KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGENEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CENG 291 ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY

TOPIC: EXTRACTION OF BIO ESSENTIAL OIL FROM BIOMASS OF VEGETABLE

WASTE IN ABLEKUMA MARKET

NAME: MAHMUD ABDUL MAJID

INDEX NO: 7218621

DECEMBER 2022
 TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT/ABSTRACT………………………………………………………… 3
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION/OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT……………………………………………….... 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ……………………………………………………………5-6
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS……………………………………7-9
PARAMETERS AFFECTING YIELD & QUALITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS………………10
STORAGE OF ESSENTIAL OILS……………………………………………………………10
EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS……………………………………………………..11-12
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS
SAMPLE SOURCE AND PREPARATION…………………………………………………..13
PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………………………….13
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………………………14
CHAPTER 5: APPENDIX, REFERENCE & QUESTIONAIRE
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………15-16
REFERENCE…………………………………………………………………………………17
QUESTIONAIRE…………………………………………………………………………….18
EXTRACTION OF BIO ESSENTIAL WASTE IN ABLEKUMA MARKET
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To begin with, I give all the praise and glory to the almighty God for the protection and strength
that He has lavished on me throughout my life.
I would like to use this opportunity to thank my supervisor Dr. Mizpah Rockson for his/her
constant guidance, constructive criticisms and contributions that helped in the completion of the
project.

ABSTRACT:
The development of new energy sources has become particularly important from the perspectives
of energy security and environmental protection. Therefore, the utilization of waste resources
such as industrial food waste (IFW) in energy production is expected. To be able to go through
this project successfully, the use of Liquefied Dimethyl Ether which is an environmentally
friendly solvent. Bio essential has good medicinal applications and used in the treatment of
different diseases including the infection diseases, depression, anxiety act as the antifungal,
antimicrobial, anticanker and wound healing.
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Bio organic essential oils are pure extracts from organically farmed plants, and extracted through
mechanical extraction like cold pressing and steam distillation. They are incredibily versatile and
can be used as a cosmetic ingredient to naturally fragrance your home, DIY Cleaning products
and much more. Henceforth, recent work shows that in eukaryotic cells, essential oils can act as
prooxidants affecting inner cells membranes and organelles such as mitochondria, depending on
the type and concentration, they exhibit cytotoxiceffects on living cells but are usually non-
genotoxic. It has many importants in our everyday lives. Some them are; boost mood, improve
job performance through reduced stress and increased attentiveness, improve sleep, kill bacteria,
funguses and viruses, reduece anxiety and pain. Many of these essential oils are extractyed
fromvegetable waste such as palm seed, grapefruits, orange fruits and black pepper just to
mention a few.
Essential oils are hydrocarbons in unsaturated straight chain molecules based on isoprene (C4H8)
ring structure. They easily combine with organic groups and act as a carrier of aromatic
substances. Essential oils besides being rich in terpenes and oxygenated and sulphoretted oils.
Essential oils being natural antioxidants normally do not get rancid however, they generally react
with water and oxygen.
Essential oils can be extracted from plants by a variety of methods including expression,
distillation, extraction with volatile solvent. The most technically advanced process is the solvent
extraction.

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

Investigate the production of essential oil by the use of various methods
How profitable is the extracted oil from the vegetable waste.
How essential oil is stared and treated.
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ESSENTIAL OILS
The first records of essential oils come from ancient India, Persia and Egypt and both Greece and
Rome conducted extensive trade in odoriferous oils and ointments with the countries of the
orient. The French chemist and perfumer Rene-Maurice Galtefosse discovered the effect of
essential oils (again) by chance around 1920 and caused a resurgence in aromatherapy. The use
of essential oils and the knowledge of their properties dates back to ancient Chinese and
Egyptian civilizations being considered amongst the most ancient forms of medicine and
cosmetics. From essential oils, the Egyptians made ointments with some extraordinary
applications, essential oils where used to embalm the dead, in spiritual rituals for medicinal
purposes and cosmetics. Queen Cleopatra herself considered as having a vast knowledge of
essential oil to enchant Mark Anthony with her beauty.
The Greeks understood the miraculous properties of aromatic plants. The greater part of their
knowledge they acquire from the Egyptian who were exceptionally knowledgeable of their
properties. The Greek physician Hippocrates, considered the father of medicine, often times
recommended message treatments with essential oils and makes reference to a vast number of
medicinal plants in his writtings, the Romans and later on the Arabs perfected the knowledge
acquired from previous civilizations. In the Arab world the famous alchemist Avicena
distinguished himself as the pioneer in the distillation method of essential oil extraction.
Although other more sophisticated methods have been developed since, the distillation method
continues to be the most widely used and recommended procedure. Much of the knowledge of
plants and their curative properties was lost down the centuries. In the monasteries however, this
knowledge continued to be applied amongst the monks who prepared antibacterial and other
solutions with the intent of combating many plagues that afflicted the population. During the 14th
century, the black plague swept through Europe and aromatic plants were burnt in churches and
the street to mask the stench of death that permeated the air.
DESCRIPTION OF ABLEKUMA
GOOGLE MAP OF ABLEKUMA

Ablekuma is a big town located in Greater Accra. It is within 50 33111.880N 0014124.3611W

The total area of Ablekuma is about 10km2(4sqmi)
As at 2021 the population was about 153,490 and has a density if about 15,0001km2
(40,000sqmi)
Ablekuma central Municipal district is one of the twenty-nine districts in Greater Accra Region,
Ghana. Originally it was formerly part of the district which was split off to create Ablekuma
central Municipal district on 19 February 2019 thus remaining part has been retained as Accra
Metropolitan District.

The pictures above are some of the vegetable waste in Ablekuma market.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF ESSENTIAL OIL DERIVED FROM THE
VEGETABLE WASTE
Essential oils are organic compounds derived from aromatic plant sources such as roots, bark,
flowers, leaves and seeds. They are extremely complex substances with each oil typically
containing serveral hundred individual chemicals, with the vast majority at levels of less than
1%. These chemicals work together as a complete synergistic unit to maximize the effectiveness
of the oil. An oil chemical constituents dictate its fragrance taste, and therapeutic properties and
a single oil can havemany different uses thanks to its complex chemical profile.

MAIN COMPOUNDS FOUND IN ESSENTIAL OILS

The chemical families are discussed below. Please note that the percentage listed against the oils
are taken from essential oils in colour (Caddy 1997);

MONOTERPENES
This is the largest chemical family found in essential oils. Monoterpenes are found in at least
every essential oil and include limone (citrus oils) and pinene (Pine/fir/juniperberry). They have
avery small, light molecular structure, are extremely volatile (evaporates quickly), are free
flowing (not viscous) and have a strong aroma. Oils with high levels of monoterpenes are usually
top notch which is why they dissipate quickly. They are also more disceptible to oxidation
especially those with high levels of limonene, meaning they will have a shorter shelf life.
Common monoterpenes include;
cumphene, carene, cymene, limonene, myrcene, phellandrene, pinene, sabinene, terpinene.
Common Properties of Monoterpenes;
Antibacterial, antiseptic, antiviral, analgestic, anti-inflammatory, decongestant, rubefacient,
stimulant.

EXAMPLES OF OILS RICH IN MONOTERPENES

Black pepper(60%), grapefruit(96%), cypress(75%), luniperberry(80%), lemon(87%),
mandarin(90%), nutmeg(75%), orange bitter(90%), orange sweet(85%), pine(70%), silver
fir(90%)<
SAFETY: can be irritating to the skin, especially if oxidized.

SESQUITERPENES:
Sesquiterpenes are less common in essential oils. Their molicules are bigger and heavier making
them slightly more stable than monoterpenes. This means they take longer to evaporate and have
a longer shelf-life. Many oils with high levels of sesquiterpenes are derived from roots and
woods or plants from the ASteraceae family and have granding balancing effects.
Common Sesquiterpenes include:
Bisabolene, cadinene, caryophyllene, ceebene, chamazulene, copaene, elemene, farnesone,
germacrene D, himachelene, zingiberene.
Common properties of sesquiterpenes;
Antibacterial, antiseptic, analgesic, anti-flammatory, balancing, calming, cicatrizant (skin/wound
healing, cell regenerative).
EXAMPLES OF OILS RICH IN SESQUITERPENE:
Cacle (60%), cedarwood Virginian (60%), cedarwood atlas (50%), German chamomile (35%),
ginger (55%), helichrysum (40%), myrrh (39%), patihouli (50%), yarrow (45%), vetivert (65%),
ylang (40%)

ALCOHOLS:
Plants alcohols are either derived from monoterpenes (monpoterpenois) or to a lesser extent,
sesquiterpenes (ssquiterpenois). Alcohols are common in most essential oils and are the most
useful molecules in aromatherapy. They are powerful yet gentle, usually quite fluid; with
pleasant aromas that are well tolerated. They are generally used for their antiseptic and pain-
relieving properties (Physical and emotional).

COMMON MONOTERPENES INCLUDE:

Borneol, citronellol, geranoil, lavanduol, terpeneol, terpinen, 4-ol, menthol, nerol.
COMMON SESQUITERPENES INCLUDE:
Bisabolol, cedool, farnesol, nerolidol, santalol, zingibe rol.
COMMON PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOL:
Antiviral, antiseptic, anti-infective, stimulanting.

EXAMPLES OF RICH OILS IN ALCOHOL:

Basil (50%), catnip (62%), cedarwood (30%), cerlancler (70%), geranium (63%), lavadin (45%),
lavender (36%), sweet marjoram (50%), cornmint (70%), pepper-mint (42%), myrrh (40%),
neroli (40%), palmarora (85%), rose Otto (60%), tea tree (45%), vert (40%).

PHENOLS: phenols are the strongest most irritating compounds and are slow to evaporate .
They very chemically active with a distinct aroma .
COMMON PHENOLS INCLUDE; anethole,carvacrol, chavicol, estragole(methyl chavicol)
COMMON PROPERTIES OF PHENOL: antibacterial, antiseptic, antimicrobial,antiviral,
mind stimulant,

EXAMPLES OF RICH OIL IN PHENOLS; methyl chavicol(90%) ,clove bud

(90%),fennel(62%),ortegana(70%) tarragon(70%)

SAFETY: oil rich in phenols are irritating to the skin and mucus membrane. Only use in low
dilution and for short period of time,Always blend with alchohol rich oil Avoid during
pregnancy

ALDEHYDES: Aldehydes are the most recognizable component they have a potent citrus like
Scent which is a key contribution to an oil overall aroma
They are quite unstable and are susceptible to oxidation
COMMON ALDEHYDES INCLUDE; cinnamaldehyde, citral, citronellal,geranial, neral
COMMON PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDES INCLUDE; anti-fungal,anti-inflammatory,
antiseptic,antiviral

EXAMPLES OF RICH OILS IN ALDEHYDES INCLUDE; citronella, lemongrass

Safety; oils rich in aldehydes should be used in low dilution(1%) as they can be irritating to the
skin and mucuous membrane.

KETONES; some of the most common toxic compound are ketone(eg thujone,pulegone), and
this is why oils such as thujone and pennyloyal are avoided in aromatherapy. Not all ketones are
toxic however some have great therapeutic benefits particularly in relation to the upper
respiratory system for easing congestion and aiding the flow of mucus .ketones are distinctive in
their fragrance and often share a potent,they are highly penetrating and should be with care.
Common ketones include; camphor, carvone,fenchore,jasmine, menthone
COMMON PROPERTIES OF KETONES;
eucalyptus(25%),hyssop(35%),rosemary(25%)tagetes(50%0

Safety; should be used with as they can build up in the body .

ESTERS; they are probably the widespread group found in essential oils that don’t have an ester
Content. They have an intensely fruity aroma and are generally non toxic and gentle in action,
making
Them ideal with young old .Ester component have so many therapeutic benefits but are
especially good for relaxation and balancing the mood
COMMON ESTERS INCLUDE; benzyl benzoate, bornyl acetate,granyl acetate,linalyl acetate,
methyl salicylate
COMMON PROPERTIES OF ESTERS; anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory,
OXIDES; oxides have the strongest aromas of all the molecules, the most common oxide is 1,8-
cineole also called eucalyptus oil and other camphoraceous oil such as rosemary , tea tree and
cajeput
COMMON OXIDES INCLUDE; bisabolol oxides, caryophillene oxide, 1-8-cineole, linalool
oxide, pinene oxide, rose oxide
COMMON PROPERTIES OF OXIDES; anti – inflammaotory , cooling, bronchiodilator,
decongestant,

EXAMPLES OF OIL RICH IN OXIDES; german chamomile (35%), eucalyptus

smithir(78%), lavender spike(34%), wild marjoram(55%), niaouli(50%), rosemary(30%)

CHEMOTYPES
Sometimes essential oils obtained from botanically identical parts can have a significantly
different set of chemical components and therapeutic action.
This can be due to different growing conditions, location,climate, when this happens the thyme
is a great example.
TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL OIL
Chemical refining of oil; this is the traditional method since ancient times, it can be used for all
fats and oils even when they have been slightly degrade
It follows several process thus degumming, dewaxing, deodorization, physical refining

PERAMETERS AFFECTING YIELD OF ESSENTIAL OIL

PLANTS; the quality of essential oil negatively impacted by the use of pesticides and other
chemicals the
Variability in altitude soil condition and rainfall and the difficult of differentialbility plant spices
and varieties.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Irrigation and fertilization regimes are known to affect essential oil production in various
aromatic plant
Effect on these parameters on plant metabolism and subsequently on the production of the
secondary metabolites are dependent on these environmental conditions

STORAGE OF ESSENTIAL OILS

1. Store in a cool dry place, to avoid direct sunlight
2. The ideal dry temperature for storage is 35-40 degrees
3. Can be stored in fridges, bathroom cupboards
EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OIL FROM SOME VEGETABLE WASTE
There are wide variety of different essential oil extraction methods used to obtain the oil.
Each method applies different amount of temperature and pressure which ultimately impacts the
quality of the resulting essential oil being created

STEAM DISTILLATION
Is the most commonly implemented method of essential oil extraction
Simply put steam distillation of essential oil works by passing hot steam through raw vegetables
materials. The heat from the steam serves to vaporize the vegetable material compounds
The vaporize compounds rise and enter a cooling chamber known as a condenser unit. As the
vapor
Cool they are condensed from steam back into a liquid form.
After being condensed the essential oil and water from the water soluble part of the plant known
as hydrosols or floral water are collected into a receiver with two separate outflows. Because oil
and water
Don’t mix, the essential oil floats above the water, as such the lower outflow will draw out the
essential oil
Part of the reason why steam distillation is such a popular process of extracting essential oil is
because the volatile compounds can be distilled at the temperature that are lower than their
boiling point
As such the natural qualities of the plant material are less likely to become altered . For this
reason essential oil distillation is often regarded as the only extraction method that allows purity’

SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Another popular essential oil extraction method is solvent extraction method. This modern
method implements food grade solvent such as ethanol, benzene, dimthyl or hexane to isolate the
oils
It`s often used for extracting essential oils from delicate aromatics, such as jasmine which are
generally unable to withstand the pressure of steam distillation , solvent extraction typically
produces a finner fragrance than most other extraction methods which further adds to its appeal
for certain application
During this exraction vegetables materials are covered by solvent and dissolved into it.
Once solvent absorbs the essential oil the resulting extract is evaporated so only the resulting
extract is extract is evaporated so only the vegetables is left behind.
Technically, the remaining oil is known as an absolute hot an essential oil.
An absolute is a highly concentrated aromatic substance which closely resembles the vegetable
aroma.
Additionally it has a more vivid color than an essential oil. As such solvent extraction is often
used to create extract for perfumes or cosmetic application .the main down side to this type of
extraction method is a risk that trace amount of the solvent may not get fully evaporated . As
such, small quantities of harsh chemicals may remain in the final absolute which could cause
irritating when used.
CARBON DIOXIDE EXTRACTION
CO2 extraction is a type of essential oil extraction that uses carbon dioxide as the solvent, unlike
traditional solvent extraction no residue is left behind which generally makes the resulting oils
purer and safer to use.
The process of carbon dioxide extraction starts by pressuring the carbon dioxide until it liquefies
the liquid carbon dioxide is used as the solvent to extract the oil from the vegetable materials
once the carbon dioxide has been absorbed the essential oil the extract is returned to regular
pressure which causes the carbon dioxide to revert back into a gas. As a result there isn’t residual
s0lvent that gets left behind in the extraction oil. Plus co2 is colorless, odourless, flavorless, and
non-toxic ii wont impact the resulting oil. However, because CO2 extraction takes place in a
completely sealed chamber, it recovers the whole oil from the plant materiel including any
pesticide residue. Thus the resulting oil may have a greater amount of pesticides in it than other
convention extraction methods.

EXPRESSION (COLD-PRESS EXTRACTION)

Expression or cold-press extraction, is typically used for isolating oils citrus peels. This ancient
essential oil extraction process originally involved soaking citrus peels in warm water and then
hand-squeezing them with a sponge until the oil glands burst. Once the oil was released, it was
collected in the sponge and squeezed into a collection container where the juice and oils will
separate overtime. Today the process of expression is a bit more technical and involves the use
of machinery. The modern expression process involves the use of a device that punctures the
citrus peels so the oils sacs on the underside of the rind rupture once this happens, the oils run
down into the device`s collection area. Then, the peels are mechanically pressed to squeeze out
all of the oils and the juice. At this point, resulting oils and juices will still contain the peel and
other solid elements of the fruits which must be centrifuged to separate the liquids from the
solids. The oils will then separate from the juice layer to create the final essential oil product.
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS

SAMPLE SOURCE AND PREPARATION

The vegetable waste was collected from Ablekuma market and then sent to the laboratory to
extract using the various methods discussed above.

PROCEDURE
STEAM DISTILLATION:
A large container called a still, which is usually made of stainless steel, containing the plant
material has steam added to it. Through an inlet, steam is injected through the plant materials
containing the desired oils, releasing the plant`s aromatic molecules and turning them into vapor.
The vaporized plant compounds travel to the condensation flask or the condenser. Here, two
separate pipes make it possible for hot water to exist and for cold water to enter the condenser.
This make the vapor cool into liquid form. The aromatic by-product drops from the condenser
and collects inside a receptacle underneath it, which is called a separator. Since water and oil do
not mix, the essential oil floats on the of the water. From here, it is siphoned off. (some essential
oils are heavier than water, such as clove essential oil, so they are found at the bottom of the
separator).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Discussing of the essential oil was been extracted from many vegetable waste but lets take black
pepper for instance, let`s see the experimented result.
APPEARANCE BROWN OR BLACK

Refractive index 1.462

Specific gravity 0.846

Water solubility Insoluble

Percentage purity = experiment/literature

= 1.462/1.4920 x 100
=97.9893
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION
To draw the curtains, many of the ways of extracting essential oil from the vegetable waste was
discussed but seeing and observing the above sayings, steam distillation passes all,this is
because, it yields oils that are exceptionally clean and pure. It also allows for collection of
temperature-sensitive compounds that may be changed or altered by other collection process.

RECOMMENDATION
Steam distillation is cheaper also can easily be set up in the laboratory using glasswares such as
roundbottom flask,condenser, bursen burner,delivery tube just to mention a few.
APPENDIX:
 REFERENCE
1. A.C Ronse and H.L. De Pooter (1990), Essential Oil Production by Belgian
Artemisia alba (Turra) before and after micropropagation` Journal of Essential Oil
Research, Sept/Oct, vol. 2, pp. 237-42
2. S.R. Srinivas (1986), `Composition of angelica root oil` in S.R. Srinivas (ed), Atlas of
Essential Oils, Bronx, NY.
3. R. Tabacchi J. Garnero and R. Buil (1974), `Contribution a l`etude de la
composition de l`huile essentielle de fruits d`anise de Turque` Rivista Italiana, vol.
56, pp. 683-97.
4. Marilyn Linner-Luebe, (February 1992). Journal of American Chemical Society,
Chemical Matters, page 8.
5. Tisserand,R, and Balacs, T(1995). Essential oil safety. A guide for health care
professional, New York: churchchill livingstone
6. Caddy,R(1997), Aromatherapy Essential oils in colour. Amberwood publishing
limited
7. Lawless,J.(1993) the illustrated Encyclopedia of eesential oils. Element Books
8. Price,S,and PriceL (2012). Aromatherapy for health Professionals (4th edition)
Churchill living stone
9. Clark,S,(2008). Essential chemistry for Aaromatherapy (2nd edition) Churchill
living stone.
QUESTIONNAIRE
DETAILS OF RESPONDENT
NAME OF RESPONDENT:
DATE:
AGE OF RESPONDENT:
SEX:
OCCUPTION OF RESPONDENT:

1. What do you think this project is going to affect the safety of the people of Ablekuma in
terms of health care
2. 2.What is the important safety to consider when using essential oil
3. Why is the quality of essential oils important
4. Do essential oil expires
5. Why is it called essential oil
6. What are the application of essential oil
7. What solvent are used to extract essential oil
8. How would you select an essential oil for your personal use’