Chapter 5

[Physical Layer]

Multiplexing

Dr. Niroj Kumar Pani

nirojpani@gmail.com

Department of Computer Science Engineering & Applications

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology
Sarang, Odisha
Chapter Outline…
◼ Multiplexing: Why & What?

◼ Classification of Multiplexing Techniques

◼ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

◼ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

◼ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.2

Multiplexing: Why & What ?
◼ If the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth
needs of the devices, the additional bandwidth of the link is wasted. In such a
situation, in order to utilize the bandwidth of the link (and hence, to increase its
efficiency), we combine the signals generated from multiple devices and send
them across a single link (i.e. the link is shared). This technique is called
multiplexing.

◼ [Definition - Multiplexing]: It refers to the set of techniques that allow the

simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

[Fig. 5.1:
Concept of a
multiplexed
system ]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.3

Classification of Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing Techniques

Frequency-Division Wavelength-Division Time-Division

Multiplexing (FDM) Multiplexing (WDM) Multiplexing (TDM)
[Designed for analog [Designed for analog [Designed for digital
signals] signals] signals]

Synchronous Statistical
TDM TDM

[Fig. 5.2]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.4

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
◼ FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals from
different sources to be transmitted over one metallic cables.

◼ Multiplexing Process:

➢ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different

carrier frequencies (𝑓1, 𝑓2, 𝑓3, …) inside the multiplexer. The resulting
modulated signals are then combined to form a single composite signal
that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.

➢ The carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient unused bandwidth,

called the guard bands to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition,
carrier frequencies do not interfere with the original data frequencies.

[Refer Fig. 5.3, Next Slide]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.5

[Fig. 5.3: FDM: Multiplexing Process]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.6

◼ Demultiplexing Process: [Refer Fig. 5.4]

➢ At the receivers’ end, the demultiplexer uses a series of filters to

decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component
signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

[Fig. 5.4: FDM: Demultiplexing Process]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.7
◼ An Illustration of a FDM Multiplexed System:
[Fig. 5.5]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.8

◼ An Application of FDM: The Analog Career System Used by the Telephone
Companies:

[Fig. 5.6]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.9

◼ Example 1: Five channels, each with a 100 kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a
guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution: For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that
the required bandwidth is at least: 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz.

[Fig. 5.7]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.10

◼ Example 2: Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a
satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.

Solution: The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each
channel having a 250 kHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is
modulated such that each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM
modulation. Fig. 5.8 shows one possible configuration.

[Fig. 5.8]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.11

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
◼ WDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines optical signals from
different sources to be transmitted over one high capacity fiver-optic cable.

◼ Multiplexing & Demultiplexing Process:

➢ WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals to be transmitted over fiber-optic
channels.

➢ In WDM, high frequency lights from different sources are combined to

make a single wider band of light, which is sent to the receivers’ end
through a high capacity fiver-optical cable. At the receiver, the signals
are separated by the demultiplexer.

The combining and splitting (multiplexing and demultiplexing) of lights

are easily handled by a prism.

[Refer Fig. 5.9, Next Slide]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.12

 [Fig. 5.9: WDM: Multiplexing & Demultiplexing Process]

◼ Applications of WDM:

➢ The SONET network. In it multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and
demultiplexed.

➢ Another new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very
large number of channels by spacing channels very close to one
another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.13
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
◼ TDM is a digital multiplexing technique that combines digital signals from
different sources to be transmitted over one high bandwidth link.

◼ Basic Mechanism: In TDM, instead of sharing a portion of bandwidth of the link

(as in FDM), the time is shared i.e. each connection occupies a portion of time
in the link. [The concept is shown in Fig. 5.10]

[Fig. 5.10]

◼ Types: (1) Synchronous TDM (2) Statistical TDM

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.14

Synchronous TDM

◼ Mechanism:

➢ In Synchronous TDM, the multiplexer takes a unit of data (may be 1 bit or

1 byte or group of bytes) from each source every T seconds in a round
robin fashion and groups them into a frame such that, if there are n input
connections then each frame has n slots, with each slot being reserved for
a specific input line. The frames are then transmitted over a single link.

➢ Since, the duration of the input data unit is T seconds (data units are
collected every T seconds),
▪ The duration of each frame has to be T seconds (unless a frame
carries some other information, as we will see shortly).
▪ The duration of each slot in the frame is T/n seconds.

➢ The data rate of the output link must be n-times faster than that of the
input lines.

[The concept is shown in Fig. 5.11, Next slide]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.15

 [Fig. 5.11: The concept of Synchronous TDM]

[NOTE]: The mechanism of combining the data units of n-input lines into one frame is called
interleaving.

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.16

◼ Implementation: TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on
the multiplexing side and the other on the demultiplexing side.
➢ The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in
opposite directions.
➢ On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection,
that connection has the opportunity to send a data unit onto the path.
➢ On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection,
that connection has the opportunity to receive a data unit from the path.

[Fig. 5.12: Synchronous TDM: Implementation]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.17
◼ Frame Synchronization:
➢ If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit
belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel.
➢ For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to
the beginning of each frame. These bits are called framing bits. They
follow a pattern. Usually, one bit per frame, 1 and 0 alternatively.

[Fig. 5.13: Synchronous TDM: Frame Synchronization]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.18

◼ Data Rate Management: In synchronous TDM, we have assumed that the data
rate of the input devices are same i.e. the data units that are collected every T
seconds are of same size. However, it may not be same.

Three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used to overcome this

problem.

➢ Multilevel Multiplexing Used if the data rate of one input line is a

➢ Multiple-Slot Allocation multiple of others.

➢ Pulse Stuffing / Bit Stuffing / Bit Padding: Used if the data rates of the
input lines are not multiple of each other. Extra bits are added to the
lower data rate line(s).

[The schemes are shown in Fig. 5.14, Next Slide]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.19

[Fig. 5.14 (a):
Multilevel Multiplexing]

[Fig. 5.14 (b):

Multiple-Slot Allocation]

[Fig. 5.14 (c):

Pulse Stuffing / Bit Stuffing / Bit Padding]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.20

◼ Limitation: Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. Since there is a
reserved slot for each input link, if a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

[Fig. 5.15:
Empty Slots in
Synchronous TDM].

This is the reason why we use the next scheme “Statistical TDM”.

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.21

Statistical TDM

◼ Mechanism: The working principle of statistical TDM is similar to that of

synchronous TDM except the following differences:

1. In statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated - meaning that - the

multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion; it allocates a
slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the
line and checks the next line. Hence in this scheme, the number of slots
in each frame is less than or equal to the number of input lines.

2. In statistical TDM, since there is no fixed relationship between the inputs

and outputs (because of no reserved slots), the address of the receiver
need to be included inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.

3. Since, the frames in statistical TDM don't required be synchronized, no

synchronization bits are needed.

[The concept is shown in Fig. 5.16, Next Slide]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.22

[Fig. 5.16: Synchronous Vs. Statistical TDM]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.23

An Application of TDM: The Digital Signal Service

◼ The telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital

signals, called digital signal (DS) service or digital hierarchy (shown in Fig. 5.17).

[Fig. 5.17: Digital Hierarchy]

Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 5.24

End of Chapter 5