded octet). PF5, SF6 and XeF4 are typical examples of this type.
3. Molecules containing an odd number of electrons: Even if stable molecules of this kind are rare, they do exist.
Some examples are ClO2, NO and NO2 having 19, 11 and 17 valence electrons respectively.
Exercise: The following species do not obey the octet rule. Draw a Lewis structure for
each one and state the type of octet rule exception: A. BH3 B. AsF–4 C. SeCl4 D. PF–6 E. ClO3
F. BrF3 G. BeF2 H. XeF2
Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Molecules
Non-polar covalent molecules Polar covalent Molecules
 Formed by equal sharing of electrons i.e  Formed by unequal sharing of electron i.e the
electron spend electrons spend more time near to the more
Equal time in the vicinity of each atom. electronegative element.
 They have equal or nearly the same  Have negative charge and positive charge
electronegativity value. patial.
Example: Homonuclear diatomic molecules like, N2, Forexample hetro diatomic molecules like HCl, HF,
H2, O2, Cl2, etc HBr, HI, CO, NO, etc
 They have a dipole moment (µ) = 0.  They have a dipole moment (µ) ≠ 0

 The degree of polarity of a molecule is measured by a dipole moment. Dipole moment can be bond dipole
moment and molecular dipole moment.
I. Bond dipole moment: the product of the magnitude of the charge (δ) at either end of the dipole multiplied by
the distance (d) that separates the charge. µ = δ × d. The SI-unit of dipole moment is coulomb-metre (C.m).
Dipole moments are often expressed in the non-SI unit debye (D), where 1D = 3.33564 × 10–30 Cm.
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II. Molecular-dipole moment: the vector sum of all the bond dipole moment in the molecule.
The resultant vector is zero for non-polar covalent molecules.
For diatomic molecule, the bond moment is the dipole moment.
Example-1 Classify the following molecules as polar or non-polar covalent molecules.
A. HF B. HBr C. CO2 D. H2O E. H2O2 F. SO2 G. SO3 H. CH4 I. SiCl4 J. NO2- K. NCl3
L. PH3 M. ClF3 N. SiO2 O. Br2 P. CHCl3 Q. ICl
Properties of Covalent Compounds
1. Covalent compounds are composed of molecules.
2. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds.
3. covalent compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature. However, some covalent molecules like iodine
and sugar are solids at room temperature. For example, liquid covalent molecules: H2O, Br2, Ethanol, H2S, HCl,
etc
Gaseous covalent molecules: CO2, H2, Cl2, NH3, CH4, etc
4. Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water. Most covalent compounds are soluble in nonpolar
solvents
like CCl4, C6H6, ether, toluene, etc. “Like dissolves like.” Polar solvents dissolve polar molecules, while non-
polar solvents dissolve non-polar molecule.
5. Nonpolar covalent compounds are non-electrolytes because they do not conduct electricity.
6. Covalent compounds are usually volatile.
Molecular Geometry
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
Molecular geometry, also known as the molecular structure, is the three-dimensional structure or arrangement of
atoms in a molecule. Understanding the molecular structure of a compound can help determine the polarity,
reactivity, phase of matter, color, magnetism, as well as the biological activity.
Molecular shape or molecular geometry is determined by the mutual repulsion of the valence electrons of an atom
in a molecule.
The Valance Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) states that the valance shell electron pairs are
arranged around the central atom in such a way that there is a maximum separation and therefore minimum
repulsion among electron pairs. A set of electrons is defined as any number of electron- pairs that occupies a
localized region around a central atom. This set may consists of a single bond (–), a double bond (=), a triple bond
(≡), lone-pair(s) or in some cases even a lone (single) electron.
The three-dimensional arrangement of these sets gives rise to the shape of the molecule.
Electron Pair Arrangement and Molecular Shape

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The electron pair arrangement is defined by the sets of electrons, both bonding and nonbonding (lone-pair), around
the central atom. On the other hand, the molecular shape is defined by the relative positions of the atomic nuclei.
 When there are no lone pairs in the valance shell of the central atom, the arrangement of electron pairs and
molecular geometry are identical. To classify molecular shapes, the AX mEn designation is assigned, where
A is the central atom, X is the terminal atom, E is lone-pair (nonbonding) electron sets, m and n are positive
integers.
 The repulsion forces between the valance shell electron pairs are of three types.
These are Lone pair -lone pair (LP-LP) > lone pair vs bonding pair (LP-BP) > bonding pair vs bonding pair(BP-
BP).
Electrons set ranging from two to six around the central atom. Two electron sets locate themselves on opposite
sides of the atom in a linear arrangement, three sets form a trigonal planar structure, four sets arrange
themselves
at the corners of a tetrahedron, five sets define a trigonal bipyramid, and six sets form an octahedron.
 The different geometries that molecules can assume in accordance with the VSEPR theory can be seen in
the illustration provided below.

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Guidelines for Applying VSEPR Model

Here are some guidelines for applying the VSEPR model:
1. First, write the Lewis structure of the molecule, in this model, consider only the electron sets (pairs) of the
central atom.
2. Count the total number of electron sets around the central atom, including both the bonding pairs and lone pairs.
3. Use the VSEPR geometry to predict the shape of the molecule.
4. In predicting bond angles, bear in mind that the repulsion of the lone pairs is stronger than between those of the
bonding pairs. VSEPR theory is best used as a tool to explain why a given structure is distorted rather than as
predictive tool.
In explaining why the distortion occurs you need to balance three competing influences:
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1. lone pairs take up more space than bonding pairs. Repulsions between electrons in a lone-pair and the other
electrons (in either bonds or other lone pairs) may cause distortions in the structure.
2. triple bonds are fatter than double bonds, which are fatter than single bonds. The amount of electron-electron
repulsion experienced between a bond and lone pairs or other bonding pairs decreases in the order: triple >
double > single. Therefore, we expect that a triple bond may cause more distortions in the structure than either a
double or single bond and that a double bond will cause more distortion when compared to a single bond.
3. bonds which involve a significant difference in electronegativity between the atoms in the bond will have the
electrons in the bond distorted toward the\ more electronegative atom. This will decrease electron density near the
central atom and lessen the repulsion between this bonding-pair and other electron-pairs in the molecule.

Figure: Electron Geometries for Species with Two to Six Electron Groups. Groups are placed around the central
atom in a way that produces a molecular structure with the lowest energy, that is, the one that minimizes
repulsions.

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