Session #10

Frequency control in a power system

‫ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻓﺮﮐﺎﻧﺲ در ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻢ ﻗﺪرت‬
• The stable operation of a power system requires frequency and voltage to be constant.
• Power system networks mostly operate closer to their stability limits because of
1. Deregulated electricity market.
2. Growth in power consumption.
• Severe disturbances Very fast declining of frequency Increasing the risk
of collapse.

Applying UFLS to recover system frequency and avoid blackout.

Load-generation imbalance ‫ﻋﺪم ﺗﻌﺎدل ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ و ﻣﺼﺮف‬
 Loss of Main

ROCOF:
VS:
Rate of change
of frequency Vector shift

At the moment of island formation there will be an

imbalance between islanded load and islanded Loss of
generation. main
protection
 Vector shift
Before islanding After islanding

Switch A is closed

𝑽𝑽𝒕𝒕
𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳 = 𝑰𝑰𝑮𝑮 + 𝑰𝑰𝒈𝒈
𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳 = 𝑰𝑰𝑮𝑮

θ: The load angle of the generator After the power island is formed, the load
current is supplied entirely by the generator.

Change in load current Δθ, Shift in voltage terminal

The typical threshold setting for a vector shift relay is typically: ±6°
ROCOF:
The variation in frequency of the voltage @ the generator terminal
Main grid
Measurement unit

Loss-of-mains protection based on PMU technology

 Under-frequency load shedding
‫رﻟﻪ ﺣﺬف ﺑﺎر ﻓﺮﮐﺎﻧﺴﯽ‬

Typical schemes
Under-voltage load shedding
‫رﻟﻪ ﺣﺬف ﺑﺎر وﻟﺘﺎژي‬

Out-of-step tripping and blocking

‫رﻟﻪ ﺧﺮوج از ﻫﻤﮕﺎﻣﯽ‬

Congestion mitigation
‫ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﭘﺮﺷﺪﮔﯽ ﺧﻂ‬

SVC and Statcom control

 Under frequency loadshedding
‫رﻟﻪ ﺣﺬف ﺑﺎر ﻓﺮﮐﺎﻧﺴﯽ‬
Causes of frequency decay:
1. Loss of generation ‫ﺧﺮوج ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‬
Helps to prevent the complete blackout of the island
2. Increase of load ‫اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﺑﺎر‬
Gradual changes The governor response
Sudden loss of generation Governors are not fast enough
If all generators are operating at maximum capacity
Spinning reserve is not available
Necessary to automatically drop load ‫رزرو ﭼﺮﺧﺎن‬
“Under frequency load shedding must be performed quickly to arrest power system frequency
decline by decreasing power system load to match available generating capacity”

Frequency falls below a certain predefined threshold

Shed a fixed amount of load in predefined steps

Conventional LS

Load shedding
techniques

Adaptive LS Computational
intelligent LS
Steps for under frequency load shedding
• The first stage of automatic load shedding should be
initiated @ 49Hz.(at least 5% of total consumption
1 should be shed)

• In each step of load shedding, a disconnection of no

2 more than 10% of the load is advised.

• The maximum disconnection delay should be 350 ms

3 including breakers’ operating time.
In the static criterion, fixed load
blocks are disconnected in each
load shedding stage.
This criterion may reduce the
impact and the effectiveness of the
load shedding, especially in large
disturbance conditions that are
associated with a steep decline in
the frequency.
Consider an islanded system, which has an excess load, and which starts at t = 0 with a
balance between load and generation at frequency 𝑓𝑓0 – usually close to the nominal operating
frequency of 60 Hz.
𝑑𝑑 2 𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = 2𝜋𝜋 𝑓𝑓 2𝐻𝐻∘ ⁄𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠2 𝑆𝑆∘ = � 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 − � 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

� 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 . 𝑆𝑆0

∑ 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 − ∑ 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖
A relative load excess: 𝐿𝐿 =
∑ 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖

Load factor

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝. 𝐿𝐿 2
� 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝. 𝐿𝐿. 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠2
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 0 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓0 1− 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝐻𝐻0 𝑠𝑠 � 2𝐻𝐻0
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓0
As the frequency decreases, at some reduced frequency it balances the generation, and the
frequency stabilizes at that point.

% 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
decrement factor d d = %𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑓𝑓
Load excess factor 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿0 − 1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑 1 −
𝑓𝑓0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓 =− 𝐿𝐿 − 1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝐻𝐻0 0 𝑓𝑓0

𝐿𝐿0 1 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠2

𝑓𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑓𝑓0 − 1 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =− 1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑡𝑡
1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑓𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑓 1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑⁄𝐿𝐿0 𝑓𝑓0 2𝐻𝐻0 𝑓𝑓0

𝐿𝐿0
𝑡𝑡 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑓𝑓∞ = 𝑓𝑓0 1 −
1 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑
 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓 = 0.85
𝐻𝐻0 = 10
𝐿𝐿0 = 0.3
𝑑𝑑 = 2

Load excess factor: 0.3 53.1 Hz

𝑓𝑓2 − 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓22 − 𝑓𝑓12 𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. 𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓2 − 𝑓𝑓1

= =
𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1 𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1 𝑓𝑓2 + 𝑓𝑓1 𝐻𝐻 1 − 𝑓𝑓22 ⁄𝑓𝑓12

𝑝𝑝. 𝑓𝑓. 𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓2 − 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓2 < 𝑓𝑓1 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅 < 0 A decreasing frequency
Setting the load shedding relays 𝑅𝑅 = ‫ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﻓﺮﮐﺎﻧﺲ‬
𝐻𝐻 1 − 𝑓𝑓22 ⁄𝑓𝑓12
Example
For a system with 10000 MW connected load, a generating station delivering 1500 MW is lost due to a
contingency. If the aggregate inertia constant is 5 seconds, determine the settings of the under-frequency
relays which will accomplish a load-shedding plan to drop 1500 MW of load in two steps of 750 MW each.
The total relay plus interrupting time of 15 cycles may be assumed at each step.
Set the first step of the load shedding at 59.5 Hz.

10000MW

8500MW
 ∑ 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 − ∑ 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 10000 − 8500
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = = 0.1765
∑ 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 8500

The average rate of frequency decline 60 → 59.5 Hz

0.85 × 0.1765 59.5 − 60

𝑅𝑅 = × = −0.9039 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻⁄sec
5 1 − 59.52 ⁄602

0.5
59.5 HZ = 0.553Sec
0.9039
Frequency will decline further
Tripping delay of 15 cycles
0.9039 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻⁄sec 0.25 × 0.9039 = 0.226𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
= 0.25Sec
 The load of 750 MW Load shedding

59.5 − 0.226 = 59.274𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ≈ 59.3𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

0.726
= 0.8032 Sec
0.9039
Second step
the next step of load shedding
Safety margin of 0.2 Hz 59.3 − 0.2 = 59.1𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

0.85 × 0.0882 59 − 59.27

The original disturbance 𝑅𝑅 = × = −0.4454 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻⁄Sec
5 1 − 592 ⁄59.272

59.1 HZ 59.274 − 59.1 Tripping delay of 15 cycles =0.25Sec

= 0.39Sec
0.4454
@ frequency the load will be shed 59.1 − 0.4454 × 0.25 = 59𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Total time of load shedding 60 − 59.274 59.274 − 59

+ = 1.409Sec
0.9039 0.4458
A complete balance between the load and generation will be established, and the
frequency will begin to return to its normal value of 60 Hz.

Gen Load

8500 8500
 start

Flow chart of conventional load shedding techniques

Measure Frequency/Voltage

No
Frequency<𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Voltage <𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Yes
Activate UF relay Or Under voltage relay

Shed load

Frequency=50 Hz No
Voltage in range

Yes
END
 Consider a system with an installed plant capacity of 10000 MW.

The largest single unit capacity being 1000 MW, Up to two such units in one generating station

The system imports 600 MW from its tie lines with the neighbors.

Set of contingencies
1. 600 MW (loss of the tie line)
2. 1000 MW (loss of one generator)
3. 1600 MW (loss of one generator and the tie line)
4. 2000 MW (loss of two generators)
5. 2600 MW (loss of two generators and the tie line).
Design a load shedding scheme of five steps:

1. 600 MW
2. 400 MW
3. 600 MW
4. 400 MW
5. 600 MW.
 Underfrequency
loadshedding(UFLS)
Automatic
loadshedding
Undervoltage
loadshedding(UVLS)
 Voltage stability
• Cause of instability
1. Inadequate reactive support.
2. Heavy reactive power flow
3. Heavily loaded transmission lines.
• Reactive power must be generated at or
near the load center.
• Sufficient reactive support
1. SVC (Static var compensator)
2. STATCOM (Static compensator) Two different voltages for the same power delivered.
 UnderVoltage load shedding (UVLS)
• Operate as a last resort
• Undervoltage load shedding: which sheds load to prevent local area
voltage collapse.
• The goal of a UVLS scheme is to shed load to restore reactive power
relative to demand, to prevent voltage collapse and to contain a voltage
problem within a local area rather than allowing it to spread in geography
and magnitude.
• If the first load-shed step does not allow the system to rebalance, and
voltage continues to deteriorate, then the next block of load is dropped.
Typical Utility Substation Load Shedding
Long-term (slow dynamic) voltage
security and corrective actions