Python Tutorial - GeeksforGeeks

11/6/22, 11:39 PM Python Tutorial - GeeksforGeeks
Python Tutorial
Last Updated : 22 Jul, 2022

Python is a general-purpose high-level programming language and is widely used among the de-
velopers’ community. Python was mainly developed for emphasis on code readability, and its syn-
tax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code. This Python tutorial provides
learners (either beginner or experienced developers) with topics from Python basics to advanced
topics with examples.
Key features of Python
Python has many reasons for being popular and in demand. A few of the reasons are mentioned
below.
Emphasis on code readability, shor ter codes, ease of writing.
Programmers can express logical concepts in fewer lines of code in comparison to lan-
guages such as C++ or Java.
P ython suppor ts multiple programming paradigms, like object-oriented, imperative and
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Dynamically typed language(Data type is based on value assigned)
Philosophy is “Simplicity is the best”.

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Getting started with Python Tutorial –
Python is a lot easier to code and learn. Python programs can be written on any plain text editor
like notepad, notepad++, or anything of that sort. One can also use an online IDE for writing Python
codes or can even install one on their system to make it more feasible to write these codes be-
cause IDEs provide a lot of features like intuitive code editor, debugger, compiler, etc.
To begin with, writing Python Codes and performing various intriguing and useful operations, one
must have Python installed on their System. This can be done by following the step by step in-
structions provided below:
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What if Python already exists? Let’s check
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Windows don’t come with Python preinstalled, it needs to be installed explicitly. But unlike win-
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dows, most of the Linux OS have Python pre-installed, also macOS comes with Python pre-in-
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stalled.
To check if your device is pre-installed with Python or not, just go to Command Line(For Windows,
search for cmd in the Run dialog(  + R), for Linux open the terminal using Ctrl+Alt+T, for macOS
use control+Option+Shift+T.
Now run the following command:
For Python2
python --version
For Python3
python3 --version
If Python is already installed, it will generate a message with the Python version available.
Download and Installation
Before starting with the installation process, you need to download it. For that all versions of
Python for Windows, Linux, and MacOS are available on python.org.
Windows
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Linux
MacOS
Download the Python and follow the further instructions for the installation of Python.
Beginning the installation.
Windows
Run the P ython Installer from downloads folder. Make sure to mark Add P ython 3.7 to PATH
other wise you will have to do it explicitly.
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It will star t installing python on windows.
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After installation is complete click on Close.
Bingo..!! Python is installed. Now go to windows and type IDLE.
Linux
For almost every Linux system, the following commands would work definitely.
$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
$ sudo apt-get update
$ sudo apt-get install python3.8
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To verify the installation enter following commands in your Terminal.
python3
MacOS
Download and install Homebrew Package Manager
Enter following command in macOS terminal.
/usr/bin/ruby -e "$(curl -fsSL https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Homebrew/ins
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Enter system password if prompted. This will install the Homebrew package Manager on
your OS.
After you see a message called “Installation Successful”. You are ready to install python ver-
sion 3 on your macOS.
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Install Python Latest Version on macOS / macOS X
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Open Terminal and enter the following command.
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install python3
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After command processing is complete, Python’s version 3 would be installed on your mac.
To verify the installation enter following commands in your Terminal app
pythona fa-hand-o-right
pip3
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How to run a Python program
Let’s consider a simple Hello World Program.
# Python program to print

# Hello World

print("Hello World")
Run on IDE
Generally, there are two ways to run a Python program.
Using IDEs: You can use various IDEs(P ycharm, Jupyter Notebook, etc.) which can be used
to run P ython programs.
Using Command-Line: You can also use command line options to run a P ython program.
Below steps demonstrate how to run a P ython program on Command line in Windows/Unix
Operating System:
Windows
Open Commandline and then to compile the code type python HelloWorld.py. If your code has no
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error then it will execute properly and output will be displayed.
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Unix/Linux
Open Terminal of your Unix/Linux OS and then to compile the code type python HelloWorld.py. If
your code has no error then it will execute properly and output will be displayed.
Fundamentals of Python
Python Indentation
Python uses indentation to highlight the blocks of code. Whitespace is used for indentation in
Python. All statements with the same distance to the right belong to the same block of code. If a
block has to be more deeply nested, it is simply indented further to the right. You can understand it
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# indentation ▲

site = 'gfg'

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if site == 'gfg':
print('Logging on to geeksforgeeks...')
else:
print('retype the URL.')
print('All set !')
Run on IDE
Output:
Logging on to geeksforgeeks...
All set !
The lines print(‘Logging on to geeksforgeeks…’) and print(‘retype the URL.’) are two separate code
blocks. The two blocks of code in our example if-statement are both indented four spaces. The fi-
nal print(‘All set!’) is not indented, and so it does not belong to the else-block.
Note: For more information, refer Indentation in Python.
Python Comments
Comments are useful information that the developers provide to make the reader understand the
source code. It explains the logic or a part of it used in the code. There are two types of comment in
Python:
Single line comments: P ython single line comment star ts with hashtag symbol with no
white spaces.
# This is a comment
# Print “GeeksforGeeks !” to console
print("GeeksforGeeks")
Run on IDE
Multi-line string as comment : P ython multi-line comment is a piece of text enclosed in a
delimiter (“””) on each end of the comment.
"""
This would be a multiline comment in Python that
spans several lines and describes geeksforgeeks.
A Computer Science portal for geeks. It contains
well written, well thought
and
We use well-explained
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to ensure you have the science
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quizzes and more.
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""" ▲
print("GeeksForGeeks")
Run on IDE
Note: For more information, refer Comments in Python.
Variables
Variables in Python are not “statically typed”. We do not need to declare variables before using
them or declare their type. A variable is created the moment we first assign a value to it.
#!/usr/bin/python

# An integer assignment
age = 45

# A floating point
salary = 1456.8

# A string
name = "John"

print(age)
print(salary)
print(name)
Run on IDE
Output:
45
1456.8
John
Note: For more information, refer Python Variables.
Operators
Operators are the main building block of any programming language. Operators allow the pro-
grammer to perform different kinds of operations on operands. These operators can be catego-
rized based upon their different functionality:
Arithmetic operators: Arithmetic operators are used to per form mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
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# Examples of Arithmetic Operator
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b = 4 ▲

# Addition of numbers
add = a + b
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# Subtraction of numbers
sub = a - b
# Multiplication of number
mul = a * b
# Division(float) of number
div1 = a / b
# Division(floor) of number
div2 = a // b
# Modulo of both number
mod = a % b

# print results
print(add)
print(sub)
print(mul)
print(div1)
print(div2)
print(mod)
Run on IDE
Output:
13
36
2.25
Relational Operators: Relational operators compares the values. It either returns True or
False according to the condition.
# Examples of Relational Operators

a = 13
b = 33

# a > b is False
print(a > b)

# a < b is True
print(a < b)

# a == b is False
print(a == b)

# a != b is True
print(a
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# a >= b is False
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# a <= b is True
print(a <= b)
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Run on IDE
Output:
False
True
False
True
False
True
Logical Operators: Logical operators per form Logical AND, Logical OR and Logical NOT
operations.
# Examples of Logical Operator

a = True
b = False

# Print a and b is False
print(a and b)

# Print a or b is True
print(a or b)

# Print not a is False
print(not a)
Run on IDE
Output:
False
True
False
Bitwise operators: Bitwise operator acts on bits and per forms bit by bit operation.
# Examples of Bitwise operators

a = 10
b = 4

# Print bitwise AND operation
print(a
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# Print bitwise OR operation
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# Print bitwise NOT operation

print(~a)

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# print bitwise XOR operation
print(a ^ b)

# print bitwise right shift operation
print(a >> 2)

# print bitwise left shift operation
print(a << 2)
Run on IDE
Output:
14
-11
14
40
A ssignment operators: A ssignment operators are used to assign values to the variables.
Special operators: Special operators are of two types-
Identity operator that contains is and is not.
Membership operator that contains in and not in.
# Examples of Identity and

# Membership operator

a1 = 'GeeksforGeeks'
b1 = 'GeeksforGeeks'

# Identity operator
print(a1 is not b1)
print(a1 is b1)

# Membership operator
print("G" in a1)
print("N" not in b1)
Run on IDE
Output:
False
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True
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True
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Note: For more information, refer Basic Operators in Python.
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Basics of Input/Output
Taking input from user –
Python provides us with two inbuilt functions to read the input from the keyboard.
raw_input(): This function works in older version (like P ython 2.x). This function takes ex-
actly what is typed from the keyboard, conver t it to string and then return it to the variable
in which we want to store. For example:
# Python program showing

# a use of raw_input()

g = raw_input("Enter your name : ")
print g
input(): This function first takes the input from the user and then evaluates the expression,
which means P ython automatically identifies whether the user entered a string or a num-
ber or list. For example:
# Python program showing

# a use of input()

val = input("Enter your value: ")
print(val)
Note: For more information, refer Python input() and raw_input().
Printing output to console –
The simplest way to produce output is using the print() function where you can pass zero or more
expressions separated by commas. This function converts the expressions you pass into a string
before writing to the screen.
# Python 3.x program showing

# how to print data on
# a screen

# One object is passed
print("GeeksForGeeks")

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# Two objects are passed
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# code for disabling the softspace feature
print('G', 'F', 'G', sep ='')
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# using end argument
print("Python", end = '@')
Run on IDE
Output:
GeeksForGeeks
x = 5
GFG
Python@GeeksforGeeks
Data Types
Data types are the classification or categorization of data items. It represents the kind of value that
tells what operations can be performed on a particular data. Since ever ything is an object in
Python programming, data types are actually classes and variables are instance (object) of these
classes.
Numeric
In Python, numeric data type represent the data which has numeric value. Numeric value can be
interger, floating number or even complex numbers. These values are defined as int, float and com‐
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# Python program to ▲
# demonstrate numeric value


print("Type of a: ", type(5))
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print("\nType of b: ", type(5.0))

c = 2 + 4j
print("\nType of c: ", type(c))
Run on IDE
Output:
Type of a: <class 'int'>
Type of b: <class 'float'>
Type of c: <class 'complex'>
Sequence Type
In Python, a sequence is the ordered collection of similar or different data types. Sequences allow
storing multiple values in an organized and efficient fashion. There are several sequence types in
Python –
String
List
Tuple
1) String: A string is a collection of one or more characters put in a single quote, double-quote or
triple quote. In python there is no character data type, a character is a string of length one. It is
represented by str class. Strings in Python can be created using single quotes or double quotes or
even triple quotes.
# Python Program for

# Creation of String

# String with single quotes
print('Welcome to the Geeks World')

# String with double quotes
print("I'm a Geek")

# String with triple quotes
print('''I'm a Geek
We use cookies to ensure andtheIbest
you have live in experience
browsing a worldonof "Geeks"''')
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Run on IDE
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Output:
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Welcome to the Geeks World
I'm a Geek
I'm a Geek and I live in a world of "Geeks"
Accessing elements of string –
# Python Program to Access

# characters of String

String1 = "GeeksForGeeks"

# Printing First character
print(String1[0])

# Printing Last character
print(String1[-1])
Run on IDE
Output:
Deleting/Updating from a String –
In Python, Updation or deletion of characters from a String is not allowed because Strings are im-
mutable. Only new strings can be reassigned to the same name.
#WePython Program
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# character of a thatString
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String1 = "Hello, I'm a Geek" ▲

# Updating a character
String1[2] = 'p'
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# Deleting a character
del String1[2]
Run on IDE
Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “/home/360bb1830c83a918fc78aa8979195653.py”, line 6, in
String1[2] = ‘p’
TypeError: ‘str’ object does not support item assignment
File “/home/499e96a61e19944e7e45b7a6e1276742.py”, line 8, in
del String1[2]
TypeError: ‘str’ object doesn’t support item deletion
Note: For more information, refer Python String.
Refer to the below articles to know more about Strings:
String Slicing in Python
Python String Concatenation
Python String Interpolation
Python programming questions on String
2) List: Lists are just like the arrays, declared in other languages. A single list may contain
DataTypes like Integers, Strings, as well as Objects. The elements in a list are indexed according to
a definite sequence and the indexing of a list is done with 0 being the first index. It is represented
by list class.
# Python program to demonstrate

# Creation of List

# Creating a List
List = []
print(List)

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# Creating a list of have
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List = ['GeeksForGeeks', 'Geeks']
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# Creating a Multi-Dimensional List

List = [['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]
print(List)
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Run on IDE
Output:
[]
['GeeksForGeeks', 'Geeks']
[['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]
Adding Elements to a List: Using append(), insert() and extend()

# Addition of elements in a List

# Creating a List
List = []

# Using append()
List.append(1)
List.append(2)
print(List)

# Using insert()
List.insert(3, 12)
List.insert(0, 'Geeks')
print(List)

# Using extend()
List.extend([8, 'Geeks', 'Always'])
print(List)
Run on IDE
Output:
[1, 2]
['Geeks', 1, 2, 12]
['Geeks', 1, 2, 12, 8, 'Geeks', 'Always']
Accessing elements from the List –
Use the index operator [ ] to access an item in a list. In Python, negative sequence indexes repre-
sent positions from the end of the array. Instead of having to compute the offset as in
List[len(List)-3], it is enough to just write List[-3].
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you demonstrate
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# accessing of element from list
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List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

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# accessing a element
print(List[0])
print(List[2])

# Negative indexing
# print the last element of list
print(List[-1])
# print the third last element of list
print(List[-3])
Run on IDE
Output:
Removing Elements from the List: Using remove() and pop()

# Removal of elements in a List

# Creating a List
List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]

# using Remove() method
List.remove(5)
List.remove(6)
print(List)

# using pop()
List.pop()
print(List)
Run on IDE
Output:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]
Note: For more information, refer Python List.
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Iterate over a list in Python
Python List Comprehension and Slicing

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Python programming questions on List
3) Tuple: Tuple is an ordered collection of Python objects much like a list. The important differ-
ence between a list and a tuple is that tuples are immutable. It is represented by tuple class. In
Python, tuples are created by placing a sequence of values separated by ‘comma’ with or without
the use of parentheses for grouping of the data sequence.

# creation of Set

# Creating an empty tuple
Tuple1 = ()
print (Tuple1)

# Creating a tuple of strings
print(('Geeks', 'For'))

# Creating a Tuple of list
print(tuple([1, 2, 4, 5, 6]))

# Creating a nested Tuple
Tuple1 = (0, 1, 2, 3)
Tuple2 = ('python', 'geek')
Tuple3 = (Tuple1, Tuple2)
print(Tuple3)
Run on IDE
Output:
()
('Geeks', 'For')
(1, 2, 4, 5, 6)
((0, 1, 2, 3), ('python', 'geek'))
Accessing element of a tuple –
Use the index operator [ ] to access an item in a tuple.
# Python program to

# demonstrate accessing tuple

tuple1 = tuple([1,
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# Accessing element using indexing
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# Accessing element using Negative
# Indexing
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print(tuple1[-1])
Run on IDE
Output:
Deleting/updating elements of tuple –
Items of a tuple cannot be deleted as tuples are immutable in Python. Only new tuples can be re-
assigned to the same name.
# Python program to

# demonstrate updation / deletion
# from a tuple

tuple1 = tuple([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

# Updating an element
tuple1[0] = -1

# Deleting an element
del tuple1[2]
Run on IDE
Output:
File "/home/084519a8889e9b0103b874bbbb93e1fb.py", line 11, in
tuple1[0] = -1
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
File "/home/ffb3f8be85dd393bde5d0483ff191343.py", line 12, in
del tuple1[2]
TypeError: 'tuple' object doesn't support item deletion
Note: For more information, refer Python Tuples.
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Unpacking a Tuple in Python
Operations on Tuples ▲

Python programming questions on Tuples
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Boolean
Booleans are data type with one of the two built-in values, True or False. It is denoted by the class
bool.
# Python program to

# demonstrate boolean type

print(type(True))
print(1>2)
print('a'=='a')
Run on IDE
Output:
<class 'bool'>
False
True
Set
In Python, Set is an unordered collection of data type that is iterable, mutable and has no duplicate
elements. The order of elements in a set is undefined though it may consist of various elements.
Sets can be created by using the built-in set() function with an iterable object or a sequence by
placing the sequence inside curly braces {}, separated by ‘comma’.

# Creation of Set in Python

# Creating a Set
set1 = set()

# Creating a Set of String
set1 = set("GeeksForGeeks")
print(set1)

# Creating a Set of List
set1 = set(["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"])
print(set1)
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Output:
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{'o', 'r', 'k', 'G', 'e', 's', 'F'}
{'Geeks', 'For'}
Adding elements: Using add() and update()

# Addition of elements in a Set

set1 = set()

# Adding to the Set using add()
set1.add(8)
set1.add((6, 7))
print(set1)

# Additio to the Set using Update()
set1.update([10, 11])
print(set1)
Run on IDE
Output:
{8, (6, 7)}
{8, 10, 11, (6, 7)}
Accessing a Set: One can loop through the set items using a for loop as set items cannot be ac-
cessed by referring to an index.

# Accessing of elements in a set

# Creating a set
set1 = set(["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"])

# Accessing using for loop
for i in set1:
print(i, end =" ")
Run on IDE
Output:
Geeks For
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Removing elements that
fromyou ahave
set:read and understood
Using our
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remove(), discard() pop() &
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and clear()
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# Python program to demonstrate ▲
# Deletion of elements in a Set

set1 = set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
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7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

# using Remove() method
set1.remove(5)
set1.remove(6)
print(set1)

# using Discard() method
set1.discard(8)
set1.discard(9)
print(set1)

# Set using the pop() method
set1.pop()
print(set1)

# Set using clear() method
set1.clear()
print(set1)
Run on IDE
Output:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
{1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12}
{2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12}
set()
Note: For more information, refer Python Sets.
Refer to the below articles to know more about Sets:
Iterate over a set in Python
frozenset() in Python
Python programming questions on Sets
Dictionary
Dictionar y in Python is an unordered collection of data values, used to store data values like a
map. Dictionar y holds key:value pair. Each key-value pair in a Dictionar y is separated by a colon :,
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{} braces, separated by ‘comma’.
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elements within curly
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# Creating an empty Dictionary

Dict = {}
print(Dict)
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# with Integer Keys
Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}
print(Dict)

# with Mixed keys
Dict = {'Name': 'Geeks', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}
print(Dict)
Run on IDE
Output:
{}
{1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}
{1: [1, 2, 3, 4], 'Name': 'Geeks'}
Nested Dictionary:
# Creating a Nested Dictionary

# as shown in the below image
Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For',
3:{'A' : 'Welcome', 'B' : 'To', 'C' : 'Geeks'}}

print(Dict)
Run on IDE
Output:
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{1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: {'A': 'Welcome', 'B': 'To', 'C': 'Geeks'}}

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Note: For more information, refer Python Nested Dictionar y.
▲

Adding elements to a Dictionary: One value at a time can be added to a Dictionar y by defining
value along with the key e.g. Dict[Key] = ‘Value’.

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# Creating an empty Dictionary

Dict = {}

# Adding elements one at a time
Dict[0] = 'Geeks'
Dict[2] = 'For'
Dict[3] = 1
print(Dict)

# Updating existing Key's Value
Dict[2] = 'Welcome'
print(Dict)
Run on IDE
Output:
{0: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 1}
{0: 'Geeks', 2: 'Welcome', 3: 1}
Accessing elements from a Dictionary: In order to access the items of a dictionar y refer to its key
name or use get() method.

# accessing an element from a Dictionary

# Creating a Dictionary
Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 'name': 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}

# accessing a element using key
print(Dict['name'])

# accessing a element using get()
print(Dict.get(3))
Run on IDE
Output:
For
Geeks
Removing Elements from Dictionary: Using pop() and popitem()

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# Initial Dictionary
Dict = { 5 : 'Welcome', 6 : 'To', Got
7 :It'Geeks',
!
'A' : {1 : 'Geeks', 2 : 'For',▲3 : 'Geeks'},
}

# using pop()
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Dict.pop(5)
print(Dict)

# using popitem()
Dict.popitem()
print(Dict)
Run on IDE
Output:
{'A': {1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}, 6: 'To', 7: 'Geeks'}
{6: 'To', 7: 'Geeks'}
Note: For more information, refer Python Dictionar y.
Refer to the below articles to know more about dictionary:
Operations on Dictionar y
Iterate over a dictionar y in Python
Python programming questions on dictionar y
Decision Making
Decision Making in programming is similar to decision making in real life. A programming lan-
guage uses control statements to control the flow of execution of the program based on certain
conditions. These are used to cause the flow of execution to advance and branch based on
changes to the state of a program.
Decision-making statements in Python
if statement
if..else statements
nested if statements
if-elif ladder
Example 1: To demonstrate if and if-else
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a = 10 ▲
b = 15

# if to check even number
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if a % 2 == 0:
print("Even Number")

# if-else to check even or odd
if b % 2 == 0:
print("Even Number")
else:
print("Odd Number")
Run on IDE
Output:
Even Number
Odd Number
Example 2: To demonstrate nested-if and if-elif

# decision making

a = 10

# Nested if to check whether a
# number is divisible by both 2 and 5
if a % 2 == 0:
if a % 5 == 0:
print("Number is divisible by both 2 and 5")

# is-elif
if (a == 11):
print ("a is 11")
elif (a == 10):
print ("a is 10")
else:
print ("a is not present")
Run on IDE
Output:
Number is divisible by both 2 and 5
a is 10
Note: For more information, refer Decision Making in Python.
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Control flow (Loops)
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Loops in programming come into use when we need to repeatedly execute a block of statements.
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For example: Suppose we want to print “Hello World” 10 times. This can be done with the help of
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loops. The loops in Python are:
While and while-else loop
# Python program to illustrate

# while and while-else loop
i = 0
while (i < 3):
i = i + 1
print("Hello Geek")

# checks if list still
# contains any element
a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
while a:
print(a.pop())

i = 10
while i < 12:
i += 1
print(i)
break
else: # Not executed as there is a break
print("No Break")
Run on IDE
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Output:

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StartHello
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Hello Geek
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Hello Geek
11
Note: For more information, refer Python While Loops.
For and for-else loop
# Python program to illustrate

# Iterating over a list
print("List Iteration")
l = ["geeks", "for", "geeks"]
for i in l:
print(i)

# Iterating over a String
print("\nString Iteration")
s = "Geeks"
for i in s :
print(i)

print("\nFor-else loop")
for i in s:
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print(i)
else: # Executed that you have read and no
because understood
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for i in s:
print(i)
break
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else: # Not executed as there is a break
print("No Break")
Run on IDE
Output:
List Iteration
geeks
for
geeks
String Iteration
For-else loop
No Break
Note: For more information, refer Python For Loops.
range() function: range() allows user to generate a series of numbers within a given range.
Depending on how many arguments user is passing to the function. This function takes
three arguments.
1) start: integer starting from which the sequence of integers is to be returned
2) stop: integer before which the sequence of integers is to be returned.
3) step: integer value which determines the increment between each integer in the sequence
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# range() function

for i in range(5):
print(i, end =" ")
print()

for i in range(2, 9):
print(i, end =" ")
print()

# incremented by 3
for i in range(15, 25, 3):
print(i, end =" ")
Run on IDE
Output:
0 1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15 18 21 24
Note: For more information, refer Python range() function.
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Understanding for-loop in Python
Backward iteration in Python

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Loop control statements
Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. Following are the loop con-
trol statements provided by Python:
Break : Break statement in P ython is used to bring the control out of the loop when some
external condition is triggered.
Continue: Continue statement is opposite to that of break statement, instead of terminat-
ing the loop, it forces to execute the next iteration of the loop.
Pass: Pass statement is used to write empty loops. Pass is also used for empty control
statement, function and classes.

# break, continue and pass

s = 'geeksforgeeks'

for letter in s:
if letter == 'e' or letter == 's':
break
print(letter, end = " ")
print()

for letter in s:
continue
print()

for letter in s:
pass
Run on IDE
Output:
g k f o r g k
g e e k s f o r g e e k s
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Functions
Functions are generally the block of codes or statements in a program that gives the user the abil-
ity to reuse the same code which ultimately saves the excessive use of memor y, acts as a time
saver and more importantly, provides better readability of the code. So basically, a function is a
collection of statements that perform some specific task and return the result to the caller. A func-
tion can also perform some specific task without returning anything. In Python, def keyword is
used to create functions.

# functions

# Defining functions
def ask_user():
print("Hello Geeks")

# Function that returns sum
# of first 10 numbers
def my_func():
a = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
a = a + i
return a

# Calling functions
ask_user()
res = my_func()
print(res)
Run on IDE
Output:
Hello Geeks
55
Function with arguments
Default arguments: A default argument is a parameter that assumes a default value if a
value is not provided in the function call for that argument.

# default arguments

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# Driver code
myFun(10)
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Run on IDE
Output:
('x: ', 10)
('y: ', 50)
Keyword arguments: The idea is to allow caller to specif y argument name with values so
that caller does not need to remember order of parameters.
# Python program to demonstrate Keyword Arguments

def student(firstname, lastname):
print(firstname, lastname)

# Keyword arguments
student(firstname ='Geeks', lastname ='Practice')
student(lastname ='Practice', firstname ='Geeks')
Run on IDE
Output:
('Geeks', 'Practice')
('Geeks', 'Practice')
Variable length arguments: In P ython a function can also have variable number of argu-
ments. This can be used in the case when we do not know in advance the number of argu-
ments that will be passed into a function.

# variable length arguments

# variable arguments
def myFun1(*argv):
for arg in argv:
print(arg, end =" ")

# variable keyword arguments
def myFun2(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print ("% s == % s" %(key, value))

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myFun1('Hello', that you 'Welcome',
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'GeeksforGeeks')
print() Got It !
myFun2(first ='Geeks', mid ='for',▲last ='Geeks')

Run on IDE
Output:
Hello Welcome to GeeksforGeeks
first == Geeks
last == Geeks
mid == for
Note: For more information, refer Functions in Python.
Refer to the below articles to know more about functions:
Python Inner Functions
Python return statement
Call function from another function
Lambda functions
In Python, the lambda/anonymous function means that a function is without a name. The lambda
keyword is used to create anonymous functions. Lambda function can have any number of argu-
ments but has only one expression.
# Python code to demonstrate

# labmda function

# Cube using lambda
cube = lambda x: x * x*x
print(cube(7))

# List comprehension using lambda
a = [(lambda x: x * 2)(x) for x in range(5)]
print(a)
Run on IDE
Output:
343
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
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Python programming questions on Lambda
Object Oriented Programming
Object-oriented programming aims to implement real-world entities like inheritance, hiding,
polymorphism, etc in programming. The main aim of OOP is to bind together the data and the func-
tions that operate on them so that no other part of the code can access this data except that
function.
Classes and Objects
Class creates a user-defined data structure, which holds its own data members and member func-
tions, which can be accessed and used by creating an instance of that class. A class is like a blue-
print for an object.
An Object is an instance of a Class. A class is like a blueprint while an instance is a copy of the class
with actual values.

# classes and objects

class Dog:

# A simple class attribute
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# A sample method ▲
def fun(self):
print("I'm a", self.attr1)
print("I'm a", self.attr2)
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# Driver code
# Object instantiation
Rodger = Dog()

# Accessing class attributes
# and method through objects
print(Rodger.attr1)
Rodger.fun()
Run on IDE
Output:
mamal
I'm a mamal
I'm a dog
Note: For more information, refer Python Classes and Objects.
The self
self represents the instance of the class. By using the “ self” keyword we can access the attributes
and methods of the class in python. It binds the attributes with the given arguments.
Note: For more information, refer self in Python class.
Constructors and Destructors
Constructors: Constructors are generally used for instantiating an object.The task of constructors
is to initialize(assign values) to the data members of the class when an object of class is created.
In Python the __init__() method is called the constructor and is always called when an object is
created. There can be two types of constructors:
Default constructor: The constructor which is called implicilty and do not accept any
argument.
Parameterized constructor:Constructor which is called explicitly with parameters is
known as parameterized constructor.

# constructors

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self.first = f
self.second = s

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def calculate(self):
print(self.first + self.second)

# Invoking parameterized constructor
obj = Addition(1000, 2000)

# perform Addition
obj.calculate()
Run on IDE
Output:
3000
Note: For more information, refer Constructors in Python.
Destructors: Destructors are called when an object gets destroyed. The __del__() method is a
known as a destructor method in Python. It is called when all references to the object have been
deleted i.e when an object is garbage collected.
# Python program to illustrate destructor

class Employee:

# Initializing
def __init__(self):
print('Employee created.')

# Deleting (Calling destructor)
def __del__(self):
print('Destructor called, Employee deleted.')

obj = Employee()
del obj
Run on IDE
Output:
Employee created.
Destructor called, Employee deleted.
Note: For more information, refer Destructors in Python.
Inheritance
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Inheritance is the ability of any class to extract and use features of other classes. It is the process
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by which new classes called the derived classes are created from existing classes called Base
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classes.
# A Python program to demonstrate inheritance

class Person():

# Constructor
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

# To get name
def getName(self):
return self.name

# To check if this person is employee
def isEmployee(self):
return False

# Inherited or Sub class (Note Person in bracket)
class Employee(Person):

# Here we return true
def isEmployee(self):
return True

# Driver code
emp = Person("Geek1") # An Object of Person
print(emp.getName(), emp.isEmployee())

emp = Employee("Geek2") # An Object of Employee
print(emp.getName(), emp.isEmployee())
Run on IDE
Output:
Geek1 False
Geek2 True
Note: For more information, refer Python inheritance.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation describes the idea of wrapping data and the methods that work on data within one
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unit. This puts restrictions on accessing variables and methods directly and can prevent the acci-

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# encapsulation

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# Creating a Base class
class Base:
def __init__(self):
self.a = "GeeksforGeeks"
self.__c = "GeeksforGeeks"

# Creating a derived class
class Derived(Base):
def __init__(self):

# Calling constructor of
# Base class
Base.__init__(self)
print("Calling private member of base class: ")
print(self.__a)
# Driver code
obj = Derived()
Run on IDE
Output:
File "/home/5a605c59b5b88751d2b93dd5f932dbd5.py", line 20, in
obj = Derived()
File "/home/5a605c59b5b88751d2b93dd5f932dbd5.py", line 18, in __init__
print(self.__a)
AttributeError: 'Derived' object has no attribute '_Derived__a'
Note: For more information, refer Encapsulation in Python.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism refers to the ability of OOPs programming languages to differentiate between enti-
ties with the same name efficiently. This is done by Python with the help of the signature of these
entities.

# Polymorphism

class A():
def show(self):
print("Inside A")

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def show(self):
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# Driver's code
a = A()
a.show()
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b = B()
b.show()
Run on IDE
Output:
Inside A
Inside B
Refer to the articles to know more about OOPS:
Bound, unbound, and static methods in Python
Multiple inheritance in Python
__new__ in Python
File Handling
File handling is the ability of Python to handle files i.e. to read and write files along with many
other file handling options. Python treats files differently as text or binar y and this is important.
Each line of code includes a sequence of characters and they form a text file. Each line of a file is
terminated with a special character, called the EOL or End of Line characters like comma {, } or
newline character.
Basic File Handling operations in Python are:
1) Open a file: Opening a file refers to getting the file ready either for reading or for writing. This
can be done using the open() function. This function returns a file object and takes two arguments,
one that accepts the file name and another that accepts the mode(Access Mode). Python provides
six Access Modes:
ACCESS MODE DESCRIPTION
Read Only (‘r’) Open text file for reading. The handle is po-
sitioned at the beginning of the file.
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ACCESS MODE DESCRIPTION
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Read and Write (‘r+’) Open the file for reading and writing. The
handle is positioned at the beginning of the
file.
Write Only (‘w’) Open the file for writing. For existing file,
the data is truncated and over-written. The
handle is positioned at the beginning of the
file.
Write and Read (‘w+’) Open the file for reading and writing. For
existing file, data is truncated and over-writ-

ten. The handle is positioned at the begin-
ning of the file.
Append Only (‘a’) Open the file for writing. The handle is posi-
tioned at the end of the file.
Append and Read (‘a+’) Open the file for reading and writing. The
handle is positioned at the end of the file.
# Open function to open the file "MyFile1.txt"

# (same directory) in read mode and
file1 = open("MyFile.txt", "r")

# store its reference in the variable file1
# and "MyFile2.txt" in D:\Text in file2
file2 = open(r"D:\Text\MyFile2.txt", "r+")
Note: For more information, refer Open a File in Python.
2) Close the file: close() function closes the file and frees the memor y space acquired by that file.
# Opening and Closing a file "MyFile.txt"

# for object name file1.
file1 = open("MyFile.txt", "a")
file1.close()
3) Reading from a File: There are three ways to read data from a text file.
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read(): Returns the read bytes in form of a string. Reads n bytes, if no n specified, reads the
entire file.
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StartFile_object.read([n])
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readline(): Reads a line of the file and returns in form of a string.For specified n, reads at
most n bytes. However, does not reads more than one line, even if n exceeds the length of
the line.
File_object.readline([n])
readlines(): Reads all the lines and return them as each line a string element in a list.
File_object.readlines()
Let’s suppose the file looks like this:
# Program to show various ways to

# read data from a file.

file1 = open("data.txt", "r+")

print("Output of Read function is ")
print(file1.read())
print()

# seek(n) takes the file handle to the nth
# bite from the beginning.
file1.seek(0)

print("Output of Readline function is ")
print(file1.readline())
print()

file1.seek(0)

#Wereadlines
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print("Output of thatReadlines function
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print(file1.readlines())
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file1.close()
Output:
Output of Read function is
Code is like humor. When you have to explain it, its bad.
Output of Readline function is
Code is like humor. When you have to explain it, its bad.
Output of Readlines function is
['Code is like humor. When you have to explain it, its bad.']
Note: For more information, refer How to read from a file in Python.
4) Writing to a file: There are two ways to write in a file.
write(): Inser ts the string str1 in a single line in the text file.
File_object.write(str1)
writelines(): For a list of string elements, each string is inser ted in the text file. Used to in-
ser t multiple strings at a single time.
File_object.writelines(L) for L = [str1, str2, str3]

# writing to file

# Opening a file
file1 = open('myfile.txt', 'w')
L = ["This is Delhi \n", "This is Paris \n", "This is London \n"]
s = "Hello\n"

# Writing a string to file
file1.write(s)

# Writing multiple strings
# at a time
file1.writelines(L)

# Closing file
file1.close()
Output:
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Note: For more information, refer Writing to file in Python.
Refer to the below articles to know more about File-Handling:
Python seek() function
Python tell() function
OS Module in Python
Programs on OS module
Modules and Packages
Modules
A module is a self-contained Python file that contains Python statements and definitions, like a file
named GFG.py, which can be considered as a module named GFG which can be imported with the
help of import statement.
Let’s create a simple module named GFG.

# modules

# Defining a function
def Geeks():

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location = "Noida"
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# Defining a class ▲
class Employee():

def __init__(self, name, position):
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self. name = name
self.position = position

def show(self):
print("Employee name:", self.name)
print("Employee position:", self.position)
To use the above created module, create a new Python file in the same director y and import GFG
module using the import statement.

# modules

import GFG

# Use the function created
GFG.Geeks()

# Print the variable declared
print(GFG.location)

# Use the class created
emp = GFG.Employee("Nikhil", "Developer")
emp.show()
Output:
GeeksforGeeks
Noida
Employee name: Nikhil
Employee position: Developer
Note: For more information, refer Python Modules.
Packages
Packages are a way of structuring many packages and modules which helps in a well-organized
hierarchy of data set, making the directories and modules easy to access.
To create a package in Python, we need to follow these three simple steps:
First, we create a director y and give it a package name, preferably related to its operation.
Then we put the classes and the required functions in it.
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Example: Let’s create a package for cars.
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First we create a director y and name it Cars.
Then we need to create modules. We will create 2 modules – BMW and AUDI.
For Bmw.py
# Python code to illustrate the Modules

class Bmw:

def __init__(self):
self.models = ['i8', 'x1', 'x5', 'x6']

def outModels(self):
print('These are the available models for BMW')
for model in self.models:
print('\t % s ' % model)
For Audi.py
# Python code to illustrate the Module

class Audi:

def __init__(self):
self.models = ['q7', 'a6', 'a8', 'a3']

def outModels(self):
print('These are the available models for Audi')
for model in self.models:
print('\t % s ' % model)
Finally we create the __init__.py file. This file will be placed inside the Cars director y and
can be left blank.
Now, let’s use the package that we created. To do this make a sample.py file in the same director y
where Cars package is located and add the following code to it:
# Import classes from your brand new package

from Cars import Bmw
from Cars import Audi

# Create an object of Bmw class & call its method
ModBMW = Bmw()
ModBMW.outModels()

# Create an object of Audi class & call its method
ModAudi = Audi()
ModAudi.outModels()
Output:
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Note: For more information, refer Create and Access a Python Package.
Regular expressions(RegEx)
Python RegEx is a powerful text matching tool that uses a pre-defined pattern to match the text. It
can identify the presence or absence of text by comparing it to a specific pattern, and it can also
divide a pattern into one or more sub-patterns. Below is the list of metacharacters:
\ Used to drop the special meaning of character
following it (discussed below)
[] Represent a character class
^ Matches the beginning
$ Matches the end
. Matches any character except newline
? Matches zero or one occurrence.
| Means OR (Matches with any of the characters
separated by it.
* Any number of occurrences (including 0 occurrences)
+ One ore more occurrences
{} Indicate the number of occurrences of a preceding RE
to match.
() Enclose a group of REs
The most frequently used methods are:
re.findall(): Return all non-overlapping matches of pattern in string, as a list of strings.
The string is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found.
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string = """Hello my Number is 123456789 and
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my friend's number is 987654321"""

# A sample regular expression to find digits.
regex = '\d+'

match = re.findall(regex, string)
print(match)
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Output:
['123456789', '987654321']
In the above example, metacharacter blackslash ‘\’ has a ver y important role as it signals
various sequences. If the blackslash is to be used without its special meaning as metachar-
acter, use ’\\’.
\d Matches any decimal digit, this is equivalent
to the set class [0-9].
\D Matches any non-digit character.
\s Matches any whitespace character.
\S Matches any non-whitespace character
\w Matches any alphanumeric character, this is
equivalent to the class [a-zA-Z0-9_].
\W Matches any non-alphanumeric character.
re.compile(): Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have methods
for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or per forming string
substitutions.
# A Python program to demonstrate working of

# compile()
import re

# it is equivalent to [abcde].
p = re.compile('[a-e]')

print(p.findall("Aye, said Mr. Gibenson Stark"))
Run on IDE
Output:
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['e', 'a', 'd', 'b', 'e', 'a']
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re.match(): This function attempts to match pattern to whole string. The re.match function
returns a match object on success, None on failure.

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# A Python program to demonstrate working

# of re.match().
import re

def findMonthAndDate(string):

regex = r"([a-zA-Z]+) (\d+)"
match = re.match(regex, string)

if match == None:
print("Not a valid date")
return

print("Given Data: % s" % (match.group()))
print("Month: % s" % (match.group(1)))
print("Day: % s" % (match.group(2)))

# Driver Code
findMonthAndDate("Jun 24")
print("")
findMonthAndDate("I was born on June 24")
Run on IDE
Output:
Given Data: Jun 24
Month: Jun
Day: 24
Not a valid date
re.search(): This method either returns None (if the pattern doesn’t match), or a
re.MatchObject that contains information about the matching par t of the string.
# A Python program to demonstrate working of re.match().

import re

regex = r"([a-zA-Z]+) (\d+)"

match = re.search(regex, "I was born on June 24")

if match != None:

print("Match
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# this will print "June 24"
print("Full match: % s" % Got It !
(match.group(0)))
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# this will print "June"

print("Month: % s" % (match.group(1))) Login

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# this will print "24"
print("Day: % s" % (match.group(2)))

else:
print("The regex pattern does not match.")
Run on IDE
Output:
Match at index 14, 21
Full match: June 24
Month: June
Day: 24
Note: For more information, refer Regular Expression in Python.
Exception handling
Like other languages, Python also provides the runtime errors via exception handling method with
the help of tr y-except.
How try-except works?
First tr y clause is executed i.e. the code between tr y and except clause.
If there is no exception, then only tr y clause will run, except clause is finished.
If any exception occurred, tr y clause will be skipped and except clause will run.
If any exception occurs, but the except clause within the code doesn’t handle it, it is passed
on to the outer tr y statements. If the exception left unhandled, then the execution stops.
A tr y statement can have more than one except clause.
Code 1: No exception, so tr y clause will run.
# Python code to illustrate

# working of try()
def divide(x, y):
try:
result = x // y
print("Yeah ! Your answer is :", result)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Sorry ! You are dividing by zero ")

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# Look at parameters and note the working of Program
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divide(3, 2)
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Run on IDE
Output:
Yeah ! Your answer is : 1
Code 2: There is an exception so only except clause will run.

# working of try()
def divide(x, y):
try:
result = x // y
except:

divide(3, 0)
Run on IDE
Output:
Sorry ! You are dividing by zero
Else Clause: In python, you can also use else clause on tr y-except block which must be present
after all the except clauses. The code enters the else block only if the tr y clause does not raise an
exception.

# working of try()
def divide(x, y):
try:
result = x // y
except:
else:
print("No exception raised")

divide(3, 2)
Run on IDE
Output:
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Yeah ! Your answer is : 1
No exception raised
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Raising Exception: The raise statement allows the programmer to force a specific exception to oc-
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cur. This must be either an exception instance or an exception class. To know more about the list of
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exception class click here.
# Program to depict Raising Exception

try:
raise NameError("Hi there") # Raise Error
except NameError:
print("An exception")
raise # To determine whether the exception was raised or not
Run on IDE
Output:
File "/home/4678cd3d633b2ddf9d19fde6283f987b.py", line 4, in
raise NameError("Hi there") # Raise Error
NameError: Hi there
Note: For more information, refer Python exception handling.
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topics with examples.

Key features of Python

Emphasis on code readability, shor ter codes, ease of writing.

guages such as C++ or Java.

P ython suppor ts multiple programming paradigms, like object-oriented, imperative and

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that you have read and understood our

lytics etc) Got It !

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Philosophy is “Simplicity is the best”.

Getting started with Python Tutorial –

structions provided below:

From #workforceplanning to managed

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Now run the following command:

Download and Installation

Python for Windows, Linux, and MacOS are available on python.org.

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Beginning the installation.

other wise you will have to do it explicitly.

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After installation is complete click on Close.

Bingo..!! Python is installed. Now go to windows and type IDLE.

$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa

$ sudo apt-get update

$ sudo apt-get install python3.8

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To verify the installation enter following commands in your Terminal.

Enter following command in macOS terminal.

/usr/bin/ruby -e "$(curl -fsSL https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Homebrew/ins

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sion 3 on your macOS.

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To verify the installation enter following commands in your Terminal app

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How to run a Python program

Let’s consider a simple Hello World Program.

# Python program to print

Generally, there are two ways to run a Python program.

to run P ython programs.

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that you have read and understood our

# Python program showing Got It !

Note: For more information, refer Indentation in Python.

Multi-line string as comment : P ython multi-line comment is a piece of text enclosed in a

delimiter (“””) on each end of the comment.

Note: For more information, refer Comments in Python.

Note: For more information, refer Python Variables.

rized based upon their different functionality:

like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

False according to the condition.

# Examples of Relational Operators

# Examples of Logical Operator

# Examples of Bitwise operators

# Print bitwise NOT operation

Special operators: Special operators are of two types-

Identity operator that contains is and is not.

Membership operator that contains in and not in.

# Examples of Identity and

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Taking input from user –

in which we want to store. For example:

# Python program showing