Motivations and intelligence

Chapter (10)

2nd semester
Introduction to Psychology BNUR304
 outlines
• What is motivation?
• Early theories of motivations
• Motivation and Behavior “components “
• What is intelligence?
• What is Emotional Intelligence
• What are the Multiple theories of intelligence?
• How can we best assess intelligence? An intelligence test
• Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities.
• Francis Galton: Presuming Hereditary Genius
• Alfred Binet: Predicting School Achievement
• Lewis Terman: Measuring Innate Intelligence
• David Wechsler: Testing Separate Strengths
• Principles of Test Construction: validity and reliability
• How does intelligence change over time and vary among individuals?
 Objectives
• Define motivation, intelligence, and emotional intelligence
• Explain how theories describe motivations, general intelligence, and emotional
intelligence
• Identify how motivation is important and impacts behavior and mental health
• Discuss How can we best assess intelligence by using intelligence tests.
• List the Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities.
• Discuss Francis Galton who Presuming Hereditary Genius
• Differentiate between Alfred Binet in Predicting School Achievement David and
Wechsler in Testing Separate Strengths
• Discuss Lewis Terman in Measuring Innate Intelligence
• Describe How does intelligence change over time and varies among individuals
based on their environment, experiences, age ,and growth and development

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 Definition of Motivation
• The term "motivation" describes why a person does something. It is the
driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that
initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

• For instance, motivation is what helps you lose extra weight, or pushes
you to get that promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in
a way that gets you closer to your goals. Motivation includes
the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate human
behavior.
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 Types of Motivation
• The two main types of motivation are frequently described as
being either extrinsic or intrinsic.
• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and
often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social
recognition, or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the
individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely
for the gratification of solving a problem.2
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 Theories of Motivation
The major theories of motivation are:

ØInstincts
• The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by
instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior.7
• Psychologists such as William James, Sigmund Freud, and William McDougal
have proposed several basic human drives that motivate behavior. They include
biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival—such as fear,
cleanliness, and love.
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ØDrives and Needs

• The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests that people

have these basic biological drives, and our behaviors are
motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.8

• Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

• Is another motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill basic
physiological needs. Once those needs are met, it expands to our
other needs, such as those related to safety and security, social
needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
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ØArousal Levels

• The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are

motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their
optimal level of arousal.4
• A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities
such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs
might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking
behaviors such as motorcycle racing.

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 Why Motivation Is Important
• Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So,
understanding how motivation works and the factors that may impact it can
be important for several reasons. Understanding motivation can:
– Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals

– Drive you to take action

– Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors

– Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction

– Help you feel more in control of your life

– Improve your overall well-being and happiness

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 Components of Motivation
• Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior.

An example of activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your

degree.

• Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist.

An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even though you
are tired from staying up late the night before.

• Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.5

For example, one student might coast by without much effort (minimal intensity) while
another student studies regularly, participates in classroom discussions, and takes
advantage of research opportunities outside
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 Causes of Low Motivation
• All-or-nothing thinking: If you think that you must be absolutely perfect
when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying, one small slip-
up or relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing forward.

• Believing in quick fixes: It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't reach your
goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.

• Thinking that one size fits all: Just because an approach or method worked
for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you don't feel
motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will work better for
you.
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 Motivation and Mental Health

• Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation is tied to a

mental health condition such as depression. Talk to
your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and
low mood that last longer than two weeks.

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 Tips for Improving Your Motivation
• Some things you can do to develop or improve your motivation
include:
– Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you.
– Focusing on things that are highly important to you will help push
you through your challenges more than goals based on things that are
low in importance.
– If you're tackling something that feels too big or too overwhelming,
break it up into smaller, more manageable steps. Then, set your sights
on achieving only the first step. Instead of trying to lose 50 pounds,
for example, break this goal down into five-pound increments.
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 – Improve your self confidence
– Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the past
and where your strengths lie
– Working on your insecure things and making
improvements in those areas so you feel more skilled and,
capable.

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 What Is Intelligence?
• Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use
knowledge to adapt to new situations.

• General intelligence (g) according to spearman and others, underlies all

mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence
test.

Emotional Intelligence

• Your ability to recognize and understand emotions in yourself and others, and
your ability to use this awareness to manage your behavior and relationships.
 Definition of general intelligence

• General intelligence can be defined as a construct that is

made up of different cognitive abilities such as spatial,
numerical, mechanical, and verbal abilities. These abilities
allow people to acquire knowledge and solve problems.

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 Components of General Intelligence (G Factor)

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 Components of General Intelligence
• Fluid reasoning: This involves the ability to think flexibly and solve problems.

• Knowledge: This is a person's general understanding of a wide range of topics and can
be equated with crystallized intelligence.

• Quantitative reasoning: This involves an individual's capacity to solve problems that

involve numbers.

• Visual-spatial processing: This relates to a person's abilities to interpret and manipulate

visual information, such as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes.

• Working memory: This involves the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat
a list of items.
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 How Is It Measured?
• Such tests propose that intelligence can be measured and expressed
by a single number, such as an IQ score.

• The Stanford-Binet, which is one of the most popular intelligence

tests, aims to measure the G factor. In addition to providing an
overall score, the current version of the test also offers a number of
score composites as well as subtest scores in ten different areas.

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 IQ Definition

• IQ is short for intelligence quotient and is "a type of standard

score that indicates how far above, or how far below, his/her
peer group an individual stands in mental ability" according
to Mensa International, an organization for people scoring in
the top 2% for IQ.2

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Types of IQ tests:
There are several different intelligence tests in existence and their content can vary
considerably. Some are used for adults, but many are specifically designed to be administered
to children.

Some commonly used intelligence tests include:

• Cognitive Assessment System • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

• Kaufman Assessment Battery for • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children Children

• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale • Woodcock-Johnson Tests of

• Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test Cognitive Abilities

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 Uses of IQ Tests
• IQ tests can be used for a wide range of purposes, including:
– Educational assessment and placement
– Assessment and diagnosis of intellectual disability
– Cognitive research
– Job candidate evaluation
– Assessing cognitive abilities including memory, speed, and attention
• Modern intelligence tests often focus on abilities such as mathematical skills, memory,
spatial perception, and language abilities. The capacity to see relationships, solve
problems and remember information are important components of intelligence, so these
are often the skills on which IQ tests focus.
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 What Do IQ Test Scores Mean?
The average score on many is 100 and the following labels are often used for different scoring
ranges:

• 40 - 54: Moderately impaired or delayed • 110 - 119: High average

• 55 - 69: Mildly impaired or delayed • 120 - 129: Superior
• 70 - 79: Borderline impaired or delayed • 130 - 144: Gifted or very advanced

• 80 - 89: Low average intelligence • 145 - 160: Exceptionally gifted or highly

• 90 - 109: Average advanced

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 Challenges

• The idea that intelligence could be measured and summarized by a single

number on an IQ test was controversial even during Spearman's time.

• IQ and intelligence testing have remained topics of debate ever since. While
influential, g factor is just one way of thinking about intelligence.

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 Factors Affecting IQ Test Scores
• Some of the factors that can impact a person's IQ test score
include:
– Educational access and background6
– Nutrition
– Culture
– Environment
– Overall health and medical conditions

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences
• Gardner multiple intelligence
• Howard Gardner has identified eight relatively independent intelligence,
Including the verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardized
Tests.
• Thus, the computer programmer, the poet, the street-smart adolescent, and
the basketball team’s play-making point guard exhibit different kinds of
intelligence (Gardner, 1998).
• Gardner (1999a) has also proposed a ninth possible intelligence such as :
• Existential intelligence: the ability “to ponder large questions about life,
death, existence.”
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 • Gardner (1983, 2006; 2011; Davis et al., 2011) views these intelligence
Domains as multiple abilities that come in different packages.

• Savant syndrome :

• A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an

exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

• About 4 in 5 people with savant syndrome are male, and many also have autism
spectrum disorder (ASD), a developmental disorder.

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 Sternberg’s Three Intelligences
• Sternberg’s triarchic theory proposes three, not eight or nine,
intelligence:
üAnalytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence is assessed by
intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a
single right answer. Such tests predict school grades reasonably
well and vocational success more modestly.
üCreative intelligence Is demonstrated in innovative smarts: the
ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas.
üPractical intelligence Is required for everyday tasks that may be
poorly defined and may have multiple solutions
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Comparing Theories of Intelligence
 Assessing Intelligence

• Intelligence test is a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and

comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

• Psychologists classify such tests as either:

ü Achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

ü Aptitude test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance;

• Aptitude is the capacity to learn

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 Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities

• Francis Galton: Presuming Hereditary Genius

• English scientist Francis Galton (1822–1911) was fascinated
with measuring human traits.
• His cousin Charles Darwin proposed that nature selects
successful traits through the survival of the fittest.
• Galton's quest for a simple intelligence measure failed, but he
gave us some statistical techniques that we still use.
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 Alfred Binet: Predicting School Achievement
• Binet and his student, Théodore Simon, began by assuming that all
children follow the same course of intellectual development but that
some develop more rapidly.
• Mental age is a measure of intelligence test performance devised by
Binet and his student Théodore Simon. It measures the level of
performance typically associated with children of a certain
chronological age. A child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is
said to have a mental age of 8.Binet and Simon made no assumptions
concerning why a particular child was slow, average, or precocious.
• Binet personally leaned toward an environmental explanation.
• To raise the capacities of low-scoring children, he recommended:
• “mental orthopedics” that would help develop their attention span and
self-discipline. He believed his intelligence test did not measure inborn
intelligence as a scale measures weight
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 Lewis Terman: Measuring Innate Intelligence

• Binet’s fears were realized soon after his death in 1911, when others
adapted his tests for use as a numerical measure of inherited intelligence.

• Stanford University professor Lewis Terman (1877–1956) tried the Paris-

developed questions and age norms with California schoolchildren.

• Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford

University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

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Intelligence quotient
(IQ) was defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to
chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca ×
100).
• On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance
for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
• IQ=mental age of 10chronological age of 8×100=125

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Wechsler Intelligence Test measure

q The Wechsler scales are the most widely used measures of intelligence and
have been translated, adapted, and standardized in dozens of countries
around the world.

q Since first introduced in the Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS),

in Dr. Wechsler’s foundational definition of intelligence:

q …the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to

think rationally, and to deal effectively with his (or her) environment. (Wechsler,
1939, p. 3)

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What does the Wechsler Intelligence Test measure?

The Wechsler Scales provide an estimate of global intellectual ability (Full-Scale

IQ) and four Composites:

ü Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), which measures

the application of verbal skills and
ü information for problem-solving;
ü Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), which measures the
ability to engage in nonverbal reasoning
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 WAIS vs. Stanford Binet
WAIS Stanford-Binet
• Developed in 1939
• Introduced in 1955
• Developed for use with
• Developed to address weaknesses in children
Stanford-Binet
• Emphasizes timed tests
• Created to be used with adults
• Produces only a single,
• Contains some timed subtests general intelligence score
• Provides a number of different scores

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 Current Version
• The current version of the WAIS was released in 2008 and includes ten core
subtests as well as five supplemental subtests. Additionally, the WAIS-IV test
provides four major scores.
• Data collection for the newest version of the test (WAIS-V) is progressing through spring
2020.4

• ×Scores Provided
– Perceptual Reasoning
– Processing Speed
– Verbal Comprehension
– Working Memory
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 Intelligence over time
Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence is one of many theories of intelligence in psychology
What Is Crystallized Intelligence?
Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new
knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger.

Crystallized intelligence examples include:6

Memorizing text
Memorizing vocabulary
Recalling how to do something
Remembering dates and locations
As you might expect, this type of intelligence tends to increase with age.7 The more learning and experience
you have, the more you build up your crystallized intelligence.
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 Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence
What Is Fluid Intelligence?
• Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability
is considered independent of learning, experience, and education.4
Fluid intelligence examples include:56
– Coming up with problem-solving strategies
– Interpreting statistics
– Philosophical reasoning
– Solving puzzles or abstract problems

– Fluid intelligence tends to decline during late adulthood. Certain cognitive skills associated with fluid intelligence also tend
to decline as people reach later adulthood.4

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 Intelligence changes over time

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 Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to perceive, interpret,
demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use emotions to communicate
with and relate to others effectively and constructively. Some experts
suggest that emotional intelligence is more important than IQ for
success in life.
• What Is Low Emotional Intelligence?
• Low emotional intelligence refers to the inability to accurately
perceive emotions (in both yourself and others) and to use that
information to guide your thinking and actions.
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 Signs of Emotional Intelligence
• Some key signs and examples of emotional intelligence include:1
– An ability to identify and describe what people are feeling
– An awareness of personal strengths and limitations
– Self-confidence and self-acceptance
– The ability to let go of mistakes
– An ability to accept and embrace change
– A strong sense of curiosity, particularly about other people
– Feelings of empathy and concern for others
– Showing sensitivity to the feelings of other people
– Accepting responsibility for mistakes
– The ability to manage emotions in difficult situations
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EQ – what differentiates our expertise and personality
 ü EI is the strongest predictor of workplace
performance.

ü 90% of top performers have high emotional

intelligence.
Why?
ü People with average IQs outperform those with
the highest IQS 70% of the time.

ü Decades of research now point to EI as being the

critical factor that sets star performers apart from
the rest of the pack.
 Components of Emotional Intelligence
1.Perceiving emotions.
2.Reasoning with emotions.
3.Understanding emotions.
4.Managing emotions.

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 Symptoms of people who have low emotional
intelligence
• They Always Have to Be 'Right'
• They're Oblivious to Other People's Feelings
• They Behave Insensitively
• They Blame Others for Their Problems
• They Have Poor Coping Skills
• They Have Emotional Outbursts
• They Struggle With Relationships
• They Turn Conversations Toward Themselves
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 How Emotional Intelligence Is Measured

• Self-report tests are the most common because they are the
easiest to administer and score.
• On such tests, respondents respond to questions or
statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a
statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others
are feeling," a test-taker might describe the statement as
disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.

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 If you are taking an emotional intelligence test
administered by a mental health professional, here are
two measures that might be used:
• Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT) Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their
ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
• Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) The
test is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities
that help distinguish people as strong leaders.

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 Summary and key points
• The term "motivation" describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human
actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

• General intelligence can be defined as a construct that is made up of different cognitive abilities. These
abilities allow people to acquire knowledge and solve problems

• Many modern intelligence tests measure some of the cognitive factors that are thought to make up general
intelligence. Such tests propose that intelligence can be measured and expressed by a single number, such
as an IQ score.

• Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use
emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively and constructively. Some experts suggest
that emotional intelligence is more important than IQ for success in life.

• A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence. Such tests
generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.
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 Questions and
discussions

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Thank you