‘The plant body contains the ‘vascular elements that transport food and water, Like bryophytes, they reproduce through alternation of generation, wherein the sporophyte is the dominant generation, Representatives include lycopodium (ground pine) and (A): Lycopodium selaginella (club mosses). md (ground pine) (B): Selaginella (Club mosses) Figure 6.18: Examples of lycophyte Phylum Sphenophyta This phylum consists of only one genus existing today, Genus equisetum, with about 15 species. All species are herbaceous and usually one meter tall. The stems are aerial with a whorl of small fused leaves (microphylls) at the nodes and a spore producing, conelike strobilus on top. The plant is anchored to the soil by underground rhizomes. Equisetum is commonly called horsetail because the dominant sporophyte superficially resembles a horse’s tail, Equisetums are also mostly found in moist places. Phylum Psilophyta | This phylum contains the simplest ofall living vascular plants. This plant Teproduces by means of spores and lacks roots and leaves. Examples are | Psilotum (whisk fern) and tmesipteris. | Figure 6.20: Members of Psilophyta Phylum Felicinophyta (Pteridophyta) Fems thrive in various environments, but most ferns thrive well in moist and shady habitats. Some ferns are well adapted in dry, hot desert conditions while some are floating or submerged in water. Others are epiphytes or vines. All ferns are perennial and ; none are woody, although some species achieve the size of a small tree (tree ferns), but without secondary growth. ‘The body may be in the form of extensive horizontal rhizome that bears roots (rhizoid) with extensive leaves that may be leathery or filmy. Ferns exhibit a life cycle where the leafy fern (the sporophyte) is the most conspicuous and dominant generation, .———_——~q Embryophytes ' Embryophytes are seed-producing and embryo-forming plants, They are divided into two distinct groups: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms Gymnosperms are plants that bear “naked seeds.” Naked because the seeds are not produced within the ovary; instead, they are bom on the surface of reproductive structures called cones, Gymmosperms has four phyla, namely: a. Phylum Cycadophyta Members of this phylum are commonly called cycads (palmlike trees). Cycad is the only living ‘genus with about 200 species. The seeds are born fon spiny cones from specialized leaves called sporophylls. One primitive attribute of cycads is the presence of flagellated spermn to fertilize the cag, Figure 6.22: Cycads b. Phylum Ginkgophyta k . ‘ This phylum consists of a single speci Ginkgo biloba, which bears its naked seeds in green, fiuitlike structures. The plant is a hard, conical tree with fan-shaped deciduous leaves that arise from spurs on the branches. Ginkgos grow under protected conditions that they are called “domesticated plants,” and are planted as ‘omamental tree. Ginkgos are like cycads as they also need the presence of flagellated sperm to fertilize the egg. Figure 6.23: Ginkgo biloba c. Phylum Gnetophyta This phylum is described as the unusual gymnosperm, Unusual since the three ‘genera—gnetum, ephedra, and welwitschia—differ significantly from one another in their vegetative and reproductive structures. Gnetophytes are semidesert plants. Among the three genera, ephedra is considered the closest to angiosperms since its mode of fertilization closely resembles the flowering plants. we ec (A): Welwithschia (By: Gnetum Figure 6.24: Members of Phylum Gnetophyta (©) Ephedra,a Phy Conifers are gymnosperms characterized by evergreen trees that produce needlelike to scalelike leaves that are heavily cutinized. The fame of the phylum is derived from the cones that the plants produce. The trees can easily be jdentified because of their conical shape, The trees produce pollen and ovulate cones, ‘angiosperms are plants that produce seeds 2 Mclosed in an ovary (fruit). This group consists nly of one phylum, Andhophyta, Figure 6.25: The conical trees of Phylum Coniferata phylum Anthophyta or Angiospermae ‘Members ofthis phylum consist of plants that produce flowers as means of reproductio ‘The flower may bear both the stamen (male reproductive structure) and the pistil (fema tive structure). The ovary, a part of the pistil, contains the ovules (immatu Seeds). After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds that contain the young plan) ‘The ovary, on the other hand, becomes the fruit. There are two classes of anthophytes, t ‘monocotyledonae and the dicotyledonae. Figure 6.26 summarizes the differences betivet ‘panogot and dicot plants. = a wm — 6% ss — eee eet ceen tere i — ——Concept Micro alternation of generation. ‘Vascular eryptograms are plants with vascular Embryophytes are vascular plants that are “snaked” or enclosed in a structure called Gymnosperms are found on woody cones. Seeds of anthophytes are enclosed within an ovary. LESSON 6 Kingdom Animalia , Animals can be identified from the other eukaryotes based on the following characteristics 1. Animals are multicellular, but the cells do not have cell walls. Figure 6.27: The representatives of the Animal Kingdom , ie ee They are actively mobile organisms and such mobility is related to food acquisition, als are heterotrophic, generally ingestive and with a digestive cavity that is either ‘Animals have body plans that may be irregular. Animals with irregular body plans are described as asymmetrical Those with regular body plans are described as symmetrical. In terms of symmetry, animals may have bilateral or radial symmetry (Figure 6.29). a. Bilateral symmetry (A) is a body plan where the body parts are arranged equally on the left and right sides of the body. The center of the body serves as the axis. b. Radial symmetry (B) is a body plan where the body parts are arranged circularly around the axis of the body.v N Aeymmeical fat « “ (B) Figure 6.28: Body plans or symmetry in animals Figure 6.29: The three types of comtam Animal development involves a three germ-layered gastrula. Each germ layer serves as the origin of the different organs that compose the body. | 6. Animals have a body that is divided into different segments. Each segment enables the animal to cope with its environment and to do various kinds of activities. 7. Animals have supportive and protective structures that may either be located externally (exoskeleton) or internally (endoskeleton) 8, Methods of reproduction range from sexual to asexual, and the alternation of the two methods so as to propagate the species. 9. Interms of sexuality, animals may be dioecious or monoecius (hermaphrodite). 10. Animals may also be egg layers (oviparous) or they may give birth to the young alive (viviparous). The animal kingdom is divided into two distinct groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. The invertebrates are those that lack the vertebral column as the supporting structure, They comprise the eight phyla of the animal kingdom. Phylum Chordata is the lone vertebrate phylum. The Different Invertebrate Phyla Phylum Porifer: Sponges are the simplest animals. They are multicellular, but their cells are not organized into tissues. Their bodies are simply loose Aggregations of different kinds of cells that ae specialized to perform specific functions. Sponges are aquatic animals, mostly marine Species, Their bodies are covered with pores °F ostia and canal systems where water Passes. These pores and canal systems are lined with iB Jalized flagellated cells called Figure 6.30: Sponges in thew natura! abita= tes (collar cells). Currents of water containing debris of Chonnocytes (tty he environmen ntr the pores by the eating oftheir flagella. The cells composing the body engulf these food ‘paterials, and digestion occurs inside the cell. The body plans of sponges ranges from radial to asy “Their bodies are supported with skeletons made up of col protein and spicules that may be made of silica (siliceous spicules) ‘or calcium carbonate (calcareous spicules). The animal body consists of two germ layers (didermic). fy ‘between the germ layers is a gelatinous matrix called mesoglea. Reproduction by sponges is by both sexual and asexual means. Asexual reproduction is by means of external buds, During harsh environmental conditions, intemal buds called ‘gemmules are produced. Sexual reproduction takes place in the mesoglea. Some cells differentiate into sperm and egg cells. The zygote is a free-swimming larva that is responsible in distributing the sessile animals to different places. Some. sponges are monoecious while others are dioecious, Zoologists have observed three of canal systems. ere ores and Firstly, ihe asconoid is a canal Se that is shaped like oe a simple tube perforated by pores. The open internal part of the tube is called spongocoe! that contains the collar cells, and there is a single called osculum that leads to the outside, Secondly, ‘canal system is larger than asconoids. The system consists of a tubular canal with a single osculum. The pores that penetrate it are longer, forming a system of simple canals. These canals are lined by collar cells that move water from the outside, {nto the spongocoel, and out the osculum, Thirdly, the leuconoid is the largest and most complex canal system. This canal system is characterized by numerous canals that lead to numerous small chambers lined with flagellated cells. Wate moves through the canals, into thes® 1632: The chal sycems: (A) Asconot (e%Sycorois; Chambers, and out via a central cas! (C) Leuconoig and osculum. Phylum Cnidaria é "—Chhidarians (formerly called coelenterates) are found a i in marine environments. The name of the phylum comes from Greek term cnldos, which means, “stinging net” The singe ey structures are actually nematocysts that eject barbed threads; N°they use mainly for capturing prey and defending themselves against predators. Unlike sponges, the T= nt, cells composing their bodies are organized into Server tissues. They are didermic animals. The ectoderm : and endoderm are composed of a single layer of Coseadni, epithelium, and a gelatinous mesoglea fills the space Monegan between the two germ layers. The mesoglea contains Baty nt collagen fibers and many scattered cells. The ectoderm forms the epidermis, while the endoderm forms the endodermis or gastrodermis. ‘Two basic body forms exist in cnidarians — the (A): Polyp enidarian polyp and the. stage. The polyp is the tubular Cumerm sessile form, an usa is the umbrellalike , Mo" form that is free swimming. Both forms exhibit *"™" radial symmetry. They have mouths surrounded by rings of tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Tene Caidarians reproduce asexually by bud formation, others reproduce sexually, and still Mouth /anus (B); Medusa cnidarian cthers exhibit a complex life eycle involving 51.4. ¢ 33: Comparative tesvs layers the alteration of generation or metagenesis. In ‘metagenesis, the asexual polyp stage alternates with ‘the sexual medusa stage. ‘of a polyp (A) and a medusaf®) ‘There are four major classes of cnidarians: hydrozoa (hydra), lly fish), and anthozoa (sea ‘Table 6.2: The Different Classes of Cnidarians Solitary or colonial, sessile as adult Solitary, nearly all | Marine onlyonly Anthozoa Solitary or colonial] Marine sessile as adult; ea anemones and corals Adamsia, thus, gonia, Renilla Phylum Platyhelminthes Flatworms have unsegmented bodies that are flatten are called flatworms). They are bilaterally symmetrical, but without body cavity (acoclomate). The spaces withi oose parenchyma cells. Cephalization is evident. The head region contains light sensitive organs called ocelli. Flatworms may be free-living or parasitic. The free-living member (Planaria) has a simple and incomplete gut that is lacking in the parasitic forms. The Parasitic forms have extemal suckers or hooks, or both for connection to the host. B is muscular and covered with ciliated epidermis (free-living form) or covered with thick Cuticle (parasitic form). Reproduction is both by asexual and sexual methods. Asexual ‘method includes fragmentation and regeneration. Flatworms are generally hermaphrodi ‘or monoecius. Fertilization is usually internal and may be self- or cross-fertilization, wed dorsoventrally (that is why uJ with three germ layers (tridermic) n the internal organs are filled with Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes: turbellaria, trematoda, and cestoda. \ (A)Dugesia Class (B): Human fluke Class (C): Tapeworm Class Figure 6.28: Close view | of the scolex of tapeworm ‘Turbellaria ‘Trematoda_ Cestoda ho ae =e Figure 6.34: The Three Classes of Fiatworms ‘suckers Members of turbellaria are mostly free-living. Planaria of the genus Dugesiathrive in mois, damp places andi freshwater habit Members of trematoda, ofthe fukes, are all parasitic. They exibi a complex life cycle specialized for parasitism in sual - Some species require one or two intermediate hosts before juvenile worm reaches maturity. The final or definitive hos! wit harbors the adult and reproducing stage. Tapeworm, which members of cestoda, are intestinal parasites of vertebrates 1! Figure 6.26: Male and humans, Their long and flat bodies are made up of many female ascaris=. ae nany gametes, At the . ‘ers that anchors it to E called proglottids. Each proglottid i a reproductive unit contain tapeworm’s anterior end is the head or scolex that bears hooks oF ick the host phylum Nemathelminthes ery Sar a le le se tlhe cerrgpmnee iS as o and tridermics At 9 YounBer stage, the te the body wall and the alimentary © ena a ed be body plan. The digestive Nematodes are curved are ends. Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical | ‘walled cells of the mesoderm fill the space between t When the animal becomes adult, it disintegrates , it disintegrates, producing pseudococlom or false coclom. They have a tube within a ft fystem is complete and with openings at both ends. ‘The body is covered with cuticle that is resistan o digest enzymes. dioecious, Male is smaller than female and canbe identified due 1 the presence of ‘equipped with two pineal setae, which serve as copulatory orEans 1d worm), wuchereria (Filaria worm), ym), and tricburis Trichina wot i ‘ost common parasite in tail Representative examples include: Ascaris (roun: ‘enterobius (pinworm), necator (hook worm), trichinella ( (whip worm). Among them, Ascaris Iumbricoides is one of the m the intestine of children. (C):Trichinella spiralis causing (B): Enterobius vermicularis the disease called trichinosis (A): Elephantiasis is caused by Huchereria bancrofti thrive in the anus of infected children Figure 6.37: The Endoparasi Roundworms Phylum Annelida tide 8 ors with songated bodies divided ove ghee sets of organs. Internal segments. Each segment has the same S septa separate the segments ‘of many species. In some species (polychaetes), each segment has & pair of parapodia. In the case of Figure 6.38: Cligochaeta, each segment has bristlelike setae that are used for Parapodia of locomotion. The septa of these species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments ‘which facilitates movement by travel eontractions (peristalsis) that pass slong the body. oc by undulations that improve the ‘effectiveness of the parapodia. metry and are the first animal to ‘Annelids have bilateral sym! t evolve with true body cavity coetom lined with epithelial tissue. Mis are differentiated into tissues and ‘The body is tridermic and the ce! ‘organs. The body wall is made of ©! ‘and longitudinal muscles.he digestive system is complet 1c entire length of the body with a sae sac = poth ends. They have a complete closed cif! atory system ‘Antnelidg ire hermaphroditic and sexual reproduction occurs through exchange of sperm packets from the copulating pair, They thrive in both terrestrial and aquatic environments and feed on a wide range of materials. ‘The three member groups of this phylum a Class Oligocheata, the earthworms; and Class f ce, and the gut runs th re Class Polychaeta, the marine annelids; Hirudinea, the parasitic worms (Gy Polychaeta ( Sandworm) (A); Oligochacta (Earthworm) (B): Hirudinea (Leech) Figure 6.40: The three groups of annelis Phylum Mollusca Mollusks are sof-bodied animals (mollis = soft) that usually produce an exoskeleton called shell. The shell is primarily composed of calcium carbonate or lime. It serves both as protective and supportive structure. A mollusk’s body is divided into three regions: head, ‘foot, and visceral mass. The foot is used in locomotion and ‘often used for other purposes, rach as digging into the sand or mud, and for anchoring the animal to hard surfaces. The ‘Visceral mass comprises the body that contains the internal organs. “Another distinguishing feature common to all mollusks is the presence of @ fleshy ‘ante, a lobe of fleshy material, which secretes, modifies, and lines the shell, and a mantle cavity that functions for breathing and ‘excretion. ‘Another feature common to almost all mollusks is the presence of the chitinous, ribbon like set of teeth, called radula, which the animal used in rasping, lapping, and pa food or even using it to penetrate the body of its prey during feeding. Mollusks’ body plan is bilaterally symmetrical, tridermic, with oped organs , , with well-dev ang systems, and the colomie spaces for kidney, heart, and gonad. Tey feed on 4 variety of materials and in different ways and thrive in almost all kinds of environmest. Reproduction in mollusks is sexual in nature. 2 There are different classes of mollusks. ; : Be cette ne ee plates surrounded and covered by a foot for ereeping along and clinging to rocks; they also have a Serape algae and other plan fon developed radula, which is used to from rocks.‘seaphopods or tusk shells have elo ular, and tapering, pls that are open on both ends, The conical foot can be protruded ee in burowing only, The head is rudimentary and lacs eyes Jes, They live buried in muddy and sandy bottoms, and are are valveless mollusks, meaning, they do not Kkeleton. The mollusk has a distinct head surrounded a tentacles. The body is equipped witha funnels that ‘enables the animal to propel in water. All cephalopods are marine inhabitants tii chiefly predators and scavengers. ‘The squid has the remnant of the molluscan shell, called squid that is used for reinforcement of the expanded and heavily Percled mantle cavity. have an cxosh the snails and the slugs. The mollusk generally consists of Gastropoda is represented by shape (although such shell is absent in slugs). asingl-valved shell, which is usually spiral in Gastropods have a head surrounded with tentacles and a well-developed foot for crawling. ‘Some gastropods have operculum that functions as a trap door that seals off the shell when eset bodied animal draws in and retracts itself as means of protection. Petecypoda or bivalvia have shells consisting of two valves made of calcium carbonate, The mantle cavity is enlarged, enclosing Ihevieeral mass and other internal organs. There sno differentiated ead and the radula is absent. Bivalves inhabit the marine and freshwater habitats, Oysters, mussels, and clams are representative examples. Figure 6.41: The Different Groups of Moliusks Phylum Arthropoda. Arthropods are animals with jointed legs (Greek: arthron-joint; podos=foot). Body segmented nto two or tre sections, and covered with exoskeleton that my Pe of chitin or biomineralized with calcium carbonate. The exoskeleton protects the organs, Fe a eine ety and allows efficient locomotion. THe fst movements of attopod ar the combined effec of jointed appendages, ard skeleton nd fs oS Wied msl, Howeve the exoskeleton dos nt gow ms he OAT Periodically shed (molting). ‘ ast |rw Aro. Arthropods are dioecious. Fertil through the body surface, gills, spira nis either internal or external. Respiration occur, tracheae or book lungs. Oxygen is carried in ay open circulatory system Arthropods have three or more pairs of legs attached to the thorax or abdlominal region, The legs enable the animal to move in various ways — walk, crawl, elimb, hop, fly, lide, swim, skate, and dive. eae Figure 6.42: The body of the L._ Objectives: Wings are present in some species and with mouthparts adapted for all kinds of feeding. Antennae may be present. Arthropods have compound eyes, Arthropods comprise 80 percent of the known species in the world. They can be found everywhere and in any kind of environment, ine The following activity will enable'you to ‘sdivided Observe and identify the variations that exist into three segments. among arthropods. Activity 6.2: Variations Among Arthropods 4 5 € 1. Identify the distinguishing features of arthropods a x 2. Observe the variations that exist among them TL. Materials: Fresh and/or preserved specimens of the following organisms: spider butterfly hhand lens IIL Procedure: 1. put he specimen on the dissecting pan. Observe each ofthe organisms. You may use a centipede crab | millipede dissecting pan 7 forceps s hhand lens in investigating every part of the specimen. ‘Take note ofthe characteristics that are common to all ofthe organisms. 3. Take note of the differences that exist among them. 4. Record your observations,y, Conclusion: Summarize the similarities and differences that exist among, the arthropods that you studied. Class Arachnida, Class Malacostraca (the group of popular crustaceans), Class Insecta, lass Chilopoda (Centipedes), and Class Diplopoda are the most popular groups of arthropods, Only.Class Insecta will be discussed under this phylum. (©): Millipede (A): Spider (© Fly (Insecta) _(D):Centipede (Arachnida) Body division: __(Chilopoda) (Diplopoda) Body division: head, thorax, and Body division: ___ Body division: head and abdomen; three _cephalothorax head, short thorax, ‘and abdomen; one and abdomen; two cephalothorax; _cephalothorax; pairs of legs pair oflegs per pairs of legs per segment four pairs of legs five or more pairs of legs segment Figure 6.43: Representatives of Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Insects have the following characteristics: a. The presence of three distinct body divisions: head, thorax, and abdomen b. One pair of antennae Mouth parts composed of one pair of mandibles and one pair of maxillae that are adapted for chewing, sucking, and biting Three pairs of legs on thorax 1, TEE. KG Apair of compound eyes Tracheal respiratory system composed of tubes, with holes (spiracles) through the body that admit air. . Presence of wings that may be one pait or two pairs and may vary in texture Alife cycle (metamorphosis) that may be holometabolous and hemimetabolous. Other species do not undergo a life cycle or ametabolous. Metamorphosis refers to the stages in the development of an insect. The stages in seumorphosis are: egg, larva, (Figure 6.44). Each stage in the life cycle i No resemblance to their adult parents. M 1osis Consisting of all these three stages Acscribed as esa bo la, ’ Not all insects, however, follow the same patter of development. Some insects undergo metamorphosis or when the larval stage is not conspicuous. The ©. > pt xVBuWW AEA | young called nymph (if terrestrial) or nalad (if aquatic) that emerges from the egg resemby the parent, but differs only in size and inthe presence of some parts Still, in other insecta young that emerges from the egg undergoes little or no structural changes, as they grow sae Such pattern of development is called ametabola, Egg Lava Pupa Adult \ ff | Class Insecta is divided into different orders. The members of the different orders differ in the number and type of wings, typeof mouthparts, and type of metamorphosis.Table 6.1: The Different Orders of Insects Thysanura (silverish) ‘Odonata (Dragonfly | “Two pairs of wings Chewing at ‘and damseify) | witheros veins Wingless adults Chewing. Orthoptera ‘Two pairs, Biting and chewing | Hemimetabola (Grasshoppers and | forewings, leathery cockroaches) wings Tsoptera (Termites) | Two pairs of filmy Chewing Hemimetabola wings of equal sizes 4 Hemiptera (Bugs) | Two pairs of wings, Sucking Hemimetabols front half of cach forewing thickened Coleoptera (Beetles) | Two pairs of wings, | Biting and chewing Holometabola forewings hard and Si ‘Lepidoptera (Moths and butterflies) wings Diptera (Fly, One pair of filmy mosquito) iz Piercing and sucking are chiefly marine invertebrates. They - have bodies covered with spines, a characteristic by which they are described (Greek: echinos = hedgehog or spiny; derma = skin), Theit bodies are supported with skeletons composed of calcium carbonate. Echinoderms have a water vascular system (also function for locomotion, fe iration, and feeding, This system operates the tube feetand feeding entaces The tips ofthe tube feet contain, UUme 64S, [ne es orm most of the organism's sensory neurons, The tube feet are used to attach to objects, for protection, as well as to obtain food.The body is trid and organs, In betw. id well differentiated into tissues n the germ layers is a body cavity, which is a true coclom (fluid-filled cavity), Body shape is variable but lacking cephalization. The body pl although the larval stage is bilateral an is radial symmetry, Echinoderms are dioecious. Their sex organs are found in cach arm. They reproduce by the sexual method. Fertilization Figure 048 notion, iS extemal. The eggs and sperm cells are released in the open age: 5. and protector’ water, where fertilization takes place. Internal fertilization is also observed in some species of sea star, brittle stars, and deep water sea cucumber. Many echinoderms have remarkable powers of regeneration. Some Sea stars are capable of regenerating lost arms, In some cases, lost arms have been observed to regenerate into a complete sea star. Sea cucumbers ‘often discharge parts of their intemal organs if they perceive danger (a Phenomenon called eviceration). The discharged organs and tissues are quickly regenerated, Four classes of echinoderms are popularly known: Class Crinoidea (sea lilies and feather stars), Class Asteroidea (sea stars and brittle stars), Class Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), and Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers). (Ay: Crinoidea (sea lily) (B): Asteroidea (brittle chinoidea (sea (D): Holothuroidea (sea stat) urchin) ceucumber) Figure 6.47: Members of Phylum Echinodermata Phylum Chordata The chordates occupy the highest position in the food chain. ‘The name of the phylum was derived from the characteristic which all chordates share, the notochord — a long, elongated, and flexible cartilaginous structure that runs the entire length of the body (Gr. nofo = the back; chorde ~ string). This notochord may be-pesent in embryos and may be reduced or absent in adults. Aside from this, chordates are also defined by having at some stage in their lives all of the following tics: eae und nerve cord located above the notochord, which likewise runs the entire length of the body. The anterior end of the nerve cord enlarges into a brain. The nerve cord is a bundle of nerve - fibers that connects the brain to the different parts of the body.= + Presence of pharyngeal slits w the thro modifi hich are openings between tnd the outside. They have been exlcnsively am { ‘o perform various functions such as to filter food particles and gaseous exchange. Terrestrial vertebrates in ‘ ‘one stage of their development had pharyngeal slits also, The pharyngeal slits are supported by gill arches, which also had been greatly modified + Presence of a post-anal tal, an extension of the notochord that extends beyond the anus. This structure disappeared Figure 6.48. human when the chordates reach adult stage. aoe ee | sits and post-anat tat in tes stage of development | Other characteristics of chordates are: a bilaterally symmetrical body plan, tridermic with well-developed coelom, well-developed organ systems, and a body supported by a bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton or both, and a segmented box enables the organism to adapt to its environment. Another important characteristic of chordates that 4ifferentiates them from the other animals is the presence of two pairs of appendages. These appendages are highly modified for the locomotion of the animals in the environment where they belong. Figure 6.49: An amphions The Different Groups of Chordates hort Chordates are divided into two distinct groups: the invertebrate chordates and the vertebrate chordates. Invertebrate chordates are the chordates whose notochords remain during the entire life of the organisms, There are two distinct groups: cephalochordate and tunicata, ‘ eS aeee head) is represented the lan¢ phioxus, a chordate with a fishlike appearance. It lacks bones and brain, but , with a notochord and a nerve cord just above it. (gum + Tunicata is an unusual chordate that lives : attached to the seabed. The swimming larva of the 6 ‘organism contains the notochord, and all the rest 7 ; . oft distinguishing features of chordates. When owe 0.98: Tha eee they reach the adult stage and start the sedentary life, the notochord disappears and assumes a shape that will question its relationship with the rest of the chordates. The name of this group is derived from the outer covering of the animal that looks like a tunic composed of cellulose. Figure 6.51: The sea squirt1 , 2 aw are the chordates it, As the ant ‘The vertebrate chordates uring the early stages of ‘developmen three classes of fi replace the notochord. sine chordates are vide pian, Class Repti Class Ave Mammalia. + Class Agnatha (a: ‘an ecl-shaped jaw! preys on other fish by su = cartilag Class Chondrichthyes (chondro = cat cendoskeleton. Sharks and sting 79Y® represent thi ca + Class Osteichthyes (osteo" ~ bone; ichtyhyes = ‘This group consists of many members. is class. ), The class of the b TB Sing ay (Choices) (C): Miles ( 2: The Three Classes of Fish (A): Lamprey (Agnatha) Figure 6.5 : bia (amphios = on both sides, double; bios ~ life). So nan their lifecycle, the larval pat ofthe life of the amphibians is spent in v adult partis spent on land, They are the first land vertebrates to emerge. F and salamander represent this class. Figure 6.54: Life cycle Figure 6.83: The Representatives of Class Amphibia a + Class Reptilia (repere = to creep). Reptiles have bodies covered with dry, i =p). Reptiles he dry, es. ered with leathery shells. Crocodiles, les, scales. Their eggs are cov ith lls. Crocodiles, turtles, snakes, lizards represent this class.“Ay Crocodile (Tule (C): Snake (Dy Lard Figure 6.55: Members of Class Reptilia = Class Aves (aves = birds). Aves have bodies covered with feathers, scaly feet that are adapted to the kind of environment they live, wings that are adapted for flight, and beaks that are adapted to the kind of food they eat, + Class Mammalia (mamma = breasts). The presence of breasts is a distinguishing feature of mammals. The breasts that are well developed in female secrete milk and, therefore, are used for feeding the young. Another distinguishing feature of mammals is that their bodies are os > covered with hair. The hair protects and insulates the bod) Tie sir lao fervestorsenuereeeotion! A > . ‘Almost all mammals are viviparous. Figure 6.56: Birds vary in the kinds of beak. ‘Mammals are divided into three subclasses: monotremata, marsupialia, and placentals. + Monotremata (rema = hole) ‘The duck-billed platypus and the spiny anteater represent this group. Monotremes have bodies covered with thick furs, They have breasts that lack nipples, but secrete milk. These mammals are unique as they are the only egg-laying (oviparous) mammals. ‘Their young lick the milk that o07es in their thick fur. (A); Duck-billed platypus (B): Spiny anteater Figure 6.57: Examples of MonotremesFFs es Figure 6.58: A kangaroo with a young In its pouch Rodentia (Gnawing mammals) (Order Lagomorpha Order Perissodactyla Order Artiodactyla Order Proboscidae ‘Table 6.2: The Different Orders of Placental Mammals Marsupials (marsupium ~ bag or pouch). Members ofthis, are described as pouched mammals. The marsupium ¢ the nipples that secrete milk. The young is born immaturely a crawls into the pouch, grabs a nipple there, and continues development, Kangaroo, koala, and opossums represent this group. Placental Mammals 2 Placenta pertains to a part in the womb where the young j nourished as it undergoes development until birth, This comprises the largest and the most diverse forms of Placental mammals are divided into different orders, their characteristics, and representative organ summarized in Table 6.2. Presence of sharp, chisel-like teeth which the animal uses in gnawing food. ‘The presence of a long snout, which the animal uses in Presence of chisel-like incisors and hind legs Presence of odd-toed hoofs. The animals are chiefly herbivorous, Presence of even toed hoofs. ‘The animals are carnivorous. Presence of a long, muscular trunks and thick, loose skin. ‘Their upper incisors are modified into an elongated tusk. Forelimbs are modified into wings The body is covered with hard, bony plates. They have reduced teeth or toothless,Order Camivora ‘They have sharp and well- ing mammals) | developed canines for tearing flesh and strong jaws in breaking bones. ‘Onder Primates Presence of opposable (Erect mammals) thumbs and eyes that face forward. The only animals that can stand erectly using only their hind limbs. Cats, dogs, lions, tigers, bears (Flesh: The Advantage of Having High Biodiversity in an Area According to Linnaeus, classifying living things into levels will reflect the degree of kinship among organisms, This means living things are all related and ee how living things are connected, take a good look on our day-to-day activities. The food that we eat, the clothes we wear, the medicines we take when we our sick, the materials we use to build our homes, and even our spiritual, economic, and sociopolitical eee pine pe biodiversity of our planet. Most of the medicines that are used in treating dreaded diseases are all derived from plant and animal species. The World Health Organization (2001) estimates that 80 percent of the world’s population uses traditional medicines that are derived from plant and animal species. Researches and investigations about the earth’s biodiversity are continuous, The scientific community is still searching for potential new medicines that can be used in curing cancer and AIDS. Food production also depends so much on biodiversity. Variety of food crops is dependent ‘on the soil nutrients. Soil microbes (bacteria and fungi) play vital roles in enriching the soil and. in maintaining the nutrient cycles. Crops, such as vegetables, fruits, and grains, continuously grow and propagate by pollination activities of insects and other animals. Maintaining the high biodiversity of a region or area ensures the stability of our current food production. The loss of biodiversity can affect the economy of a particular nation. Continuous deforestation can lead to flooding, erosion, resource shortages, and environmental destruction, Deforestation leads to habitat loss, and habitat loss can lead to the extinction of animal. species, particularly the wildlife. Plant and animal species in the wild are very sensitive to habitat change. When trees are cut, microorganisms can cause infectious diseases, like malaria and Ebola, are spread. Treating them gives additional strain dn the economies of any country. On the spiritual and aesthetic side, biodiversity adds beauty to nature and provides the feeling of peace and serenity to people's life.Pe Fungi are the nonchlorophyllous plantlike organisms that ate heterotrophic and spore forming. 3 + Plants are multicelfular and chlorophylious organisms. They can make their own food through photosynthesis + Plants are divided into two distinct groups nonvascular and vascular plants, + Members of phylum bryophyte represent the nonvasculat plants, They exhibit a life cycle involving the alternation of the spore-producing and gamete-producing plants. +The vascular plants are divided into two groups: the vascular eryptogram and the seed- producing plants, + The vascular plants are the plants, which just like ferns, exhibit a life cycle whose spore-bearing and gamete-producing plants altemate cach other, + The seed-forming plants are divided into two groups: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms. The gymnosperms produce naked seeds, While the angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in an ovary. + Angiosperms are the flowering plants divided into two subclasses: the dicots and monocots. + Variations in the structure of flower and fruits exist. || + Animals are multicellular and actively mobile organisms, There are two groups of animals; the invertebrates and the vertebrates. + The invertebrates lack backbone support. There are cight phyla of invertebrates. + Sponges are the pore-bearing animals. + Cnidarians are the animals with stinging cells. They exist as medusa type or polyp type. + Platyhelminthesare the wormsthat are flattened dorsoventrally. They are hermaphroditic and mostly parasitic. + Nemathelminthes are the roundworms and are mostly endoparasitic. + Annelids have a round, cylindrical, and segmented bodies. They are hermaphroditic and mostly free living, + Arthropods are animals whose bodies are divided into two or three segments. Their bodies are covered with exoskeletons that are chitinous or biomineralized with calcium carbonate. They are classified into different groups according to the number of body ‘segments and locomotor structures. + The insects are the largest group of arthropods. They differ in the type of mouth parts, number of wings, and type of metamorphosis. + Echinoderms are the animals with spiny skin. They are chiefly marine forms. Their common features include the presence of a water vascular system and tube feet that serve various purposes. + Chordates are animals with dorsal spinal cord, a notochord that supports the body, pharyngeal slits that function for feeding and gaseous exchange, and a post-anal tail that extends beyond the anus,“~ \SATRT AE | Key Terminologies ; antheridia cuticle ‘gemmules mesoglea chitin didermic hermaphrodite metamorphosis i coelom eukaryotic kingdom mycelium, f hyphae mantle asymmetry species CChordates are divided into two categories: the invertebrate chordates and. chordates. The invertebrate chordates possess the characteristics of cho stage of thei life. The vertebrate chordates, likewise, possess the character of chordates in one stage of their life and their notochord is replaced by th column composed of bone tissue. ‘There are seven classes of chordates: agnatha, chondrichthyes, reptilia, aves, and mammalia. ‘Mammals’ distinguishing feature is the presence of breasts that secrete three subclasses ; the marsupials, monotremes, and placental mammals. Mammals are divided into different orders because of their varied features. % Biodiversity is important for the survival of organisms.