THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

SDS 2414: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL

SCIENCES
MODULE ONE: SDS 2414

ELIPHAS MACHACHA (MSc, BA)

Copyright

©2012 University of Zambia

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording,
or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission from the
publisher

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 Table of Contents

Welcome to SDS 2414: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES ............... 4

RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES—is this course for you? .............. 4
Timeframe ...................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills ..................................................................................................................... 4
Need help? ..................................................................................................................... 5

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Definition of Research: What is research?................................................................. 7
Types of research ....................................................................................................... 9
Scope of research ....................................................................................................... 9
Objectives of research .............................................................................................. 10
The importance of knowing how to conduct research ............................................. 10
Qualities of a researcher........................................................................................... 10

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What is a research problem? .................................................................................... 11
What is a problem statement? .................................................................................. 12
Identification of the research problem ..................................................................... 13
Research Questions .................................................................................................. 16
Types of research questions: .................................................................................... 17
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................... 18
Null hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 19
Alternative hypothesis ............................................................................................. 19
Constructs and variables .............................................................................................. 20
Types of variables .................................................................................................... 21
Operational definition and measurement of variables ............................................. 22
Scales of Measurement ............................................................................................ 27
Internal and external validity ................................................................................... 27
What is validity? .......................................................................................................... 27

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What is a literature review? ..................................................................................... 31
What is a literature review not? ............................................................................... 31
Conducting a literature review ................................................................................. 32

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What is research methodology? ............................................................................... 34
Research Methods vs. Methodology ........................................................................ 34
Definition: What is research design? ....................................................................... 34
Research design ....................................................................................................... 34
Research Design: ..................................................................................................... 35
Quantitative research designs .................................................................................. 35
Qualitative research design ...................................................................................... 43

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ONNM ME ETTH HO OD DS S ............................................................ 49
Quantitative Research .............................................................................................. 49
Qualitative Research ................................................................................................ 58

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What is sampling? .................................................................................................... 65

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 Sampling Methods ................................................................................................... 66

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Handling and analysing qualitative research data .................................................... 71
The ten steps of content analysis ............................................................................. 77
Presenting Qualitative Research .............................................................................. 78
Handling and analysing Quantitative data ............................................................... 79
Computerised data analysis...................................................................................... 79

Ethics in Social Research ............................................................................................. 80

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SAMPLING METHODS ............................. 81

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Welcome to SDS 2414: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL
SCIENCES

The main aim of this module is to enable students to conduct and critically evaluate
social research. It will do this in two ways. Firstly it will explore the different
philosophical and methodological debates within social sciences. Secondly, the course
will develop students’ practical skills in a selection of these research methods.

_____________________________________________________________________

RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES—is this course for

you?

This course is intended for people who are pursuing Bachelor of Arts Degrees at the
University of Zambia or related fields of study.

The course is aimed at providing an opportunity for students to understand, explain

and apply different research methods or techniques used in the Social Sciences.

_____________________________________________________________________

Timeframe

This course lasts for one semester (14 weeks).

Time allocated for this course is 3 hours of lectures and one hour of
tutorial per week.
How long?
Recommended self-study time is four hours per week

______________________________________________________

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to
that from your school days: you will choose what you want to
study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for
doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities
around other professional or domestic responsibilities.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning

environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goalsetting,stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself
in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.

Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning.

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 We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a
number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links
are:

 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.

 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.

_____________________________________________________________________

Need help?
University of Zambia
Institute of Distance Education
Great East Road Campus
P.O Box 32379
Lusaka
Zambia
E-mail: eliphas.machacha@unza.zm
Website: www.www.unza.zm

_____________________________________________________________________

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:

 Explain the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning

 Define research
 Identify the stages in a research cycle or process
 Explain the different types research

According to Hudson Maxim (1853 –1927), “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt
is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention.”

Introduction

Research is the cornerstone of any science, including both the hard sciences such as
chemistry and physics and the social sciences such as economics, political science,
psychology, public administration, sociology, management, or education. It refers to
the organized, structured, and purposeful attempt to gain knowledge about a suspected
relationship.

Many argue that the structured attempt at gaining knowledge dates back to Aristotle
and his identification of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning refers to a
structured approach utilizing an accepted premise (known as a major premise), a
related minor premise, and an obvious conclusion. This way of gaining knowledge
has been called a syllogism, and by following downward from the general to the
specific, knowledge can be gained about a particular relationship. An example of an
Aristotelian syllogism might be:

Major Premise: All students attend school regularly

Minor Premise: John is a student

Conclusion: John attends school regularly

In the early 1600s, Francis Bacon identified a different approach to gaining

knowledge. Rather than moving from the general to the specific, Bacon looked at the
gathering of specific information in order to make general conclusions. This type of
reasoning is called inductive reasoning and unlike Aristotelian logic allows new
major premises to be determined. Inductive reasoning has been adopted into the
sciences as the preferred way to explore new relationships because it allows us to use
accepted knowledge as a means to gain new knowledge. For example:

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 Specific Premises: John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attended class regularly

Specific Premises: John, Sally, Lenny, and Sue received high grades

Conclusion: Attending class regularly results in high grades

Researchers combine the powers of deductive and inductive reasoning into what is
referred to now as the scientific method. It involves the determination of a major
premise (called a theory or a hypothesis) and then the analysis of the specific
examples (research) that would logically follow. The results might look something
like:

Major Premise: Attending classes regularly results in high grades

Class Attendance: Group 1: John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attend classes regularly
(Suspected Cause)
Group 2: Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob do not attend
classes regularly

Grades: Group 1: John, Sally Lenny, and Sue received A’s and B’s
(Suspected Effect) Group 2: Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob received C’s and
D’s

Conclusion: Attending class regularly results in higher grades when

compared with not attending class regularly (the Major
Premise or Hypothesis is therefore supported)
Utilizing the scientific method for gaining new information and testing the validity of
a major premise, John Dewey suggested a series of logical steps to follow when
attempting to support a theory or hypothesis with actual data. In other words, he
proposed using deductive reasoning to develop a theory followed by inductive
reasoning to support it.

Definition of Research: What is research?

Definition box:

Definitions of research are legion, but the following can be employed to embrace
most projects which will involve student researchers

Research is:
(i) A systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc., in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions
(ii) An endeavour to discover new or collate old facts, events or issues by the
scientific study of a subject or through a course of critical investigation

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 (iii) A process of gathering data in a strictly organised manner. The end-product
of data gathering process may vary along a continuum from simple
description to reflection and interpretation. The emphasis is on structured
investigation, exploration or discovery

(iv) A process of testing a stated idea or assertion (the hypothesis) to see if the
evidence supports it or not
(v) A process of engaging in a planned or unplanned interaction in parts of the
real world, and reporting on what happens, and what they seem to mean

Before we do research, we rarely see things as they are. We see them as we are. Then,
in the research process, a sort of waltz begins. Subjectivity leads, objectivity follows.
When the dance is finished, we see things more accurately. As many advances in
social science thinking show, subjective experiences often enhance objective
knowledge in social sciences, leading to the discovery of new problems and new
solutions to old problems. Acknowledging that our experiences inspire us to ask
particular questions about the social world is not the same as saying that those
questions, or the answers we eventually uncover, are biased. Bias arises only when we
remain unaware of our subjectivity. It is the purpose of research to help us become
aware of our biases and to test theories against systematic observations of the social
world that other researchers can repeat to check up on us. On the basis of research, we
reject some theories, modify others, and are forced to invent new ones. Having
provided the definition and brief explanation research, it is now time to discuss the
research process and cycle in detail.

1. The Research Cycle or Process

Ideally, social science research is a cyclical process that involves six steps.
(i) Formulating a research problem. A research problem must be stated so that it
can be answered by systematically collecting and analysing research data.
It should in mind in social science research that there are certain questions
or issues which cannot determine by carrying out a research study. For
example, social science research cannot determine whether God exists or
what the best political system is. Answers to such questions require faith
more than evidence. However, social science research can determine why
some people are more religious than others and which political system
creates most opportunities for higher education. Answers to such questions
require evidence more than faith.

(ii) Reviewing the existing research literature. Researchers must elaborate their
research problems in the clear light of what other social scientists have
already debated and discovered. Why? Because reading the relevant

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 literature stimulates researchers’ imaginations, allows them to refine their
initial questions, and prevents duplication of effort.

(iii)Selecting a research method. As we will see in detail later in this chapter, each
data collection method has strengths and weaknesses. Each method is
therefore best suited to studying a different kind of problem. When
choosing a method, one must keep these strengths and weaknesses in
mind.
(iv) Collecting data by observing subjects, interviewing them; reading documents
produced by or about them, and so forth. Many researchers think this is the
most exciting stage of the research cycle because it brings them face to
face with the puzzling social reality that so fascinates them.
(v) Analysing the data. The most challenging. During data analysis you can learn
things that nobody knew before. At this stage, data confirm some of your
expectations and confound others, requiring you to think creatively about
familiar issues, reconsider the relevant theoretical and research literature,
and abandon pet ideas.
(vi) Publishing the results. Research is not useful for the social science
community, the subjects of the research, or the wider society if researchers
do not complete this sixth step of publishing results in a report, a scientific
journal, or a book. Publication serves another important function, too.

It allows other social scientists to scrutinize and criticise the research. On that basis,
errors can be corrected and new and more sophisticated research questions can be
formulated for the next round of research. Science is a social activity governed by
rules defined and enforced by the scientific community.

Types of research

1. Basic (pure or fundamental or theoretical) research: This type of research

is conducted to generate knowledge and understanding or testing a theory
without any particular application or use of the information gathered. It is
carried out for the knowing only.

2. Applied research: This type of research is carried out to acquire new

knowledge which is directed at solving a particular problem or a number of
problems.

Scope of research
 Does the researcher cover a particular objective of research or researcher?
 Does the researcher cover a particular time period?
 Does the study cover a specific geographical area?
 If the study involves people, what age group, gender and places of origin are
to be included?
 Are all dates of publication to be included?

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  Is the research going to cover publication from other countries?
 Will the researcher include other languages and scripts? (Language of
research)
 Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political,
sociological, economic, psychological etc.?
Scope of research is all about marking boundaries of the study in order to make it
manageable.

Objectives of research
 To gain familiarity with new insights into phenomenon
 To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group or a
situation
 To analyse the frequency with which something occurs
 To examine the hypothesis of a crucial relationship between two variables

The importance of knowing how to conduct research

 Helps researcher to develop disciplined thinking
 The researcher will confidently evaluate and utilise the research findings
 Helps research consumers to evaluate research findings and make rational
decisions
 The researcher will be equipped with knowledge of different tools to conduct
scientific research.

Qualities of a researcher
 Desire for accuracy of observation and precision of statement
 An alert mind
 Must practice “The art of enduring intellectual hardships”
 Making statements cautiously

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this module you will be able to:
 Identify a research problem
 List the criteria of a good research problem
 Explain the components of a research problem
 Design a study to test selected hypotheses
 Explain the different types of variables

When asked, some students do not even know the meaning of a "research
problem". This is understandable given the numerous definitions of the term:
“research problem" which further confuses the beginning researcher. Some
supervisors fail to appreciate that for many students, it is the first time they are
conducting a 'research'. Learning the intricacies of research is a long and winding
process. To make matters worse, the most difficult phase of the research process is the
identification of the research problem.
Identification of the research problem is the MOST IMPORTANT step of the
research process. Not only must you be clear about the research problem, you must
also have a passion for it! Let us see whether you will be able to explain your research
problem clearly as well as be passionate about it, after having completed this module.

What is a research problem?

Generally speaking a research problem is a situation that needs a solution and for
which there are possible solutions. If a situation has no possible solutions then it
makes little or no sense expending resources researching it. Take this statement,
“everybody wants to go to heaven but nobody wants to die”. Dying looks like a
problem that needs a solution yet there is no possible solution to it. People must die. A
research on how people can live forever makes little or no sense.

Definition box:

A research problem may be described as incongruence; a discrepancy between what is

and what ought to be. It may be also described as the gap in knowledge that needs to
be filled. “It is an unanswered question that a researcher might encounter in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation.”

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What is a problem statement?
Definition box:
A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to
be addressed. It provides the context for the research study and generates the
questions which the research aims to answer.

The statement of the problem is the focal point of any research. A good problem
statement is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration). For example it
could be:
"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in
middle management workers."

While this problem statement is just one sentence, it should be accompanied by a few
paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. The paragraphs could cover present
persuasive arguments that make the problem important enough to study. They could
include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals); explanations
of how the problem relates to business, social or political trends via presentation of
data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem.
A well-articulated statement of the problem establishes the foundation for everything
to follow in the proposal and will render less problematic most of the conceptual,
theoretical and methodological obstacles typically encountered during the process of
proposal development. This means that, in subsequent sections of the proposal, there
should be no surprises, such as categories, questions, variables or data sources that
come out of nowhere: if it can't be found in the problem section, at least at the implicit
level, then it either does not belong in the study or the problem statement needs to be
re-written.

What are key components of the problem statement?

Problem statements often have three elements:

1. The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish
why it is important

2. The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working thesis

3. The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the project being proposed.

These elements should be brief so that the reader does not get lost. One page is
enough for a statement problem.

Hence, a "research problem" is something that bothers you which needs to be resolved
by research. It is the beginning of the research process and ends with the solution to
the problem. So the next time, you are asked what is your research problem, would
you be able to state it orally or put it in writing.

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But I don't have a research problem! Not to worry as there are several sources of
research problems:

Where does a research problem originate from?

A good problem originates from a research question formulated out of observation of

the reality. A literature review and a study of previous experiments, and research, are
good sources of research questions that are converted to statements of problem. Many
scientific researchers look at an area where a previous researcher generated some
interesting results, but never followed up. It could be an interesting area of research,
which nobody else has fully explored.

The research question is formulated and then restated in the form of a statement that
notes the adverse consequences of the problem. The type of study determines the
kinds of question you should formulate: Is there something wrong in society,
theoretically unclear or in dispute, or historically worth studying? Is there a program,
drug, project, or product that needs evaluation? What do you intend to create or
produce and how will it be of value to you and society?
In a nutshell, sources of a research problem may include the following:

1. You own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem

supply.
2. Scientific literature; you may read about certain findings and notice that a
certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
3. Theories could be another source. Shortcomings in theories could be
researched.
I have a problem, but it is TOO BROAD. What do I do?

IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Perhaps the most difficult phase of research is 'identification of the problem'.

In other words, the inability of students to state precisely and clearly what is it they
intend to investigate. Here we will try to help you with this difficult phase. Hopefully,
you have at least a broad area that that you want to study. Not too broad though! The
broader the problem, the more difficult is it to zero in.

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 You start with a broad area. For example,
BROAD AREA you are concerned by the poor critical
thinking skills of university graduates.

NARROW RESEARCH You narrow down the broad area into

PROBLEM a Research Problem that:
 has a rationale and is of
interest to you is researchable
(measureable and sample is
accessible)
State Purpose  is manageable in size (given
your time & resources)
 is within your range of
competencies & skills
 is worth investigating and
RESEARCH RESEARCH
makes a contribution to
QUESTION #1 QUESTION #2 knowledge
 has a theoretical basis
Criteria for Research Problem Statements:

- The statement of the problem should clearly indicate what is to be

investigated.
- The actual statement may be in a declarative or in a question form.
- The statement should indicate the variables of interest and the specific
relationship between the variables that are to be studied.
- Please note: In some qualitative methodologies, a statement of variables
will not be possible and should not be done. However, an explanation of
the qualitative methodology and the parameters of the research
methodology should be explained.

What is the role of problem statement?

- The problem provides the context for the research study and typically
generates questions which the research hopes to answer. In considering
whether or not to move forward with a research project, you will generally
spend some time considering the problem.

- In your proposal the statement of the problem is oftentimes the first part to
be read with scrutiny. I am ignoring the title and the abstract because
ideally a title should be born out of a problem statement and an abstract
should be a summary after the problem has already been dealt with. The
problem statement should, therefore, "hook" the reader and establish a
persuasive context for what follows.

- You need to be able to clearly answer the question: "what is the problem"?
And "why is this problem worth my attention"? At the same time, the
problem statement limits scope by focusing on some variables and not

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 others. It also provides an opportunity for you to demonstrate why these
variables are important.

How to write the statement problem

- The problem statement implies some question that your research will be
answering. Sometimes it is necessary to draft or pre-write for a while to
discover what that point will be (and often writers are unsure of their point
until they have written the draft proposal and discover the point near the
end of the proposal).

- When you set up to write a statement problem you should know that you
are looking for something wrong… or something that needs close
attention. Your problem statement is the statement that makes a point
about the issues and information you are discussing, and is what the rest of
the proposal hinges upon. It is not just your topic, but what you are saying
about your topic. In other words there must be very good communication
between your topic and the statement problem.
- The importance of the problem should receive considerable and persuasive
attention [note that importance is inevitably subjective and will vary from
researcher to researcher]. Nevertheless objectivity can be injected by
answering questions such as these:

- Is the problem of current interest? Is it topical?

- Is the problem likely to continue into the future?

- Will more information about the problem have practical application?

- Will more information about the problem have theoretical importance?

- How large is the population affected by the problem?

- How important, influential, or popular is this population?

- Would this study substantially revise or extend existing knowledge?

- Would this study create or improve an instrument of some utility?

- Would research findings lead to some useful change in best practice?

- Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to support the need

for this research?

The problem statement should persuasively indicate that major variables can be
measured in some meaningful way. If you can identify likely objections to the study,
identify and respond to them here.

The problem statement could close with a question. Typically, the question could
contain two variables, a measurable relationship, and some indication of population.

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The purpose of the literature review that follows thereafter is to answer the research
problem question. If the literature cannot answer the question, the research is needed
to do so. An example question might be: this proposal poses the question, "What is
the relationship between farm productivity and farmer use of fertilizer"? The
information needed is (1) productivity levels and (2) some measure of fertilizer use. A
bad example might be: "What is the best way to train for use of fertilizer"? This is
insufficient because:

- What are the variables?

- What will be measured?

- What relationships will be examined?

There should be a close relationship between the title of the proposal and the problem
statement question. For example, in the good example above, the title of this research
project would be something like this:

"Fertilizer use by small scale farmers in Bungoma district and their farm
productivity"

Research Questions

Just as the module has already stated, the word "research" means 'finding out' or
'discovery' using a systematic method. You "research" by asking questions and
searching for answers to the questions. You cannot "research" if you do not want to
know anything, that is, you must have something you would like to know more about
before you can do "research".

You begin with QUESTIONS. If you have none, you will find no answers or will not
know when you have found one. Your task is to conduct RESEARCH. A study
without a question in mind will NOT be a RESEARCH study. You should
MAKE SURE that:
a) The Research Question is clear, straightforward and easily understood by
others
b) The Research Question states the relationship between two or more
variables.
c) The variables mentioned in the Research Question should be measurable.
d) The answer to the Research Question is not immediately obvious.
e) The Research Question indicates the method that is to be adopted, i.e.
the data collection techniques
f) The Research Question can be answered in the time available to you.
g) The Research Question can be answered with the resources available to
you.

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Types of research questions:
Generally there are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

1. Descriptive Research Questions

Here you describe what is going on or what exists. For example, you may want to find
the proportion of teachers who support the teaching of sex education in secondary
school. You are simply interested in describing something.
Statistical Tools:
- Mean, median and mode
- Frequency tables
- Histograms, Line graphs

2. Relational Research Questions

Here you want to know the relationships between two or more variables. For example,
you want to know the proportion of males and females who support the teaching of
sex education in secondary school. In other words, you are interested in studying the
relationship between gender and preference for teaching of sex education.
Statistical Tools:
- Simple correlation
- Linear regression
- Multiple regression

These statistical tools will be covered in in the second module: SS 242 (Statistical
Methods in the Social Sciences

3. Causal Research Questions

Here, you want to know whether one or more variables (e.g., a programme or
treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. For example, you
conduct a workshop to the group of teachers to determine whether their opinion about
teaching sex education to secondary school students has changed.
Statistical Tools:
- T-test
- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Multiple Analyses Of Variance (MANOVA)

These statistical tools will be covered in the second module: SS 242 (Statistical
Methods in the Social Sciences

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Hypotheses: What is a hypothesis?

Definition box:

A hypothesis is a statement about the predicted relationships among events or

variables. A hypothesis is used to state the relationship between two variables and
may be stated as follows:

Goal of a hypothesis
Regardless of the type of hypothesis, the goal of a hypothesis is to explain the focus
and direction of the research. As such, a hypothesis will:
• State the purpose of the research
• Identify what variables are used

Parameters of a good hypothesis

In order to be a good hypothesis that can be tested or studied, a hypothesis:
• Needs to be logical
• Must use precise language
• Should be testable with research or experiment

A hypothesis is usually written in a form where it proposes that if something is done,

then something else will occur

Comparison: Hypothesis, Law, and Theory

There are three types of scientific statements

• A hypothesis will give a plausible explanation that will be tested. It can also
explain future phenomenon that will need to be tested
• Once a hypothesis has been tested and widely accepted, it is called a law. This
means that it is assumed to be true and will predict the outcome of certain
conditions or experiments.
• A theory is broader in scope and explains more events than a law. After
hypotheses and laws have been tested many times, with accurate results, they
become theories.

Types of a hypothesis
• Null hypotheses (no relationship between two variables).
• Alternative hypotheses (there is a relation between two variables)
• Non-directional hypotheses (we don’t know or won’t speculate about the
direction of the relationship between two variables).
• Directional hypotheses. We state the direction of the relationship between two
variables.

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 NULL HYPOTHESIS

The null hypothesis is a hypothesis (or hunch) about the population. It represents a
theory that has been put forward because it is believed to be true. The word "null"
means nothing or zero. So, a null hypothesis states that 'nothing happened'. For
example, there is no difference between males and females in critical thinking skills
or there is no relationship between socio-economic status and academic performance.
Such a hypothesis is denoted with the symbol “Ho:” In other words you are saying,
 You do not expect the groups to be different
 You do not expect the variables to be related

In other words, you are saying that:

Ho: µ1 = µ2  The science mean scores for the discovery method
group (µ1) is EQUAL to the mean scores for the
OR lecture method group (µ2).
 The science mean scores for the discovery method
Ho: µ1 ─ µ2 = 0 group (µ1) MINUS the mean scores for the lecture
method group (µ2) are equal to ZERO.

The null hypothesis is often the reverse of what the researcher

actually believes in and it is put forward to allow the data to
contradict it [You may find it strange but that's the way it is!]

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the Null Hypothesis. For example,
the alternative hypothesis for the study discussed earlier is that there is a difference in
science scores between the discovery method group and the lecture method group
represented by the following notation:

The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the Null Hypothesis. For example,
the alternative hypothesis for the study discussed earlier is that there is a difference in
science scores between the discovery method group and the lecture method group
represented by the following notation:

Ha: µ1 ≠ µ2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the science mean scores between
discovery method group and lecture method group are DIFFERENT.

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Ha: µ1 > µ2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the sciences mean score of the
discovery method group is HIGHER than the mean scores of the lecture method
group.

Ha: µ1 < µ2
Ha: The Alternative Hypothesis might be that the sciences mean score of the
discovery method group is LOWER than the mean scores of the lecture method
group.

CONCLUSION:
 Based on the findings of the experiment, you found that there was a significant
difference in science scores between the discovery method group and the
lecture method group.
 In fact, the mean score of subjects in the discovery method group was higher
than the mean of subjects in the lecture method group. What do you do?
 You REJECT the null hypothesis because earlier you had said they would be
equal.
 You reject the null hypothesis in favour of the ALTERNATIVE HYPOTESIS
(i.e. µ1 ≠ µ2).

CONSTRUCTS AND VARIABLES

What is a variable?
Definition box:

A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted.

A variable may also be called a data item. Age, sex, income, expenses, country of
birth, class grades, vehicle type etc. are all examples of variables. It is called a
variable because the value may vary between data units in a population, may change
in value over time.

For example; “income” is a variable that change between data units in a population
(i.e. employees or businesses being studied may not have the same incomes) and can
also vary over time for each data unit (i.e. income can go up or down)

A construct is deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific

purpose. "Intelligence" is a construct based on observation of presumably intelligent
and less intelligent behaviours or having a value of more or less. Constructs are used
in theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. e.g. school
achievement is in part a function of intelligence. Intelligence is so defined and
specified that it can be observed and measured. e.g. administering intelligence tests,
interview teachers about their students.

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 Researchers somewhat loosely call constructs or properties they study as
‘variables’. eg. gender, social class. A variable is something that varies. A variable is
a symbol to which numerals of values are assigned. For example, the symbol
"intelligence" is assigned a set of numerical values which may be IQ scores ranging
from 50 to 150. In the case of the variable "gender" there are only 2 values and they
are called dichotomous variables, i.e. male (1) and female (0). Other examples of
two-value variables are: graduate-nongraduate, low income-high income, citizen-
noncitizen. Besides dichotomous variables, some variables are polytomies, e.g.
religion - Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, etc.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are many ways of classifying variables but in educational research, the
two most common methods of classification are as follows:
 Independent and Dependent Variables
 Continuous and Categorical Variables (or nominal variables)

a) Independent and Dependent Variables

An independent variable (IV) is the variable that is presumed to cause a
change in the dependent variable (DV). The independent variable is the antecedent
while the dependent variable is the consequent. See the diagram below; which
describes a study to determine which teaching method (independent variable) is
effective in enhancing the academic performance (dependent variable) of students.

 The independent variable (teaching method) can be manipulated

‘Manipulated’ means the variable can manoeuvred, and in this case it is
divided into ‘discussion method and ‘lecture method’. Other examples of
independent variables are gender (male-female), race (white, black etc.),
socioeconomic status (high, middle, low). Other names for the independent
variable are treatment, factor and predictor variable.

 The dependent variable in this study is academic performance which cannot

be manipulated by the researcher. Academic performance is a score and other
examples of dependent variables IQ (score from IQ tests), attitude (score on an
attitude scale), self-esteem (score from a self-esteem test) and so forth. Other
name for the dependent variable is the outcome variable, results variable and
criterion variable.

Put it another way, the DV is the variable predicted to, whereas the
independent variable is predicted from. The DV is the presumed effect, which varies
with changes or variation in the independent variable.

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 INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLE (IV) VARIABLE (DV)

Discussion

Academic
Teaching Performance
Method
Lecture

b) Continuous and Categorical Variables

A continuous variable (also called ordinal variable) is capable of taking on an
ordered set of values within a certain range. For example, an attitude scale towards
smoking may have values ranging from 5 to 20 which express differing amounts of
attitude towards smoking. A categorical variable (also called nominal variables) may
be made up of two or more subsets or categories. Each subset or category possesses
certain characteristics and individuals are categorised by their possession of those
characteristics that defines a subset. For example, the variable socio-economic class
(SES) may consist of 3 values such as high SES, middle SES and low SES.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

Conceptual and operational definitions

There two ways to define variables: conceptually and operationally

(i) First, variables are defined by conceptual definitions (constructs) or

abstractions, articulated in words that explain the concept the variable is
attempting to capture so as to facilitate understanding.
(ii) Second, variables are defined by operational definitions; that is definitions of
how variables will be measured. Operational definitions consist of a set of
instructions on how to measure a variable that has been conceptually defined.

1. Operational definitions – Constructs

In any research project, it is important to involve key players in the formulation of
operational definitions because:
(i) Operational definitions should be consistent with constructs
(ii) Critiques of poorly constructed operational definitions can be used for
improvement
(iii)Constructs are often inferred from operational definitions
Operational definitions permit researchers to talk to one another using the same
language.

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“If you lead a good life, you will not suffer”. This is a specific prediction of the
future, but it cannot be scientifically tested. Such a prediction is not scientifically
tested because we cannot define it operationally. How do you define ‘good life’ and
how do you define ‘suffer’. According to Bridgman, 1987, operational definition
means that variables used in the study must be defined as it is used in the context of
the study and publicly observable. This is done to facilitate measurement and to
eliminate confusion.

However, it should be borne in mind that in social sciences not all variables are
directly observable. For example, we cannot really observe learning, memory,
reasoning, and so forth. Though they cannot be observed they can be measured to see
their traces. With enough indirect evidence, researchers can make a convincing case
for the existence of these invisible variables (Mitchell and Jolley, 1988). For example,
though we cannot observe learning directly, we can see its effect on performance, i.e.
we can operationally define learning as an increase in performance. Thus, if we see
students improve their performance after practicing a task, we conclude that learning
has occurred. Similarly, we can provide operational definitions for such intangible
variables such as self-esteem, racial stereotype, attitudes and so forth.

Operational Definition
The person:
Excellent  listens to teachers
Principal  looks after the welfare of teachers
 acknowledges effort
 consults teachers
 motivates teachers

2. What is measurement?
The principle in research is: Always use the highest level of measurement that you ca.

Definition of Measurement

Definition box

Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events or concepts according

to rules. Measurement is deciding which value to record
(i) Numerals are labels that have no inherent meaning, for example zip codes, or
vehicle licence plates
(ii) Numbers are numerals that have quantitative meaning and can be analysed, for
example age

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  The rules for assigning labels to properties of variables are the most important
components of measurement, because the result or poor rules is meaningless
outcomes
 Concepts often cannot be measured directly, e.g. “intelligence,” so what is
usually measured are indicators of constructs, such as speed, logic, verbal skill
etc.

Levels of measurement

 Four levels of measurement have been identified. These levels differ in how
closely they approach the structure of the number system we use
 Understanding the level of measurement of variables used in research is
important because the level of measurement determining the types of
statistical analyses that can be conducted
 The conclusions that can be drawn from research depend on the statistical
analysis used.

1. Nominal
This is the most basic level of measurement. At this level we can determine only
whether two observations are alike or different. Nominal level of measurement uses
symbols to classify observations into mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
This level of measurement is qualitative. It involves naming things and putting them
into mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
 Mutually exclusive means the categories must be distinct so that no
observation falls into more than one category
 Exhaustive means sufficient categories must exist so that all observations fall
into some category

Example:

 In a survey of teachers; sex was determined by a question. Observations were

sorted into two mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories; male and
female. Observations could be labelled with letters M and F, or 0 and 1.
 In the same survey, the variable of marital status could be measured by two
categories; married and unmarried
 But, these categories must each be defined so that each one of all possible
observations will fit into one category but not more than one: legally married,
common-law marriage, religious marriage, civil marriage, living together,
never married, divorced, informally separated, legally separated, widowed,
annulled or abandoned

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  In nominal measurement, all observations in one category are alike on some
property and differ from the members in the other category on that property
(e.g. sex, marital status)
 Ordering of categories exists. We cannot say one category is better or worse,
or more or less than another.

Nominal – Numbers used as Names

- Basic Empirical Operations
 Determination of equality
- Permissible Statistics
 Number of cases
 Mode
 Contingency correlation
- Examples
 Numbers on football jerseys
 Assignment of type or model numbers to classes

2. Ordinal
Ordinal level of measurement uses symbols to classify observations into categories
that are not only mutually exclusive and exhaustive, but also the categories have some
explicit relationship among them.
Observations may be classified into categories such as taller and shorter; greater and
lesser; faster and slower; harder and easier; and so on. The categories must be
exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

Examples: Ordinal scale or level of measurement

 Most questionnaires use Likert type items. For example, we may ask teachers
about their job satisfaction
 Asking whether a teacher is very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, or
very dissatisfied is using an ordinal scale of measurement

Ordinal – Rank order data

- Basic Empirical Operations
 Determination of “greater” or “less”
- Permissible Statistics
 Median
 Percentiles
 Rank order correlation
- Examples
 Scores of cognitive and affective measures
 Hardness or minerals
 Quality of performance

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 3. Interval
The interval level of measurement classifies observations into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories that have some explicit relationship among them, and the
relationship between the categories is known and exact. This is the first quantitative
application of numbers on the scale of measurement.

 In the interval level of measurement, a common and constant unit of

measurement is established between the categories. For example, measures of
temperature are interval scales
 A temperature of 75˚C is one degree cooler than a temperature of 76˚C;
likewise, a temperature of 32˚C is one degree warmer than a temperature of
31˚C
 Numbers may be assigned to observations because the relationship between
any two categories is assumed to be the same as the relationship between
numbers in the number system. For example, (temperature), 76-1= 75 and
31+1 = 32.
 Intervals between categories are equal but they originate from some arbitrary
point of origin. No meaningful zero point exists

Interval – Equal intervals

- Basic Empirical Operations
 Determination of equality of intervals/differences
- Permissible Statistics
 Mean
 Standard deviation
 Product-moment correlation
- Examples
 “Standard scores” on cognitive & affective scales
 Temperature: Fahrenheit & centigrade scales
 Calendar dates

4. Ratio
The ratio level of measurement is the highest level at which variables can be
measured. It has all the properties of the interval level of measurement with the
addition of a meaningful and non-arbitrary zero point
 Variables measured at a higher level can always be converted to a lower level
but not vice versa.
 Example: Weight, age, area, speed, velocity.
 Observations of actual age (ratio scale) can be collapsed to categories of
younger and older (ordinal scale), but age measured simply as younger or
older cannot be converted to measures of actual age.
Ratio – Equal intervals & absolute zero
- Basic Empirical Operations
 Determination of equality of ratios
- Permissible Statistics

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  Same as for interval
 Coefficient of variation
 Logarithmic transformations
- Examples:
 Temperature: Kelvin scale
 Length, weight, force, age etc.
 Money, number of students in class

Remember this rule: Always measure things at the highest level of measurement
possible. Do not measure things at the ordinal level if you can measure them
intervally.
For example, if you are researching on farmers and you want to know the price they
paid for their seeds, then ask the price. Do not ask them to indicate whether they paid
between “K1m and K2m” etc.
If you want to know how much education people have had, ask them how many years
they went to school. During data analysis you can lump interval level data together
into ordinal or nominal categories.

Scales of Measurement
Scale Scale of
Scale Qualities Example(s)
Level Measurement

Magnitude

Age, Height, Weight, Percentage,

4 Ratio Equal Intervals
force, speed

Absolute Zero

Magnitude
3 Interval Temperature
Equal Intervals

2 Ordinal Magnitude Likert Scale, Anything rank ordered

1 Nominal None Names, Lists of words

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY

What is validity?

Definition box:

Validity refers to the accuracy and trustworthiness of instruments, data, and findings
in research. Nothing in research is more important than validity. There are two types
of validity: Internal and External validity

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 1. Internal Validity

Internal validity refers both to how well a study was run (research design,
operational definitions used, how variables were measured, what was/wasn't
measured, etc.), and how confidently one can conclude that the observed effect(s)
were produced solely by the independent variable and not extraneous ones. In
experimental research, internal validity answers the question, "Was it really the
treatment that caused the difference between the subjects in the control and
experimental groups?" In descriptive studies (correlational, etc.) internal validity
refers only to the accuracy/quality of the study (e.g., how well the study was run).

In their classic book on experimental research, Campbell and Stanley (1966) identify
and discuss 8 types of extraneous variables that can, if not controlled, jeopardize an
experiment's internal validity.

(i) History-- refers to the effect external events have on subjects between the
various measurements done in an experiment. These experiences function like
extra, and unplanned, independent variables. Compounding this, the
experiences are likely to vary across subjects which have a differential effect
on the subjects' responses. Studies that take repeated measures on subjects
over time are more likely to be affected by history variables than those that
collect data in shorter time periods, or those do not use repeated measures.
(ii) Maturation-- refers to how subjects naturally can change over the passage of
time (rather than due to the treatment). For example, the more time that passes
in a study the more likely subjects are to become tired and bored, more or less
motivated as a function of hunger or thirst, older, etc. As Isaac and Michael
(1971) point out, subjects may perform better or worse on a dependent
variable not as a result of the independent variable but because they are older,
more/less motivated, etc.
(iii)Testing-- refers to how a pre-test can affect subjects' performance on a post-
test. Many experiments pre-test subjects to establish that all the subjects are
starting the study at approximately the same level, etc. A consequence of
pretesting programs/protocols is that they can contaminate/change the
subjects' performance on later tests (e.g., those used as dependent variables)
that measure the same domain beyond any effects caused by the treatment
itself.
(iv) Instrumentation-- The reliability of the instrument used to gauge the
dependent variable or manipulate the independent variable may change in the
course of an experiment. Examples include changes in the calibration of a
mechanical measuring device as well as the proficiency of a human observer
or interviewer. Suppose that the dependent variable is measured twice for a
group of subjects, once at Time A and later at Time B, and that the
independent variable is introduced in the interim. Suppose also that the ability
of a recording device to detect instances of the target behaviour improves
(declines) as the experiment progresses. If scores on the dependent measure
differ at these two times, the discrepancy may be due to the independent

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 variable or to more (less) sensitive recordings of the target behaviour at Time
B relative to at Time A. In addition, changing the measurement methods (or
their method of administration) during a study can affect what is measured.
(v) Statistical Regression-- Statistical regression is the phenomenon whereby
pre-test results tend to regress toward the mean. When subjects in a study are
selected as participants because they scored extremely high or extremely low
on some measure of performance (e.g., a test, etc.), retesting of the subjects
will almost always produce a different distribution of scores, and the average
for this new distribution will be closer to the population's. For example, if the
chosen subjects all had high scores initially, the group's average on the retest
will tend to be lower (i.e., less extreme) than it was originally. Conversely, if
the group's mean was originally low, their retest mean would be higher.
(vi) Selection-- refers to the effect of non-equivalent groups on a study's validity.
The subjects in comparison (e.g., the control and experimental) groups should
be functionally equivalent at the beginning of a study. If they are, then
observed differences between the groups, as measured by the performance
dependent variable(s), at the end of the study are more likely to be caused only
by the independent variable instead of organismic ones. If the comparison
groups are different from one another at the beginning of the study, then the
observed effect(s) may be due to these differences, as opposed to the result of
the experimental treatment.
(vii) Experimental Mortality/Attrition-- refers to the potential bias that
occurs depending on who stays or drops out of a study. Subjects frequently
'drop out' of studies. If one comparison group experiences a higher level of
subject attrition than other groups, then observed differences between groups
become questionable. Were the observed differences produced by the
independent variable or by the different dropout rates? (Mortality is also a
threat when dropout rates are similar across comparison groups but high.)
(viii) Selection Interactions--In some studies the selection method can
interact with maturation, history or instrumentation, also biasing the study's
results.

2. External Validity

External validity represents the extent to which a study's results can be generalized
or applied to other people or settings. Campbell and Stanley (cited in Isaac &
Michael, 1971) have identified 4 factors that can adversely affect a study's external
validity.

(i) An interaction between how the subjects were selected and the treatment
(e.g., the independent variable) can occur. If subjects are not randomly
selected from a population, then their particular characteristics may bias their
performance and the study's results may not be applicable to the population or

29
 to another group that more accurately represents the characteristics of the
population.
(ii) Pretesting subjects in a study may cause them to react more/less strongly to
the treatment than they would have had they not experienced the pre-test. In
such situations the researcher(s) cannot conclude that members of the
population who were not pretested would perform in a similar manner to the
participants in the study. Restated, to generalize the results of the study the
researcher would have to specify that a particular type of pretesting also be
done because the pretesting could be serving as an extra, unintentional
independent variable.
(iii)The performance of subjects in some studies is more a product or reaction to
the experimental setting (e.g., the situation where the study is conducted) than
it is to the independent variable. For example, subjects who know they are
participants in a study, or who are aware of being observed, etc., may react
differently to the treatment than a subject who experienced the treatment but
was not aware of being observed (Hawthorne Effect).
(iv) Studies that use multiple treatments/interventions may have limited
generalizability because the early treatments may have a cumulative effect on
the subjects' performance. If a group experienced treatment X1, and the first
treatment was followed by a second (X2), their measured performance after
X2 will be affected by both treatments not just X2's because the effects of X1
are not erasable.

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:
 Explain the role of literature review in social research
 Explain the importance of literature review in social research
 Conduct literature review in your own social research

What is a literature review?

Many students are instructed, as part of their research program, to perform a literature
review, without always understanding what a literature review is.

Most are aware that it is a process of gathering information from other sources and
documenting it, but few have any idea of how to evaluate the information, or how to
present it.

Definitions box

A literature review is a critical and in depth evaluation of previous research. It is a

summary and synopsis of a particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the
paper to establish why you are pursuing this particular research program. A good
literature review expands upon the reasons behind selecting a particular research
question.

A literature review can be a precursor in the introduction of a research paper, or it can

be an entire paper in itself, often the first stage of large research projects, allowing the
supervisor to ascertain that the student is on the correct path.

What is a literature review not?

It is not a chronological catalogue of all of the sources, but an evaluation, integrating
the previous research together, and also explaining how it integrates into the proposed
research program. All sides of an argument must be clearly explained, to avoid bias,
and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

It is not a collection of quotes and paraphrasing from other sources. A good literature
review should also have some evaluation of the quality and findings of the research.

A good literature review should avoid the temptation of impressing the importance of
a particular research program. The fact that a researcher is undertaking the research
program speaks for its importance, and an educated reader may well be insulted that

31
they are not allowed to judge the importance for themselves. They want to be re-
assured that it is a serious paper, not a pseudo-scientific sales advertisement.

Whilst some literature reviews can be presented in a chronological order, it is best

avoided.

For example, a review of Victorian Age Physics, could present J.J. Thomson’s famous
experiments in a chronological order. Otherwise, this is usually perceived as being a
little lazy, and it is better to organize the review around ideas and individual points.

As a general rule, certainly for a longer review, each paragraph should address one
point, and present and evaluate all of the evidence, from all of the differing points of
view.

Conducting a literature review

Evaluating the credibility of sources is one of the most difficult aspects, especially
with the ease of finding information on the internet.

The only real way to evaluate is through experience, but there are a few tricks for
evaluating information quickly, yet accurately.

There is such a thing as ‘too much information,’ and Google does not distinguish or
judge the quality of results, only how search engine friendly a paper is. This is why it
is still good practice to begin research in an academic library. Any journals found
there can be regarded as safe and credible.

The next stage is to use the internet, and this is where the difficulties start. It is very
difficult to judge the credibility of an online paper. The main thing is to structure the
internet research as if it were on paper. Bookmark papers, which may be relevant, in
one folder and make another subfolder for a ‘shortlist.’

 The easiest way is to scan the work, using the abstract and introduction as
guides. This helps to eliminate the non-relevant work and also some of the
lower quality research.

If it sets off alarm bells, there may be something wrong, and the paper is
probably of a low quality. Be very careful not to fall into the trap of rejecting
research just because it conflicts with your hypothesis. Failure to do this will
completely invalidate the literature review and potentially undermine the
research project. Any research that may be relevant should be moved to the
shortlist folder.

 The next stage is to critically evaluate the paper and decide if the research is
sufficient quality. Think about it this way: The temptation is to try to include
as many sources as possible, because it is easy to fall into the trap of thinking

32
 that a long bibliography equates to a good paper. A smaller number of quality
sources is far preferable than a long list of irrelevance.
 Check into the credentials of any source upon which you rely heavily for the
literature review. The reputation of the University or organization is a factor,
as is the experience of the researcher. If their name keeps cropping up, and
they have written many papers, the source is usually OK.
 Look for agreements. Good research should have been replicated by other
independent researchers, with similar results, showing that the information is
usually fairly safe to use.

If the process is proving to be difficult, and in some fields, like medicine and
environmental research, there is a lot of poor science, do not be afraid to ask a
supervisor for a few tips. They should know some good and reputable sources
to look at. It may be a little extra work for them, but there will be even more
work if they have to tear apart a review because it is built upon shaky
evidence.

Conducting a good literature review is a matter of experience, and even

the best scientists have fallen into the trap of using poor evidence. This
is not a problem, and is part of the scientific process; if a research
program is well constructed, it will not affect the results.

33
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:
 Explain what is meant by research methodology
 Explain the difference between research methodology and social research
methods
 Identify the various research designs used in social research
 Explain the different types research designs

Definition: What is research methodology?

Definition box:

Research methodology is the procedure which is followed in the selection of the

appropriate research methods to be used in a research.

Research Methods vs. Methodology

 Research methods are the methods that the researcher adopts for conducting
the research studies
 Research methodology is the way in which research problems are solved
systematically. It is the science of studying how research is conducted
scientifically.

Definition: What is research design?

Definition box:

Research design can be thought of as the structure of research -- it is the "glue" that
holds all of the elements in a research project together. We often describe a design
using a concise notation that enables us to summarize a complex design structure
efficiently. What are the "elements" that a design includes? It is the master plan
specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analysing the needed
information.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is
used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research
project -- the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of
assignment -- work together to try to address the central research questions. Here,

34
after a brief introduction to research design, I'll show you how we classify the major
types of designs. You'll see that a major distinction is between the experimental
designs that use random assignment to groups or programs and the quasi-experimental
designs that don't use random assignment. People often confuse what is meant by
random selection with the idea of random assignment. You should make sure that
you understand the distinction between random selection and random assignment.
Understanding the relationships among designs is important in making design choices
and thinking about the strengths and weaknesses of different designs. Then, I'll talk
about the heart of the art form of designing designs for research and give you some
ideas about how you can think about the design task. Finally, I'll consider some of the
more recent advances in quasi-experimental thinking -- an area of special importance
in applied social research and program evaluation.

Research Design:
It highlights decisions which include
 The name of the study
 The purpose of the study
 The location where the study would be conducted
 The nature of data required
 The source(s) of the required data
 The duration of the study
 The type of sample design to employ
 The techniques of data collection
 The methods of data analysis

Importance of research design

 It facilitates smooth conduct of the various stages of research
 Makes research efficient to yield maximum information with minimum effort,
time, budget
 Plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained

Characteristics of a good research design

 Flexible, suitable, efficient and economical
 Minimises biases and maximises reliability
 Less experimental error
 Yields maximum information

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quantitative research design is the standard experimental method of most scientific

disciplines.

These experiments are sometimes referred to as true science, and use traditional
mathematical and statistical means to measure results conclusively.

35
They are most commonly used by physical scientists, although social sciences,
education and economics have been known to use this type of research. It is the
opposite of qualitative research.

Quantitative experiments all use a standard format, with a few minor inter-
disciplinary differences, of generating a hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This
hypothesis must be provable by mathematical and statistical means, and is the basis
around which the whole experiment is designed.

Randomization of any study groups is essential, and a control group should be

included, wherever possible. A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one
variable at a time, or statistical analysis becomes cumbersome and open to question.

Ideally, the research should be constructed in a manner that allows others to repeat the
experiment and obtain similar results.

Objectives, research questions, and hypotheses

 Qualitative research states research objectives; poses research questions and/or

hypotheses to focus the study’s purpose

- Quantitative research questions: These are questions about the relationships

among variables that the investigator seeks to know
- Quantitative hypotheses: These are predictions that the researcher makes
about the expected relationships among variables
- Quantitative objectives: These indicate the goals or aims of a study. They are
frequently used in proposals for funding

RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. SURVEY

What is a survey?

Definition box

A survey is a type of research in the course of which the researcher tries to gain an
overall picture of a comprehensive phenomenon spread out over a period of time and
space.

Characteristics of a survey

 Large number of research units: This can be literally anything the researcher
intends to make statements about
 Labour extensive data generation: The researcher uses fewer time-consuming
methods to generate data. This is essential considering the large number of
research units that need to be approached.

36
  More breadth than depth
 A random sample: Taking a random sample id typical for a survey. A random
sample is a sample survey in which all potential research units in a population
have an equal chance to be included, regardless of their characteristics. A
random sample selection is required to gain a representative picture of the
whole population, in order to be able to generalise the results later on.
 Quantitative data and analysis
 Preferably remote, closed data generation

VARIANTS OF SURVEY RESEARCH

(i) Cross-sectional study

This is a simple design and is aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon,
problem, attitude or issue by taking a snap-shot or cross-section of the population.
This obtains an overall picture as it stands at the time of the study. It measures units
from a sample of the population at only one point in time. Sample surveys are cross-
sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a way as to be representative of a
specific population.

For example, a cross-sectional design would be used to assess demographic

characteristics or community attitudes. These studies usually involve one contact
with the study population and are relatively cheap to undertake.
Pre-test/post-test studies measure the change in a situation, phenomenon, problem or
attitude. Such studies are often used to measure the efficacy of a program. These
studies can be seen as a variation of the cross-sectional design as they involve two
sets of cross-sectional data collection on the same population to determine if a change
has occurred.

(ii) Panel research

This is a type of research during which measuring takes place at various moments in
time within one and the same group. This type of research is especially suitable for
showing changes that are taking place within research units. For example, you would
like to know the influences a further training course for employees would have on
their ability to solve problems that arise during work. In this case you could measure
their problem-solving skills before and after the training course, respectively called
ex-ante measurement. After comparing both measurement results, you are able to
determine for each employee whether he or she has made any progress.

(iii)Time sequence

The objective of this research is to find trends or changes in some collective

characteristic. It requires a relatively large number of measurements in order to define
a trend. The researcher is usually unable to gather the data in person, but must use

37
data that constantly being gathered by different organisations. This is called “official
statistical data.”

2. EXPERIMENT

What is experiment?

Definition box

In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one or more variables, while holding all

other variables constant. By noting how the manipulated variables affect a response
variable, the researcher can test whether a causal relationship exists between the
manipulated variables and the response variable

An experiment is the most suitable type of research for gaining experience with newly
created situations or processes, which can be used to assess the effects of these
changes. You can get an idea of these effects by creating (at least) two groups which
are as similar as possible. One group receives special treatment (intervention) and the
other does not (or receives a different treatment). Subsequently you compare the
differences in performance between the two groups.

Characteristics of an Experiment

A well-designed experiment includes design features that allow researchers to

eliminate extraneous variables as an explanation for the observed relationship
between the independent variable(s) and the dependent variable. Some of these
features are listed below.

 The formation of (at least) two groups, an experimental group and a control
group
 A random assignment of participants or research objects to either group. This
is called randomisation
 The researcher determines (and not the people being examined) which group
is subjected to the intervention and what happens further within the groups
 The researcher makes sure that there are as few outside influences as possible
 It is characterised by ex-post and ex-ante measurements.
 Control. Control refers to steps taken to reduce the effects of extraneous
variables (i.e., variables other than the independent variable and the
dependent variable). These extraneous variables are called lurking variables.

Control involves making the experiment as similar as possible for

experimental units in each treatment condition. Three control strategies are
control groups, placebos, and blinding.

o Control group. A control group is a baseline group that receives no

treatment or a neutral treatment. To assess treatment effects, the

38
 experimenter compares results in the treatment group to results in the
control group.

o In the case of clinical trials of medicine a placebo would be used.

Often, participants in an experiment respond differently after they
receive a treatment, even if the treatment is neutral. A neutral treatment
that has no "real" effect on the dependent variable is called a placebo,
and a participant's positive response to a placebo is called the placebo
effect.

To control for the placebo effect, researchers often administer a neutral

treatment (i.e., a placebo) to the control group. The classic example is
using a sugar pill in drug research. The drug is considered effective
only if participants who receive the drug have better outcomes than
participants who receive the sugar pill.

o Blinding. Of course, if participants in the control group know that they

are receiving a placebo, the placebo effect will be reduced or
eliminated; and the placebo will not serve its intended control purpose.

Blinding is the practice of not telling participants whether they are

receiving a placebo. In this way, participants in the control and
treatment groups experience the placebo effect equally. Often,
knowledge of which groups receive placebos is also kept from people
who administer or evaluate the experiment. This practice is called
double blinding. It prevents the experimenter from "spilling the
beans" to participants through subtle cues; and it assures that the
analyst's evaluation is not tainted by awareness of actual treatment
conditions.

 Randomization. Randomization refers to the practice of using chance

methods (random number tables, flipping a coin, etc.) to assign experimental
units to treatments. In this way, the potential effects of lurking variables are
distributed at chance levels (hopefully roughly evenly) across treatment
conditions.

 Replication. Replication refers to the practice of assigning each treatment to

many experimental units. In general, the more experimental units in each
treatment condition, the lower the variability of the dependent measures.

Confounding

Confounding occurs when the experimental controls do not allow the experimenter to
reasonably eliminate plausible alternative explanations for an observed relationship
between independent and dependent variables.

39
Consider this example. A drug manufacturer tests a new cold medicine with 200
participants - 100 men and 100 women. The men receive the drug, and the women do
not. At the end of the test period, the men report fewer colds.

This experiment implements no controls! As a result, many variables are confounded,

and it is impossible to say whether the drug was effective. For example, gender is
confounded with drug use. Perhaps, men are less vulnerable to the particular cold
virus circulating during the experiment, and the new medicine had no effect at all. Or
perhaps the men experienced a placebo effect.

This experiment could be strengthened with a few controls. Women and men could be
randomly assigned to treatments. One treatment group could receive a placebo, with
blinding. Then, if the treatment group (i.e., the group getting the medicine) had
sufficiently fewer colds than the control group, it would be reasonable to conclude
that the medicine was effective in preventing colds.

Parts of an Experiment

All experiments have independent variables, dependent variables, and experimental

units.

 Independent variable. An independent variable (also called a factor) is an

explanatory variable manipulated by the experimenter.

Each factor has two or more levels (i.e., different values of the factor).
Combinations of factor levels are called treatments. The table below shows
independent variables, factors, levels, and treatments for a hypothetical
experiment.

 Dependent variable. In a hypothetical experiment, a researcher might look at

the effect of vitamins on health. The dependent variable in this experiment
would be some measure of health (annual doctor bills, number of colds caught
in a year, number of days hospitalized, etc.).

 Experimental units. The recipients of experimental treatments are called

experimental units. The experimental units in an experiment could be anything
such as people, organisations, plants, animals, or even inanimate objects.

In an experiment on vitamins, the experimental units would probably be

people (or lab animals). But in an experiment to measure the tensile strength
of string, the experimental units might be pieces of string. When the
experimental units are people, they are often called participants; when the
experimental units are animals, they are often called subjects.

40
VARIANTS OF EXPERIMENTS

Experimental Designs
(i) Pre-Experimental Design - loose in structure, could be biased

Aim of the Research Name of the Design Notation Paradigm Comments

To attempt to explain a
consequent by an
One-shot
experimental case
X� O An approach that prematurely
links antecedents and
antecedent study consequences. The least
reliable of all experimental
approaches.

To evaluate the influence

of a variable
One group pretest-
posttest
O�X�O An approach that provides a
measure of change but can
provide no conclusive results.

To determine the influence

of a variable on one group
Static group
comparison
Group 1: X � O Weakness lies in no
examination of pre-
and not on another experimental equivalence of
groups. Conclusion is reached
Group 2: - � O by comparing the performance
of each group to determine the
effect of a variable on one of
them.

(ii) True Experimental Design - greater control and refinement, greater control of
validity

Aim of the Research Name of the Design Notation Paradigm Comments

To study the effect of an

influence on a carefully
Pretest-posttest
control group
R--[O�X This design has been called "the old
workhorse of traditional
controlled sample �O experimentation." If effectively
carried out, this design controls for
eight threats of internal validity.
[O�- Data are analyzed by analysis of
covariance on posttest scores with
�O the pretest the covariate.

To minimize the effect of

pretesting
Solomon four-group
design
R--[O�X This is an extension of the pretest-
posttest control group design and
�O probably the most powerful
experimental approach. Data are
analyzed by analysis of variance on
[O�- posttest scores.

�O

[- � X
�O

[-�-
�O
To evaluate a situation
that cannot be pretested
Posttest only control
group
R--[ X�O An adaptation of the last two groups
in the Solomon four-group design.
Randomness is critical. Probably, the
simplest and best test for
[-�O significance in this design is the t-
test.

41
 (iii) Quasi-Experimental Design - not randomly selected

Aim of the Research Name of the Design Notation Paradigm Comments

To investigate a situation
in which random selection
and assignment are not
possible
Nonrandomized
control group pretest-
O�X�O One of the strongest and most widely
used quasi-experimental designs.
posttest Differs from experimental designs
because test and control groups are
O�-�O not equivalent. Comparing pretest
results will indicate degree of
equivalency between experimental
and control groups.

To determine the influence

of a variable introduced
Time series
experiment
O�O�X� If substantial change follows
introduction of the variable, then the
only after a series of initial O�O variable can be suspect as to the
observations and only cause of the change. To increase
where one group is external validity, repeat the
available experiment in different places under
different conditions.

To bolster the validity of

the above design with the
Control group time
series
O�O�X� A variant of the above design by
accompanying it with a parallel set
addition of a control group O�O of observations without the
introduction of the experimental
variable.
O�O�-�
O�O
To control history in time
designs with a variant of
Equivalent time-
samples
[X1 � O1] An on-again, off-again design in
which the experimental variable is
the above design �[X0 � O2] sometimes present, sometimes
absent.
� [x1 � O3]

(iv) Correlational and Ex Post Facto Design

Aim of the Research Name of the Design Notation Paradigm Comments

To seek for cause-effect Causal-comparative A very deceptive procedure that

relationships between two
sets of data
correlational studies
-� requires much insight for its use.
Causality cannot be inferred merely
because a positive and close
Oa � Ob correlation ratio exists.

To search backward from
consequent data for
antecedent causes
�-
Ex post facto studies This approach is experimentation in
reverse. Seldom is proof through
data substantiation possible. Logic
and inference are the principal tools
of this design

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical research: Planning and design (6th Ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., p. 232-233.

Advantages of quantitative research

Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or
disproving a hypothesis. The structure has not changed for centuries, so is standard
across many scientific fields and disciplines.

After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the
results can be legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative experiments also

42
filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained can be seen
as real and unbiased.

Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of
qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible
directions for follow up research to take.

Disadvantages of quantitative research

Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and require a lot of time to
perform. They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is complete
randomization and correct designation of control groups.

Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis, which can be

difficult, due to most scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a
whole scientific discipline and can be difficult for non-mathematicians

In addition, the requirements for the successful statistical confirmation of results are
very stringent, with very few experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis;
there is usually some ambiguity, which requires retesting and refinement to the
design. This means another investment of time and resources must be committed to
fine-tune the results.

Quantitative research design also tends to generate only proved or unproven results,
with there being very little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social
sciences, education, anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more
complex than just a simple yes or no response.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Qualitative research design is a research method used extensively by scientists and

researchers studying human behaviour and habits. It is a situated activity that locates
the observer in the real world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices
that make the world visible. Qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic
approach to the world. This means qualitative researchers study things in their natural
settings, attempting to make sense of or to interpret phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to them (Denzin and Lincoln 2003, p.4)

Data are not inherently quantitative, and can be bits and pieces of almost anything.
They do not necessarily have to be expressed in numbers. Frequency distributions and
probability tables don't have to be used. Data can come in the form of words, images,
impressions, gestures, or tones which represent real events or reality as it is seen
symbolically or sociologically (If people believe things to be real, they are real in
their consequences - the Thomas Dictum). Qualitative research uses unreconstructed
logic to get at what is really real -- the quality, meaning, context, or image of reality in
what people actually do, not what they say they do (as on questionnaires).
Unreconstructed logic means that there are no step-by-step rules, that researchers

43
ought not to use prefabricated methods or reconstructed rules, terms, and procedures
that try to make their research look clean and neat (as in journal publications).

It is therefore difficult to define qualitative research since it doesn't involve the

same terminology as ordinary science. The simplest definition is to say it involves
methods of data collection and analysis that are non-quantitative (Lofland & Lofland
1984). Another way of defining it is to say it focuses on "quality", a term of referring
to the essence or ambience of something (Berg 1989). Others would say it involves a
subjective methodology and yourself as the research instrument (Adler & Adler
1987). Everyone has their favourite or "pet" definition. Historical-comparative
researchers would say it always involves the historical context, and sometimes a
critique of the "front" being put on to get at the "deep structure" of social relations
It is also very useful for product designers who want to make a product that will sell.
For example, a designer generating some ideas for a new product might want to study
people’s habits and preferences, to make sure that the product is commercially viable.
Quantitative research is then used to assess whether the completed design is popular
or not.

Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in that it

is often used to generate possible leads and ideas which can be used to formulate a
realistic and testable hypothesis. This hypothesis can then be comprehensively tested
and mathematically analysed, with standard quantitative research methods.

For these reasons, these qualitative methods are often closely allied with interviews,
survey design techniques and individual case studies, as a way to reinforce and
evaluate findings over a broader scale.

Qualitative methods are probably the oldest of all scientific techniques, with Ancient
Greek philosophers qualitatively observing the world around them and trying to come
up with answers which explained what they saw.

Objectives, research questions, and hypotheses

 Qualitative researchers pose research questions

- Not objectives
- Not hypotheses

 Two types of qualitative research questions for purposes of focusing a study:

- Central research questions: This is a broad question that asks for the
exploration of the central phenomenon
- Sub-questions: These are questions that narrow the focus of the study

44
RESEARCH DESIGNS
The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various research
techniques, encompassing a variety of accepted methods and structures.

1. CASE STUDY

What is a case study?

Definition box

A case study is a type of research design which is employed to gain a profound

insight into one or several objects or processes that are restricted in time and space.
The purpose of a case study is to understand a phenomenon as whole.

Characteristics of a Case Study

 It focuses on a small number of research units

 It generates deep and holistic knowledge on a particular issue or cases
involved
 It focuses on understanding and interpreting the case from an inside or in-
depth point of view
 Observations in a case study are conducted in a natural setting
 It uses labour intensive methods of data collection

When to use the case study?

 When we are interested in a complex situation
Analysis of social processes
- Analysis of group behaviour
 When the main interest is on the influence of the social or cultural context of
social behaviour
 When we are not (yet) familiar with the vocabulary used by the people
involved in a particular situation.

Sampling in case studies

 Sampling takes place at two levels;
- Selecting the case(s) we want to investigate
- Selecting the data sources (people, documents) we want to use
 There should always be a ratio behind the selection of cases or data sources.

Case Selection: Single case study versus multiple or comparative case study
 Single case study
- Typical case: highlights what is normal or average
- Unique case: this refers to a highly unusual manifestation of the
phenomenon or situation or case
- Intensive case: many manifestations of the phenomenon

45
  Multiple case study
- Minimum differences between cases
- Maximum differences between cases
Purposive sampling
 Theory based sampling: In this type of sampling, the interviewer decides on
the basis of his or her expectations
 Snowball/chain sampling: The interviewer follows up contacts mentioned by
other respondents
 Quota sampling: The interviewer interviews a certain number of people per
category.

Triangulation
 What is Triangulation?
- Triangulation refers to the utilisation of multiple sources of
information to get an overview of a phenomenon
 Types of Triangulation
- Triangulation of sources of data
- Triangulation of methods
- Triangulation of researchers

External validity of the Case Study

 External validity of a case study is the extent to which it is plausible that the
conclusions of a case study might be generalised to other situations other than
the situation which was researched.
 Is it possible to generalise the findings of a case study? Theoretical
generalisations are possible.

Internal validity of the Case Study

 Internal validity of a case study the extent to which it is plausible that the
conclusions about the units of analysis studies are true. Internal validity could
be improved by comparing the findings of different cases

2. LONGITUDINAL STUDY

What is longitudinal study?

This follows study subjects over a long period of time with repeated data collection
throughout. Some longitudinal studies last several months, while others can last
decades. Most are observational studies that seek to identify a correlation among
various factors. Thus, longitudinal studies do not manipulate variables and are not
often able to detect causal relationships.

Advantages of qualitative research

Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex be
answered by a simple yes or no. These types of designs are much easier to plan and

46
 carry out. They are also useful when budgetary decisions have to be taken into
account.

The broader scope covered by these designs ensures that some useful data is always
generated, whereas an unproved hypothesis in a quantitative experiment can mean
that a lot of time has been wasted. Qualitative research methods are not as dependent
upon sample sizes as quantitative methods; a case study, for example, can generate
meaningful results with a small sample group.

Disadvantages of qualitative research

Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments, qualitative
methods still require a lot of careful thought and planning, to ensure that the results
obtained are as accurate as possible.

Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analysed in the same comprehensive way

as quantitative results, so can only give a guide to general trends. It is a lot more open
to personal opinion and judgment, and so can only ever give observations rather than
results.

Any qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly recreated,
meaning that they do lack the ability to be replicated.

Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Point of Comparisons Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Focus of research Quality (nature, essence) Quantity (how much, how

many)

Philosophical roots Phenomenology, symbolic Positivism, logical

interaction empiricism

Associated phrases Fieldwork, ethnographic, Experimental, empirical,

naturalistic, grounded, statistical
subjective

Goal of investigation Understanding, description, Prediction, control,

discovery, hypothesis description, confirmation,
generating hypothesis testing

Design characteristics Flexible, evolving, emergent Predetermined, structured

Setting Natural, familiar Unfamiliar, artificial

Sample Small, non-random, Large, random,

theoretical representative

Data collection Researcher as primary Inanimate instruments

instrument, interviews, (scales, tests, surveys,
observations questionnaires, computers)

47
Mode of analysis Inductive (by researcher) Deductive (by statistical
methods)

Findings Comprehensive, holistic, Precise, narrow, reductionist

expansive

Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 18.

48
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:
 Explain the various methods of collecting data for qualitative and
quantitative researches
 Explain the differences between data collection methods
 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each data collection method

Quantitative Research

1. Interviews

1.1 Personal interviews

Face-to-face: involves trained interviewers visiting people to collect questionnaire

data. It is a good approach for ensuring a high response rate to a sample survey or
census, and trained interviewers gather better quality data. However, there are some
disadvantages to this approach. Respondents may not always be available for
interviews and the travel costs of the interviewer could be high.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a
laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This
method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer
from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data
collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

1.2 Telephone interviews

Telephone: involves trained interviewers phoning people to collect questionnaire

data. This method is quicker and less expensive than face-to-face interviewing.
However, only people with telephones can be interviewed (about 98% of the
Canadian population), and the respondent can end the interview very easily!

Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI): is a type of telephone

interview, but with the interviewer keying respondent answers directly into a
computer. This saves time involved in processing data, but can be expensive to set up,
and requires interviewers to have computer and typing skills. Statistics Canada uses
this approach for many of its surveys such as the Youth In Transition Survey, the

49
Monthly Survey of Manufacturing, the General Social Survey and the Workplace
Employee Survey.

1.3 Self-completed

Mail survey: a common method of conducting Statistics Canada's economic surveys.

It is a relatively inexpensive method of collecting data, and one that can distribute
large numbers of questionnaires in a short time. It provides the opportunity to contact
hard-to-reach people, and respondents are able to complete the questionnaire in their
own time. Mail surveys do require an up-to-date list of names and addresses,
however. In addition, there is also the need to keep the questionnaire simple and
straightforward.

A major disadvantage of a mail survey is that it usually has lower response rates than
other data collection methods. This may lead to problems with data quality. Also,
people with a limited ability to read or write English or French may experience
problems.

Hand-delivered questionnaire: a self-enumerated survey where questionnaires are

hand-delivered to people and mailed back by the respondent after completion. This
method usually results in better response rates than a mail survey, and is particularly
suitable when information is needed from several household members. The hand-
delivered with pickup method has been used by Statistics Canada's Census of
Population. The hand-delivered with respondent mail-back method can reduce the
cost of collecting forms and gives a greater sense of privacy for respondents
concerned with someone entering their home or business to collect the forms.

Interviews can be

1. Unstructured
1. Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews
2. They have very little structure at all
3. The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited
number of topics, sometimes as few as just one or two
4. The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the
interviewee and his/her previous response
5. This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail
6. They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about
a specific topic without there being a structure or a preconceived
plan or expectation as to how they will deal with the topic
2. Semi structured

1. Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused

interviews
2. A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the
researcher wants to cover
3. A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to
help the interviewee

50
 4. 'The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under
investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and
interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail'
5. Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to promt or
encourage the interviewee if they are looking for more information
or find what they are saying interesting
6. This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the
interviewee to elaborate or to follow a new line of inquiry introduced
by what the interviewee is saying
7. Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants
to be sure to be addressing
3. Structured

1. The interviewed asks the respondent the same questions in the same
way
2. A tightly structured schedule is used
3. The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of
responses may be given - i.e. 'Do you rate our services as very good,
good or poor'
4. A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured
interview is more appropriate
5. 'If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable
the phenomena under investigation to be explored in terms of either
breadth or depth.'

Qualitative interviews should be fairly informal and participants feel they are taking
part in a conversation or discussion rather than in a formal question and answer
situation.

There is skill required and involved in successful qualitative research approaches -

which requires careful consideration and planning

Good quality qualitative research involves:

1. Thought
2. Preparation
3. The development of the interview schedule
4. Conducting and analysing the interview data with care and consideration

2. Questionnaire design

 Introduction and conclusion of the questionnaire

 Wording of questions
o Abbreviations and acronyms
o Complex words and terminology
o Frame of reference
o Specific questions
o Double-barreled questions
o Loaded questions
o Open or closed questions
 Questionnaire testing

51
Questionnaires play a central role in the data collection process. A well-designed
questionnaire efficiently collects the required data with a minimum number of errors.
It facilitates the coding and capture of data and it leads to an overall reduction in the
cost and time associated with data collection and processing. The biggest challenge in
developing a questionnaire is to translate the objectives of the survey into a well-
conceptualized and methodologically sound study.

Before you can design the questionnaire, you must plan the survey as a whole,
including the objectives, data needs and analysis. Once the questionnaire is designed,
it must be tested before you can proceed with the data collection.

There is a lot to consider when developing a questionnaire. The following is a list of

some key points to think about:

 Is the introduction informative? Does it stimulate respondent interest?

 Are the words simple, direct and familiar to all respondents?
 Do the questions read well? Does the overall questionnaire flow well?
 Are the questions clear and as specific as possible?
 Does the questionnaire begin with easy and interesting questions?
 Is there a specific time reference?
 Are any of the questions double-barreled?
 Are any questions leading or loaded?
 Should the questions be open- or close-ended? If the questions are close-ended
are the response categories mutually exclusive and exhaustive?
 Are the questions applicable to all respondents?

Introduction and conclusion of the questionnaire

The introduction of the questionnaire is very important because it outlines the
pertinent information about the survey. The introduction should:

 provide the title or subject of the survey

 identify the sponsor
 explain the purpose of the survey
 request the respondent’s co-operation
 inform the respondent about confidentiality issues, the status of the survey
(voluntary or mandatory) and any existing data-sharing agreements with other
organizations.

Respondents frequently question the value of the gathered information to themselves

and to others. Therefore, be sure to explain why it is important to complete the
questionnaire, how the information will be used, and how respondents can access the
results. Ensuring that respondents understand the value of their information is vital in
undertaking a survey.

The following is an example of a good introduction to a questionnaire.

Assessing Student Needs

52
School name_______________________________

Please take some time (approximately 50 to 75 minutes) to complete this

questionnaire. Your responses will provide important information that will help
your school in planning better ways to support your health and well-being.

Confidential

What this survey is for?

This survey provides you with an opportunity to share your thoughts on what is
needed to keep you and your school safe and healthy.

You do not have to complete this survey if you do not wish to do so. However,
everyone’s views are important and the more participation we receive, the better the
results will be. Please understand that this questionnaire is completely confidential.

1. Do not write your name on the questionnaire.

2. Seal your questionnaire in the envelope provided.

Once the envelope is sealed, it will only be opened by the team entering your
responses to the questions into the computer system. Your envelope will be placed
with many others and there will be no way to identify individual respondents. The
results of all the questionnaires will be added together and reported back to the
school.

The opening questions of any survey should establish the respondents’ confidence in
their ability to answer the remaining questions. If necessary, the opening questions
should help determine whether the respondent is a member of the survey population.

A good questionnaire ends with a comments section that allows the respondent to
record any other issues not covered by the questionnaire. This is one way of avoiding
any frustration on the part of the respondent, as well as allowing them to express any
thoughts, questions or concerns they might have. Lastly, there should be a message at
the end thanking the respondents for their time and patience in completing the
questionnaire.

(i) Wording of questions

One of the most important factors in any survey is the design of the actual
questionnaire. The questions and instructions should be easy to understand and
respond to. The way a question is worded is very important as the same question
worded in a different manner may achieve completely different results. Consider the
following.

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  Abbreviations and acronyms

Always spell out the complete form of abbreviations and acronyms.

Example: Do you know if the pop figures are available online?

Better wording: Did you know that the population figures from the 2010 Census of
Population are available on the Central Statistical website at………..?

Example: Have you ever participated in our annual UNZA survey?

Better wording: Have you ever participated in an annual University of Zambia for
undergraduate students?

 Complex words and terminology (Jargon)

Avoid specialized terminology and complicated words.

Example: Do you know who is leading the talks surrounding the impending
amalgamation of surrounding constituencies into the "new metro" areas?

Better wording: Do you know who is leading the talks in each of the provinces
regarding the amalgamation of cities, towns, villages and rural areas into "new
metro" areas?

Example: Have you ever received a pneumococcus vaccination?

Better wording: Have you ever received a flu vaccination?

 Frame of reference

Give all the details concerning the question’s frame of reference.

Example: What is your income?

Does the word "your" refer to the respondent’s personal income, family income or
household income? Does the word "income" refer to salary and wages only, or does it
include tips or income from other sources? Because there is no specific time period
mentioned, does this question refer to last week’s income, last month’s or last year’s
income?

This question is too vague. It should be reworded so that all of the specific details
concerning the frame of reference are given.

Better wording: What was your household’s total income, from all sources before
taxes and deductions, for last year?

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  Specific questions

A question’s frame of reference is not the only specific detail required. In order to get
a uniform response from the entire sample, the question sometimes needs to state the
type of response needed.

Example: Respondents are shown a bottle of orange drink and are asked, "How much
orange juice do you think this bottle contains?"

Better wording: This bottle holds 250 millilitres (mL) of orange drink. How many
millilitres of this drink would you say are orange juice?

 Double-barreled questions

Examples:

Do you plan to leave your car at home and take the bus to work during the coming
year?

Does your company provide training for new employees and retraining for existing
staff?

Each of the above examples asks two questions rather than one:

In the first example, the question asks respondents if they plan to leave their cars at
home, and whether or not they are taking the bus for the next year.

The second example asks respondents if their company provides training for new
employees as well as providing retraining for existing employees.

In some instances, the answer to each half of the question is the same. However,
sometimes there could be two very separate answers, which would make interpreting
this question difficult.

The best solution could be to split such questions in two.

 Loaded questions

The following examples demonstrate how a loaded question can impact the
respondent’s results.

Example 1:

In your opinion, should Sunday shopping be allowed in Ontario; that is, should stores
that want to stay open on Sunday be allowed to stay open on Sundays if they want to?

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The wording of the first question asks whether the respondents were in favour of
Sunday shopping, while the second question was worded to ask respondents whether
they were in favour of not working on Sundays. As a result, there was a significant
change in the data.

A possible explanation for the difference in the results could be that some respondents
did not quite understand the implications of the question. Some people may be
opposed to working on Sundays, but are still in favour of shopping. However, if no
one works on Sundays, then stores cannot stay open for shoppers!

 Open or closed questions

Generally there are two types of questions: open and closed. Open questions give
respondents an opportunity to answer the question in their own words. Closed
questions give respondents a choice of answers and the respondent is supposed to
select one.

- Open question
What is the most important issue facing today’s youth?

- Closed question
Which of these is the most important problem facing today’s youth?

 Unemployment
 National unity
 Environment
 Youth violence
 Rising tuition fees
 Drugs in schools
 Need for more computers in schools
 Career counseling

There are advantages and disadvantages to using one type of question versus another.
The open question allows the respondent to interpret the question and answer it
anyway he or she chooses. The respondent writes the answer or the interviewer
records verbatim what the respondent says in answer to the question.

The closed question restricts the respondent to select an answer from the specified
response options. For the respondent, a closed question is easier and faster to answer
and for the researcher, closed questions are easier and less expensive to code and
analyse. Also, closed questions provide consistency, an element that is not necessarily
going to occur with an open question.

(ii) Questionnaire testing

This is a fundamental step in developing a questionnaire. Testing helps discover poor

wording or ordering of questions; identify errors in the questionnaire layout and

56
instructions; determine problems caused by the respondent’s inability or
unwillingness to answer the questions; suggest additional response categories that can
be pre-coded on the questionnaire; and provide a preliminary indication of the length
of the interview and any refusal problems. Testing can include the complete
questionnaire or only a particular portion of it. The complete questionnaire will at
some point in time have to be fully tested.

 The advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The advantages of questionnaires

1. Practical
2. Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of
people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way
3. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability
4. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily
quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package
5. Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of
research
6. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change
7. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories
and / or test existing hypotheses

The disadvantages of questionnaires

1. Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e.

changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
2. Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial
creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of
information without explanation
3. Lacks validity
4. There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
5. There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
6. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of
the situation
7. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on
their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may
be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not
acknowledged
8. There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the
questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions
as to what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something
that is of importance

The process of coding in the case of open ended questions opens a great possibility of
subjectivity by the researcher

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Qualitative Research

There are many methods of data collection that are used in qualitative research

1. Participant Observation
2. Ethnography
3. Photography
4. Ethnomethodology
5. Dramaturgical Interview
6. Sociometry
7. Natural Experiment
8. Unobtrusive Measures
9. Content Analysis
10. Historiography

(i) Participant-observation

This is the process of immersing yourself in the study of people you're not too
different from. It is almost always done covertly, with the researcher never
revealing their true purpose or identity. If it's a group you already know a lot
about, you need to step back and take the perspective of a "martian", as if you
were from a different planet and seeing things in a fresh light. If it's a group you
know nothing about, you need to become a "convert" and really get committed
and involved. The more secretive and amorphous the group, the more you need
participation. The more localized and turf-conscious the group, the more you need
observation. It's customary in the literature to describe four roles:

 Complete participation -- the researcher participates in activities of the

subjects and goes on to actively influence the direction of the group
 Participant as observer -- the researcher participates in the activities of the
subjects but does not try to influence the direction of the group
 Observer as participant -- the researcher participates in a one-time activity
of the subjects but then takes a back seat to any further activities
 Complete observation -- the researcher is a member of the group but does not
participate in any activities of the subjects.

It's difficult to say which of these four roles are the most common, probably the
middle two. The key point behind all of them is that the researcher must operate on
two levels: becoming an insider while remaining an outsider. They must avoid
becoming over-socialized, or "going native", as well as being personally revolted or
repulsed by the group conduct. Going native is sometimes described as giving up
research and joining the group for life. For instance, in most criminological circles, it
means losing your objectivity and glorifying criminals. Generally, it takes time to
carry out participant-observation, several weeks or months to 2-4 years. Gangs, hate
groups, prostitutes, and drug dealers have all been studied by this method.

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 (ii) Ethnography:

This is the process of describing a culture or way of life from a folk peoples' point of
view. Another name for it is field work. The folk point of view is the idea of a
universe in a dewdrop, each person a reflection of their culture in that all their
gestures, displays, symbols, songs, sayings, and everything else has some implicit,
tacit meaning for others in that culture. It's the job of ethnography to establish the
hidden inferences that distinguish, for example, a wink and a nod in any given culture.
Numerous funding opportunities exist both abroad and domestically for ethnographic
research.

The ethnographic method involves observation and note taking. The anthropologist
Clifford Geertz called it thick description. For about every half hour of observation,
an ethnographic researcher would write notes for about two hours. These notes would
contain rich, detailed descriptions of everything that went on. There would be no
attempt at summarizing, generalizing, or hypothesizing. The notes would capture as
factual a description of the drama as possible to permit multiple interpretations, and
most of all, to later infer cultural meaning. A coding procedure (much like content
analysis) would be used later for this.

One of the assumptions of ethnography is naturalism, or leaving natural

phenomenon alone. In essence, the researcher tries to be invisible. There are a variety
of ways the researcher develops trust and rapport with the folk group in order to do
this, to watch and listen carefully without being noticed. At some point, however, the
researcher has to disengage, retreat to a private place, and take notes. The following
are some standard rules for taking field notes (adapted from Neuman & Wiegand
2000):

 Take notes as soon as possible, and do not talk to anyone before note taking
 Count the number of times key words or phrases are used by members of the
folk group
 Carefully record the order or sequence of events, and how long each sequence
lasts
 Do not worry that anything is too insignificant; record even the smallest things
 Draw maps or diagrams of the location, including your movements and any
reaction by others
 Write quickly and don't worry about spelling; devise your own system of
punctuation
 Avoid evaluative judgments or summarizing; don't call something "dirty" for
example, describe it
 Include your own thoughts and feelings in a separate section; your later
thoughts in another section
 Always make backup copies of your notes and keep them in a separate
location

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 (iii)Photography, or filmmaking:

This is essentially ethnography with recording equipment. While many ethnographers

would advocate staying away from such technology, it's hard to deny the benefits as
an aid to recall, multiple interpretations, and reaching a wider audience. Ethnographic
film reports on the homeless, for example, may be just what is needed to mobilize
community action or public funding. Little has been written on this new qualitative
method, but it appears that the technique known as oral history is sometimes
combined with it. Oral history is the recording of people speaking in their own words,
about their life experiences, both public and private, in ways that are unavailable in
writing. You'd be amazed at the things people say, and the nuances they can
communicate, while in front of a video camera. It's unfortunate that this method hasn't
caught on in criminal justice or criminology.

(iv) Ethnomethodology:

This is the study of common-sense knowledge, and is an ethnographic technique

popularized by the sociologist Harold Garfinkel in the late 1960s. It assumes a more
active role for the researcher, one that involves "breaking up" the standard routines of
folk groups in order to see how strongly and in what ways group members mobilize to
restore the cultural order. The researcher would do weird things, for example, at
inappropriate times. One of the classic textbook examples is looking up at the ceiling
in a crowded elevator. Some people would glance up to see what you're looking at;
another person might ask what you're looking at; and yet another person might
demonize you by saying "What's the matter, too good to ride the elevator with the rest
of us?" The whole idea is not to break the law or even the norms of social conduct,
but just do silly little things that violate customs or folkways, which will most likely
get you labelled as odd, eccentric, or a folk devil. The researcher is then in a better
position to understand the fragile and fluid processes of social control, as well as the
rules that people use for maintaining cultural boundaries. In spite of the great
theoretical potential of this research method, it is not all that commonly used. In fact,
since 1989, most people refer to refined versions of this method as conversation
analysis or sociolinguistics.

(v) Dramaturgical interviewing:

You can just call it dramaturgy, is a technique of doing research by role playing or
play acting your own biases in some symbolic interaction or social performance.
Interviewing is conversation with a purpose. Dramaturgy was popularized by the
sociologist Erving Goffman in the early 1960s and is also associated with the pseudo
patient study "On Being Sane in Insane Places" by Rosenhan in 1973. Both
researchers pretended to be mentally ill to find out what it's like in a psychiatric
hospital. It's important to note that the acting out doesn't have to be deceptive. In fact,
it's preferable if the researcher act out on a self-conscious awareness of their own bias,
and just exaggerates a bit, in order to instigate a more emotional response from the
person being interviewed. A researcher interested in the beliefs of devout Catholics,

60
for example, might start asking "So you're Catholic, huh? I hear Catholics engage in
cannibalism when they go to Mass, is that true?" Knowing your biases is different
from bracketing those biases, the latter requiring not just an awareness, but being hard
on yourself, and developing a special openness or frankness that is the hallmark of a
dramaturgical researcher. At a minimum, you should examine yourself according to
the following:

 your sex, age, ethnicity, religion, political party, and favourite psychological
theory
 the ways in which these characteristics might bias you in your efforts at
interviewing
 the ways in which you might counteract these biases
 the ways in which your efforts to counteract your biases might lead to other
biases

Rapport and trust come from meeting the interviewee's expectations about ascribed
and achieved characteristics (gender, age, race, mannerisms, etc.), and then the
interview proceeds in a semi-directed manner with the interviewer (always self-
consciously) acting out on some bias believed to be associated with their own
characteristics or those of the interviewee (if different). In the first case, the researcher
is a dramaturgical performer; in the second case, a dramaturgical choreographer. The
thing to focus on with this technique is the nonverbal body language, as it is believed
that affective messages contained therein are more important than verbal messages. A
debriefing session is usually held after the dramaturgical interview. This method is
probably one of the most difficult qualitative methods as it is basis is in
phenomenological theory, but it has many advocates who point to its therapeutic
value for both interviewer and interviewee.

(vi) Socio-metry:

This is the measurement of social distance between group members. More precisely, it
is the assessment of attractions and repulsions between individuals in a group and
with the group structure as defined by feelings. The method was first established by
the social psychologist J.L. Moreno in 1934, and to this day, always involves a
graphical depiction of the structure of group relations called a sociogram. The
procedure for constructing a sociogram begins with a questionnaire-based sociometric
test which asks each group member the following:

 name two or three peers you like the most, like working with, or are your best
friends
 name two or three peers you least like, dislike working with, or that you reject
as friends
 rate every member of the group in terms of like or dislike on a 5-point scale

After the mean ratings are collated, and one has identified what social structures
exist, the researcher then locates appropriate guides, informants, and gatekeepers to

61
the group. Fieldwork, or ethnography, is engaged in to obtain field notes. Together
with a coding and analysis of one's field notes and the collated results of sociometric
testing, the researcher draws up a sociogram depicting star and satellite cliques,
dyads, triads, and so forth. The arrows in the sociogram contain a number obtained by
dividing an individual's column score by n-1. A summary table usually accompanies
the sociogram showing the frequency distributions. An example of a sociogram
appears below:

(vii) Natural experiment

This refers to a situation where a split or division has occurred between group
members, and the researcher is afforded an opportunity to study the differentiation
process of social structure. For example, suppose one group of students at a
University received campus crime report newsletter in their mails while on vacation,
and another group did not. Both groups, however, had a chance to review a second
newsletter once they got on campus. The researcher could then survey or interview all
of them once they got on campus, and not only make meaningful comparisons about
the perceived helpfulness of first report with the second, but inductive inferences
about concern for crime and campus safety generally. Increases or decreases in posted
speed limits are natural experiments, for example.

(viii) Unobtrusive measures:

These are ways of gathering data in which subjects are not aware of their being
studied, and are sometimes called nonreactive measures. They usually involve
clandestine, novel, or oddball collection of trace data that falls into one of two
categories: accretion or erosion. Accretion is the stuff left behind by human activity.
An example would be going through someone's garbage. Erosion is the stuff that is
worn down by human activity. An example would be examining wear and tear on
floor tiles to estimate how much employees use the restroom. Examination of graffiti
and vandalism are examples of unobtrusive measures in criminal justice. Nobody
claims that unobtrusive measures are superior to other research methods. The only
advantage is that it is useful when the subjects to be studied are very suspicious and
distrustful.

(ix) Content analysis:

This is a technique for gathering and analysing the content of text. The content can be
words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, pictures, symbols, or ideas. It can be done
quantitatively as well as qualitatively, and computer programs can be used to assist
the researcher. The initial step involves sorting the content into themes, which
depends on the content. If you were studying white collar crime, for example, you
might have themes like planning, action, and cover-up. Then, a coding scheme is
devised, usually in basic terms like frequency (amount of content), direction (who the
content is directed to), intensity (power of content), and space (size of content). The
coding system is used to reorganize the themed content in what is called manifest

62
coding. Manifest coding is highly reliable because you can train assistants to do it,
ensuring inter-coder reliability, and all you're doing is using an objective method to
count the number of times a theme occurs in your coding scheme. At the next level,
the researcher engages in what is called latent coding. This requires some knowledge,
usually gained from fieldwork or observation, about the language rules, or semiotics,
of your subjects. It is less reliable than manifest coding, but involves the researcher
using some rubric or template to make judgment calls on implicit, ironic, or doubtful
content. Since not everything always fits in categories, there's always some leftover
content to be accounted for, and it must be interpreted in context by a knowledgeable
researcher who knows something about the culture of his/her subjects.

There are strict limitations on the inferences a researcher can make with content
analysis. For example, inferences about motivation or intent cannot normally be
made, nor can the researcher infer what the effect of seeing such content would be on
a viewer. Content analysis is only analysis of what is in the text. A researcher cannot
use it to prove that newspapers intended, for example, to mislead the public, or that a
certain style of journalism has a particular effect on public attitudes. The most
common inferences in content analysis make use of concepts like unconscious bias or
unintended consequences, and these are not the same as saying intentional bias or
intended effect. Content analysis has been applied extensively to all kinds of media:
newspapers, magazines, television, movies, and the Internet. Intelligence and law
enforcement agencies also do content analysis regularly on diplomatic channels of
communication, overseas phone calls, and Internet emails. A key point to remember is
that the more quantitative aspects of content analysis come first; the qualitative part of
the analysis comes last, although some advocates say the technique involves moving
back and forth between quantitative and qualitative methods.

(x) Historiography:

This is the method of doing historical research or gathering and analysing historical
evidence. There are four types of historical evidence: primary sources, secondary
sources, running records, and recollections. Historians rely mostly on primary sources
which are also called archival data because they are kept in museums, archives,
libraries, or private collections. Emphasis is given to the written word on paper,
although modern historiography can involve any medium. Secondary sources are the
work of other historians writing history. Running records are documentaries
maintained by private or non-profit organizations. Recollections are autobiographies,
memoirs, or oral histories. Archival research, which is the most common, involves
long hours of sifting through dusty old papers, yet inspection of untouched documents
can yield surprising new facts, connections, or ideas. Historiographers are careful to
check and double-check their sources of information, and this lends a good deal of
validity and reliability to their conclusions. Inferences about intent, motive, and
character are common, with the understanding of appropriateness to the context of the
time period. Historical-comparative researchers who do historiography often have to
make even more disclaimers about meanings in context, such as how they avoided
western bias.

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 An interesting variety of historical research is "prosopography" or prosopographic
analysis (Stone 1972). Although doubts may exist about its proper place in research
methods and the techniques are more akin to "profiling" in political psychology than
anything else, prosopography involves the study of biographical details (family
background, childhood events, educational background, religion, etc.) that are found
"in common" or "in the aggregate" among a group of people. The typical groups
studied by this method are Presidents, political leaders, generals, professors, terrorists,
and/or elites in society. Sometimes the method yields significant insights by
combining the common background elements in individual profiles. The method is
considered a useful corrective to the more one-sided, single biography technique often
found in the more-or-less mass market books aimed at those interested in
biographies. Specifically, it corrects the tendency toward "hagiography" or hero-
worship.

(xi) Secondary data analysis:

This is the reanalysis of data that was originally compiled by another researcher for
other purposes than the one the present researcher intends to use it for. Several
datasets in criminal justice and criminology exist just for this purpose. The UCR
(Uniform Crime Reports), for example, can be analysed in a number of ways other
than for its purpose as being a health scorecard for the nation. Often, secondary
analysis will involve adding an additional variable to an existing dataset. This variable
will be something that the researcher collects on their own, from another dataset, or
from a common source of information. For example, one could take police call for
service data and combine it with lunar cycles from the Farmer's Almanac to study the
effect of full moons on weird human behaviour. Secondary data analysis is only
limited by the researcher's imagination. While the technique is mostly quantitative,
limitations exist that often force such researchers to have some qualitative means of
garnering information also. In such cases (as with much Historical-Comparative
research), the qualitative part of the study is used as a validity check on the
quantitative part.

A related technique, called meta-analysis, is the combining the results of several

different studies dealing with the same research question. It is decidedly quantitative,
but involves some of the same sorting and coding techniques found in qualitative
research. Meta-analysis is no substitute for a good literature review.

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 U
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:
 Explain what is meant by sampling
 Explain the different sampling methods
 Identify the various types of sampling
 Explain the importance of sampling in research

What is sampling?

Definition box

Sampling is a statistical method of obtaining representative data or information from a

population. Sampling is used when a census, collecting data from every unit or person
in a population, is cost-prohibitive. As long as a sampling method is used in which
each unit or person in the population has a known and positive chance (probability) of
being selected, the sample is called “representative” because the characteristics of the
population can be inferred from the characteristics of the sample.

Why take a sample?

(i) First, collecting data for a sample is less expensive than for a census.
(ii) Second, having to collect data from fewer people can be done faster
than a census.
(iii)Third, more attention can be given to each person than would be
possible for a census. More attention to each person can result in
more accurate data of higher quality and higher response rates.

The sampling process involves 6 stages:

(i) Defining the population of interest

(ii) Identifying a sampling frame or list of individuals or households to measure
(as much of the population of interest as possible)
(iii)Specifying a sampling method for selecting individuals or households from the
frame
(iv) Determining the sample size
(v) Implementing the sampling plan to select the sample
(vi) Collecting data from each sample member (i.e., conducting the survey)

65
 Concepts in sampling:

a. Target population: The complete collection of individuals or elements

we want to study.
b. Sampled population: The collection of all possible elements that
might have been chosen in a sample; the population from which the
sample was taken.
c. Population structure: The survey population may show certain
specific structure. Stratification and clustering are the two most
common situations.
d. Sampling unit: The unit we actually sample. Sampling units can be
the individual elements, or clusters.
e. Observation unit: The unit we take measurement from. Observation
units are usually the individual elements.
f. Sampling frame: This is the list of sampling units.
g. Sampling design: This refers to the Method of selecting a sample.
There are two general types of sampling designs used in practice:
probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

What is a sampling frame?

It’s the list of all the elements or all the people in a population. Examples of sampling
frames include phone books, college student directories, directories of members of an
association, a list of all the teachers in your county, etc. Note that some sampling
frames are better than others; for example, the phone book excludes many people
(that’s why a special technique called random digit dialling is used to obtain
telephone samples rather than relying on the phone book).

Sampling Methods

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability

samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being
selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and
stratified sampling.

In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some non-
random manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota
sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that
sampling error can be calculated.

Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population.
When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling
error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the
population remains unknown.

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 1. Probability Sampling Design

This refers to sampling when the chance of any given individual being selected is
known and these individuals are sampled independently of each other. This is also
known as random sampling. A researcher can simply use a random number generator
to choose participants (known as simple random sampling), or every nth individual
(known as systematic sampling) can be included. Researchers also may break their
target population into strata, and then apply these techniques within each strata to
ensure that they are getting enough participants from each strata to be able to draw
conclusions. For example, if there are several ethnic communities in one
geographical area that a researcher wishes to study, that researcher might aim to have
30 participants from each group, selected randomly from within the groups, in order
to have a good representation of all the relevant groups.

Sampling Techniques

(i) Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member
of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When
there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to
identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects
becomes biased.
(ii) Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also
called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has
been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population
members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this
sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only
advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic
sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a
computer file.
(iii)Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to
random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset
of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples
of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers.
The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual
representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a
sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a
sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum
represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or
more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the
other stratums.

2. Non-Probability Sampling Design

This refers to when researchers take whatever individuals happen to be easiest to

access as participants in a study. This is only done when the processes the researchers
are testing are assumed to be so basic and universal that they can be generalized

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beyond such a narrow sample. For example, snowball sampling is an approach for
locating information-rich key informants. Using this approach, a few potential
respondents are contacted and asked whether they know of anybody with the
characteristics that you are looking for in your research. Snowball sampling is not a
stand-alone tool; the tool is a way of selecting participants and then using other tools,
such as interviews or surveys.

Sampling Techniques

(i) Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is

interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the
name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This
nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to
get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time
required to select a random sample.
(ii) Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher
selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of
convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the
entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population
includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be
confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire
population.
(iii)Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like
stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their
proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or
judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from
each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are
filled by random sampling.
(iv) Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired
sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost
prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling
relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects.
While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the
population.

Basic Concepts of Sampling

With a single grain of rice, a housewife tests if all the rice in the pot has boiled; from
a cup of tea, a tea-taster determines the quality of the brand of tea; and a sample of
moon rocks provides scientists with information on the origin of the moon. This
process of testing some data based on a small sample is called sampling.

Definition:

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Sampling is the process by which inference is made to the whole by examining a part.

Purpose of Sampling

The purpose of sampling is to provide various types of statistical information of a

qualitative or quantitative nature about the whole by examining a few selected units.
The sampling method is the scientific procedure of selecting those sampling units
which would provide the required estimates with associated margins of uncertainty,
arising from examining only a part and not the whole.

Methods of Sample Selection

Simple Random Sampling

In this method each item of the data (population) has the same probability of being
selected in the sample. The selection is usually made with the help of random
numbers.

 Suppose there are N=850 students in a school from which a sample of n=10
students is to be taken. The students are numbered from 1 to 850. Since our
data runs into three digits we use random numbers that contain three digits. All
numbers exceeding 850 are ignored because they do not correspond to any
serial numbers in the data. In case the same number occurs again, the
repetition is skipped.

Systematic Sampling

In this method first we have to number the data items from 1 to N. Suppose the
sample size be n, then we have to calculate the sampling interval by dividing N by n.
And generate a number between 1 and N/n and select that data item to be in the
sample. Other items in the sample are obtained by adding the sampling interval N/n
successively to the random number.
Advantage of this method is that the sample is evenly distributed over the entire data.

 The town of Fairfax is divided up into N = 576 blocks which are numbered
consecutively. A 10 percent sample of blocks is to be taken, which gives a
sampling interval of k = 10. If the random number between 1 and 10 is 3, the
blocks with the numbers

03, 13, 23, 33, 43... 573

are in the sample.

Sampling with unequal probabilities

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When the data items vary considerably in size, a simple random or a systematic
random sample of items does not produce a good estimate due to high variability. In
such a situation we get a better estimate by giving higher probability of selection to
the larger data items.

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U
UNNIITT 77:: D
DAATTA
AAAN
NAALLY
YSSIIS
S

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this unit you will be able to:
 Understand the process of data analysis
 Explain the different steps of data analysis for qualitative and quantitative
researches

Data Preparation, Interpretation and Analysis

Analysing survey data is an important and exciting step in the survey process. It is the
time that you may reveal important facts about your customers, uncover trends that
you might not otherwise have known existed, or provide irrefutable facts to support
your plans. By doing in-depth data comparisons, you can begin to identify
relationships between various data that will help you understand more about your
respondents, and guide you towards better decisions.

Survey Data Analysis

Analysing any survey, web or traditional, consists of a number of interrelated

processes that are intended to summarize, arrange, and transform data into
information. If your survey objective was simply to collect data for your database or
data warehouse, you do not have to do any analysis of the data. On the other hand, if
your objective was to understand the characteristics of typical customers, then you
must transform you raw results in to information that will enable you to paint a clear
picture of your customers.

Assuming you need to analyse the data collected from your survey, the process begins
with a quick review of the results, followed by editing, analysis, and reporting. To
ensure you have accurate data before investing significant time in analysis, it is
important that you do not begin analysing results until you have completed the review
and editing process.

Quick Review

Read all your results. Although, this seems like an obvious thing to do, many
surveyors think that they can skip this step and dive right in to data analysis. A quick
review can tell you lots about your project, including any flaws in questionnaire
design or response population, before you spend hours of time in analysing the data.

During the quick review, you should look at every question and see if the results
"make sense". This "gut feel" check of the data will often uncover any issues with

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your survey project. Most surveyors already have an idea of how they expect their
data to look. A quick review of the data can help you quickly understand that tell you
if the people that respond are the right people. For example, if you were conducting a
survey of all the employees in a company and you knew that 10% were in the
marketing department, 20% in sales, 45% in manufacturing, 5% in management, and
5% finance, and 15% research and development, you could reasonable expect your
responses to be similarly distributed. If your quick review disclosed 80% of your
respondents were from the sales department, you know that your survey did not
adequately capture a representative sample of all departments within the company.

The quick review can also highlight any problems with the survey instrument. Are
most respondents answering all questions? If not, your questionnaire could be flawed
in such a way that a person cannot complete the survey. A low response rate could
mean your survey invitation was not compelling enough to encourage participation, or
your timing was off and a follow-up reminder is needed.

Lastly, the quick review of the survey can show you what areas to focus on for
detailed analysis. As stated earlier, most surveyors already know what they expect to
get, so your quick review can show you the unexpected.

Editing and Cleaning

Editing and cleaning data is an important step in the survey process. Special care must
be taken when editing survey data so that you do not alter or throw out responses in
such a way as to bias your results. Although you can begin editing and cleaning your
data as soon as results are received, caution should be used since any edits can be lost
if the database is rebuilt. To be safe, wait until all data is received before you begin
the editing and cleaning process.

To start, find and delete incomplete and duplicate responses. A response should be
discarded if the respondent did not complete enough of the survey to be meaningful.
For example, if your survey was intended to determine future buying intentions across
various demographic groups and the respondent did not answer any of the
demographic questions, you should delete the response. On the other hand, if the
respondent answered all the demographic questions but omitted their name or email
address, then you should keep the response.

Duplicate responses are a unique issue for electronic surveys. Many tools, such as
eSurveysPro, provide built in features to help minimize the risk of duplicate
responses. Others, like the popular "infotainment" polls featured on many websites do
nothing to eliminate duplicates. Without removing duplicates, your data will be
skewed in favour of the duplicate response. Both the count and percentage of the
whole will be affected by duplicate responses, and computed means and medians will
also be thrown off. To find duplicate responses, carefully examine the answers to any
open-ended questions. When two open-ended questions have the exact same answer, a
duplicate response is likely to exist. Make sure the response is indeed a duplicate by

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comparing the answers to all the other questions, and then delete one of the responses
if a match is found.

Data cleaning of web surveys usually involves categorizing answers to open-ended

questions and multiple-choice questions that include an "other, please specify"
response. Because of their nature, open-ended text response questions can provide
significant value but they are nearly impossible to process without some form of
summarization or tabulation. One of the easiest ways to summarize these questions is
to build a list of themes and select the themes that apply as you read each response.
Tools such as eSurveysPro allow you to add questions after a survey is run to do just
this sort of thing.

A common problem in any survey that needs attention during the editing and cleaning
process is when a respondent answers an "other, please specify" question by selecting
"other" and then writing in an answer that was one of the listed response options.
Without cleaning these answers, the "other" response will be overstated and the
correct response will be understated. For example, a demographics question that asks
for the respondent's role within the organization may have a response like "faculty,
teacher, or student" and a respondent selects "other" and types "professor," you would
want to clean the response by switching the other choice to the one for "faculty,
teacher, or student".

Once the data preparation is complete, it is time to start analysing the data and turning
it into actionable information.

Detailed Analysis

Analysis is the most important aspect of your survey research project. At this point,
you have collected a set of data that must now be turned into actionable information.
The process of analysis can lead to a variety of alternative courses of action. Mistakes
during analysis can lead to costly decisions down the road, so extreme caution and
careful review must be followed throughout the process. Carelessness during analysis
can lead to disaster. What you do during analysis will ultimately determine if your
survey project is a successful or not.

Depending on what type of information you are trying to know about your audience,
you will have to decide what analysis makes sense. It can be as simple as reviewing
the graphs that eSurveysPro automatically creates, or conducting in-depth
comparisons between questions sets to identify trends or relationships. For most
surveyors, a basic analysis using charts, cross tabulations, and filters is sufficient. On
the other hand, more sophisticated users may wish to do a more complex statistical
analysis using high powered analytical tools such as SPSS, Excel, or any number of
number crunching applications. For our purposes in this article, we will focus on basic
analysis techniques.

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Graphical Analysis

Graphical analysis simply means displaying the data in a variety of visual formats that
make it easy to see patterns and identify differences among the results set. There are
many different graphing options available to display data, the most common are Bar,
Pie, and Line charts.

Bar charts use solid bars on an X and Y-axis that extend to meet a specific data value
indicated on the chart and can be shown either vertically or horizontally. These charts
are flexible and are most commonly used to display data from multiple-select, rank
order, single-select matrix and numerical questions. Each response option is shown as
an independent bar on the chart, and the length of the bar represents the frequency the
response was chosen relative to all choices.

Pie charts, or circle graphs, have colourful "slices" representing segments of your
data. These charts measure values as compared to a "whole", and the total percentages
of the segments always add up to 100%. Pie charts are most useful with single-select
questions because the each response is represented visually as a portion of the entire
pie. It is easy to interpret which answer received the most responses in a pie chart by
selecting the largest portion of the pie. When comparing two sets of data using a pie
chart, it is important to make sure the colours used for each response option remain
consistent in each chart. If represent the same response options in each chart, this
way, a side-by-side visual comparison can quickly be made. Pie charts are not
appropriate for multiple-select questions because each respondent can answer choose
more than one option, and the sum of the option percentages will exceed 100%.

There are other graphing options such as line charts, area charts and scatter graphs,
which are useful when displaying the same data over a period of time. However these
formats are not as easy to interpret for casual users, so they should be used sparingly.

Frequency Tables

Frequency tables are another form of basic analysis. These tables show the possible
responses, the total number of respondents for each part, and the percentages of
respondents who selected each answer. Frequency tables are useful when a large
number of response options are available, or the differences between the percentages
of each option are small. In most cases, pie or bar charts are easier to work with than
frequency tables.

Cross Tabulation

Cross tabulations, or cross tabs, are a good way to compare two subgroups of
information. Cross tabs allow you to compare data from two questions to determine if
there is a relationship between them. Like frequency tables, cross tabs appear as a
table of data showing answers to one question as a series of rows and answers to
another question as a series of columns.

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Cross tabs are used most frequently to look at answers to a question among various
demographic groups. The intersections of the various columns and rows, commonly
called cells, are the percentages of people who answered each of the responses. In the
example above, females and males had relatively similar distribution among various
job titles, with the exception of the tile of "Technical Product Manager", where 2.5
times as many males had the title as compared to females. For analysis purposes,
cross tabs are a great way to do comparisons.

Filtering

Filtering is the most under-utilized tool used in analysis. Filters allow you select
specific subsets of data to view. Unlike a cross tab, that compares two questions, a
filter will allow you to examine all questions for a particular subset of the responses.
By viewing only the data from the people who responded negatively, look at how they
answered other questions. Find patterns or trends that help define why a person
answered the way they did. You can even filter on multiple questions and criteria to
do a more detailed search if necessary. For example, if you wanted to know the
buying intentions of men, over the age of 40, with annual income of about K50, 000,
you would set a filter that would remove all those respondents that do not meet your
criteria from the results set, thus enabling you to concentrate on the target population.

By applying filters to the date survey responses were received, you can see how the
answers change from one time frame to the next. For instance, by continually running
a customer satisfaction survey, you can assess changes in customer attitudes over time
by filtering on the date the survey was received. You can also use a filter on date
received to assess the impact of sales incentive programs or new product offerings by
comparing survey responses before and after the change.

Filters do not permanently remove the responses of those people that do not match the
specified criteria; they simply eliminate them from the current view of the data,
making it much easier to perform analysis. By looking at the same question with
different filters applied, differences between the various respondents represented by
the filter can be quickly seen. Because filters remain in effect until cleared, don't
forget to clear them before attempting to analyse your survey responses as a whole,
otherwise your observations will be inaccurate, and your recommendations flawed.

Reporting

After analysing your survey data, it is time to create a report of your findings. The
complexity and detail need to support you conclusions, along with your intended
audience, will dictate the format of your report.

Visual reports, such as an HTML document or Microsoft PowerPoint presentation, are

best suited for simple findings. These graphical reports are best when they are light on
text and heavy on graphs and charts. They are reviewed quickly rather than studied at
length, and most conclusions are obvious, so detailed explanations are seldom

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required. For more complex topics, a detailed report created in Microsoft Word or
Adobe Acrobat is often required. Reports created using Word often include much
more detailed information, report findings that require significant explanation, are
extremely text heavy, and are often studied at great length and in significant detail.

No matter which type of report you use, always remember that information can be
more powerfully displayed in a graphic format verses a text or tabular representation.
Often, trends and patterns are more obvious and recommendations more effective
when presented visually. Ideally, when making comparisons one or more groups of
respondents, it is best to show a chart of each group's responses side-by-side. This
side-by-side comparison allows your audience to quickly see the differences you are
highlighting and will lead to more support for your conclusions.

At the beginning of your report, you should review your survey objective and
sampling method. This will help your audience understand what the survey was about,
and enable you to avoid many questions that are outside of your original objectives.
Your report should have a description of your sampling method, including who was
invited to participate, over what time frame results were collected, and any issues that
might exist relative to your respondent pool. Next, you should include your analysis
and conclusions in adequate detail to meet the needs of your audience. Include a table
or graph for each area of interest and explain why it is noteworthy. After your analysis
section, you should make recommendations that relate back to your survey objectives.
Recommendations can be as simple as conduct further studies to a major shift in
company direction. In either case, your recommendation must be within the scope of
your survey objective and supported by the data collected. Finally, you can include a
copy of your survey questions and a summary of all the data collected as an appendix
to your report.

Handling and analysing qualitative research data

1. Researchers can either take notes during their interviews (transcribing) or

observations, or take a recording
2. Using a tape recorder:
3. The benefits tape recording include:
1. The researcher can concentrate and listen and respond better
2. The discussion flows better when there are no distractions
3. In note taking there is an increased risk of the researcher being more
subjective
4. The entire interview/observation is recorded, which gives a better,
more holistic picture of what is going on
5. The participants may feel less observed if the tape recorded is used
in a a discreet way
6. During analysis, the researcher has the opportunity to go back over
material
4. Transcribing:

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 1. Transcribing the interview involves taking notes of the interview...it
is the full 'script' of the interview and the aim is to take a full written
version of the interview
2. Transcribing an interview is very time consuming, with an estimated
time ratio of 5:1 (i.e. 5 hours of transcribing a one hour interview)
5. Tape analysis can be used, which is a combination on the two and involves
the researcher taking notes from the recording
6. Bias must be considered when taking notes or using tape analysis
7. Good quality transcribing relies on skills beyond just taking notes and there
is often space for subjectivity

Analysing Qualitative Research Data

The analysis of qualitative research involves aiming to uncover and / or understand

the big picture - by using the data to describe the phenomenon and what this means.
Both qualitative and quantitative analysis involves labelling and coding all of the data
in order that similarities and differences can be recognised. Responses from even an
unstructured qualitative interview can be entered into a computer in order for it to be
coded, counted and analysed. The qualitative researcher, however, has no system for
pre-coding, therefore a method of identifying and labelling or coding data needs to be
developed that is bespoke for each research. - which is called content analysis.

Content analysis can be used when qualitative data has been collected through:

1. Interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Observation
4. Documentary analysis

Content analysis is '...a procedure for the categorisation of verbal or behavioural data,
for purposes of classification, summarisation and tabulation.'

The content can be analysed on two levels:

1. Basic level or the manifest level: a descriptive account of the data i.e. this is
what was said, but no comments or theories as to why or how
2. Higher level or latent level of analysis: a more interpretive analysis that is
concerned with the response as well as what may have been inferred or
implied

Content analysis involves coding and classifying data, also referred to as categorising
and indexing and the aim of context analysis is to make sense of the data collected
and to highlight the important messages, features or findings.

The ten steps of content analysis

The ten step of content analysis are:

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1) Copy and read through the transcript - make brief notes in the margin when
interesting or relevant information is found

2) Go through the notes made in the margins and list the different types of
information found

3) Read through the list and categorise each item in a way that offers a description of
what it is about

4) Identify whether or not the categories can be linked any way and list them as major
categories (or themes) and / or minor categories (or themes)

5) Compare and contrast the various major and minor categories

6) If there is more than one transcript, repeat the first five stages again for each
transcript

7) When you have done the above with all of the transcripts, collect all of the
categories or themes and examine each in detail and consider if it fits and its
relevance

8) Once all the transcript data is categorised into minor and major categories/themes,
review in order to ensure that the information is categorised as it should be.

9) Review all of the categories and ascertain whether some categories can be merged
or if some need to them be sub-categorised

10) Return to the original transcripts and ensure that all the information that needs to
be categorised has been so.

The process of content analysis is lengthy and may require the researcher to go over
and over the data to ensure they have done a thorough job of analysis

Presenting Qualitative Research

1. When planning the presentation of qualitative data, consider that the data
are:
1. Subjective
2. Interpretative
3. Descriptive
4. Holistic
5. Copious
2. It may be suggested that the researcher base the structure of the presentation
of the research around the categories or themes that have emerged
3. The themes or categories may be presented as sections with relevant sub-
sections

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 4. Quotes can be used to demonstrate and or inform or support findings, but it
is recommended that the researcher consider the reliability and validity of
each quote
5. Consideration may also be given to whether or not qualitative data can be
represented in a quantitative form (i.e. 6 out of 10 people...)

Handling and analysing Quantitative data

The analysis of research in any project involve summarising the mass of data that has
been collected and the presenting the results in a way that communicates the most
important findings or features

1. The analysis of quantitative research involves the analysis of any of the

following:
1. Frequencies of variables
2. Differences between variables
3. Statistical tests designed to estimate the significance of the results
and the probability that they did not occur by chance
1. All of the above is achieve by counting and comparison

Computerised data analysis

Software packages are available for the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data.
Each packed has different features and the researcher needs to choose carefully. The
aim of all of the packages is to assist in the categorisation and matching process. The
packages can save time, but there is still a great deal of time required to set them up
and input the data and check through the process.

The most well known software packages are listed below, some have links attached
which you may wish to read through for further information:

 SPSS
http://www.spss.com/uk/statistics/?gclid=COqEmJPdw5sCFRISzAodvX4K
dA
 ATLAS/ti
http://www.psychologysoftwaredistribution.com/ATLAS_ti/atlas_ti.html
 NVivo
http://download.qsrinternational.com/Document/NVivo7/NVivo7_Tutorials
_Lyn_Richards.pdf
 NUD*IST http://www.sdgassociates.demon.co.uk/learnnudist.htm
 QUALPRO

Ethnograph

There are also a number of networks available that are accessible via the Internet,
CAQDAS is one of them, available at http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/caqdas

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Ethics in Social Research

Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the
people they study. Professional ethics deals with additional issues such as
collaborative relationships among researchers, mentoring relationships, intellectual
property, fabrication of data, and plagiarism, among others.

Researchers must be mindful of the need to respect their subjects’ rights throughout
the research cycle. Agreed-upon standards for research ethics help ensure that as
researchers we explicitly consider the needs and concerns of the people we study, that
appropriate oversight for the conduct of research takes place, and that a basis for trust
is established between researchers and study participants.

This means, first, that researchers must do their subjects no harm. This is the right to
safety. Second, research subjects must have the right to decide whether their attitudes
and behaviours may be revealed to the public and, if so, in what way. This is the right
to privacy. Third, researchers cannot use data in a way that allows them to be traced to
a particular subject. This is the subject’s right to confidentiality.

Fourth, subjects must be told how the information they supply will be used. They
must also be allowed to judge the degree of personal risk involved in answering
questions so that they can decide whether they may be studied and, if so, in what way.
This is the right to informed consent.

Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research participants

must be our top priority. The research question is always of secondary importance.
This means that if a choice must be made between doing harm to a participant and
doing harm to the research, it is the research that is sacrificed.

Ethical issues arise not only in the treatment of subjects but also in the treatment of
research results. For example, plagiarism is a concern in academic life, especially
among students, who write research papers and submit them to professors for
evaluation. For instance in United States of America, a 2003 study found that 38
percent of American college students admitted to committing “cut and paste”
plagiarism when writing essays, up from just 10 percent in 2000 (Edmundson, 2003).
Ready-made essays are also widely available for purchase.

Increased plagiarism is a consequence of the spread of the World Wide Web (www)
and the growing view that everything on it is public and therefore does not have to be
acknowledged or cited. That view is wrong. The Code of Ethics of the academic
writing states that we must “explicitly identify, credit, and reference the author” when
we make any use of another person’s written work, “whether it is published,
unpublished, or electronically available” (American Sociological Association, 1999:
16). Making such ethical standards better known can help remedy the problem of
plagiarism.

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Powerful web-based applications are now available that can help university
instructors determine whether essays are plagiarized in whole or in part (visit
http://www.turnitin.com). Perhaps the most effective remedy, however, is for lecturers
to ensure that what they teach really matters to their students. If they do, students
won’t be as inclined to plagiarize because they will regard essay writing as a process
of personal discovery. You can’t cut and paste or buy enlightenment (Edmundson,
2003).

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research

1. What type of sampling produces representative samples?

Random sampling techniques, in particular, equal probability selection methods
produce representative samples.

2. What is a representative sample, and when is it important to obtain a

representative sample?
A representative sample is a sample that resembles the total population. It is important
to use a sampling method that produces representative samples when your goal is to
understand the characteristics of a population based on study of a sample (i.e., when
you want to directly generalize from your sample to your population).

3. What is the difference between a statistic and a parameter?

A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample. A parameter is a numerical
characteristic of a population.

4. What is a sampling frame?

It’s the list of all the elements or all the people in a population.

Some additional examples of sampling frames are phone books, college student
directories, directories of members of an association, a list of all the teachers in your
county, etc. Note that some sampling frames are better than others; for example, the
phone book excludes many people (that’s why a special technique called random digit
dialling is used to obtain telephone samples rather than relying on the phone book).

5. How do you select a simple random sample?

There are several ways: the hat model, a computer random number generator, and a
table of random numbers. In the lecture and at the end of the chapter (under Relevant
Internet Sites) there are links to random number generators that you can use. In the
book chapter, we relied on the table of random numbers (provided in Figure 9.1).

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6. What do all of the “equal probability selection methods” (i.e., EPSEM)
have in common?
Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected into the sample
in each of these selection methods. By the way, note that simple random sampling is
not the only equal probability sampling method.

7. What are the three steps for selecting a systematic sample?

First, determine the sampling interval; second, select a random starting point between
one and k; third, select every kth element (including and starting with the element
selected in step two). Note that our definition of systematic sampling includes these
steps in it.

8. How do you select a stratified sample?

First divide your sampling frame into subpopulations based on one or more
stratification variable. Then you take random samples from each of these
subpopulations.
 The sample sizes from the subpopulations will depend on whether you are
using proportional stratified sampling or disproportional sampling.

9. What is the difference between “proportional” and “disproportional”

stratified sampling?
In both types, the sampling frame is first divided into subpopulations.
 In proportional stratified, the sample proportions are made to be the same as
the population proportions on the stratification variable(s).
 In disproportional stratified sampling, the sample proportions are made to be
different from the proportions on the stratification variable(s).
 For example if gender is your stratification variable and the population is
composed of 75% females and you want a sample of 100 people, then you
would randomly select 75 females and 25 males. In disproportional stratified
sampling you might instead select 50 males and 50 females from this same
population. In the first case the percentages are proportional; in the second
case they are not proportional.

10. When might a researcher want to use cluster sampling?

When the population is widely dispersed and you must visit all the people selected to
be in your sample (e.g., for in-person interviews).

11. Are convenience samples used very often by experimental researchers?

Yes, believe it or not, they are used most of the time in experimental research, even in
strong experimental research! This, by the way, is not a problem if the experiment has
random assignment and is replicated in different places at different times with
different people.

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  Remember that the primary purpose of an experiment is make statements
about cause and effect. Making statistical generalizations to populations is of
secondary importance for individual experimental studies.
 In Chapter 10, this difference will be discussed under the terms internal
validity (making valid causal statements) and external validity (making valid
generalizations). The bottom line will be that random assignment is very
important for internal validity and random selection is very important for
external validity.

12. If your goal is to generalize from a sample to a population, then which is

more important: random selection or random assignment?
Random selection is more important in this case because you need a representative
sample in order to generalize from that specific sample to the population. Note that
random selection and random assignment have different purposes:
 random selection is used to obtain a sample that resembles the population (i.e.,
to obtain a representative sample).
 random assignment is used to create groups that are similar to one another.

(Side note: random assignment is very important in experimental research because it

makes your comparison groups equivalent on all characteristics; then the researcher
gives one group and not the other and checks to see if the groups become different.)

13. If your population size is 250,000, then how many participants will you
need, at a minimum, for your research study?

You would need 384 people according to the figure.

14. Sampling in qualitative research is similar to which type of sampling in

quantitative research?
It is similar to purposive sampling. Here is a list of the different types:
 Maximum variation sampling (purposively selecting a wide range of cases)
 Homogeneous sample selection (selecting a small and homogeneous case or
set of cases for intensive study)
 Extreme-case sampling (identifying the extremes or poles of some
characteristic and then selecting cases representing these extremes for
examination)
 Typical-case sampling (selecting what are believed to be average cases)
 Critical-case sampling (selecting what are believed to be particularly
important cases)
 Negative-case sampling (selecting cases that disconfirm the researcher’s
expectations and generalizations)
 Opportunistic sampling (selecting cases when the opportunity arises)

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  Mixed purposeful sampling (mixing of more than one of the above sampling
strategies).

GUIDELINES OF HOW TO USE STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL

SCIENCES (SPSS)

GET IN TOUCH WITH MR. E. MACHACHA

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SOCIOLOGY DIVISION

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