The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FLUID FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER

CHARACTERISTICS IN DIMPLED JACKETS

A Thesis in

Mechanical Engineering

by

Mohand Mohamed

© 2020 Mohand Mohamed

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements
for the Degree of

Master of Science

May 2020
 ii
The thesis of Mohand Mohamed was reviewed and approved* by the following:

Anilchandra Attaluri
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Thesis Advisor

Brian Maicke
Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Issam Abu-Mahfouz
Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Richard Christopher Ciocci

Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Professor-in -Charge
 iii
ABSTRACT

Controlling the process product temperature inside mixing and bioreactor vessels

characteristics in a specific range is a critical goal which is all biopharmaceutical manufacturers

are seeking to accomplish. Heat exchanger jackets provide a milestone solution for this mystery by

offering the required amount of heat using a separate working fluid. In order to improve the thermo-

hydraulic performance of these jackets, surface modifications to the heat transfer area are required

with no additional materials. The proposed resolution employs dimples on the jacket surface.

Currently, dimples are a promising technique of enhancing heat transfer without a significant drop

in the pressure. Consequently, this would save the operating cost, achieve efficient thermal

performance, and provide strong structural joints between the jacket and vessel. Generally, there

are two types of dimples that are used in thermo-hydraulic devices; welded dimples and shaped

dimples. The welded dimples are applied in large scale applications such as heat exchanger jackets,

however, the shaped dimples are applied with pipe flow applications.

This research focuses on numerically investigating fluid flow characteristics and heat

transfer performance of conical welded dimples using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Two

arrangements of welded dimples on the jacket surface; staggered and inline configurations are

considered in order to recommend the efficient arrangement for further study. A glycol-water

mixture is implemented as the working fluid with Reynolds numbers ranging from 2000 to 35000

and an inlet temperature range of 268 to 323K. Additionally, insulated boundary conditions are

applied on the external dimple jacket walls, and convective heat transfer boundary conditions are

applied on internal walls.

The inline arrangement provides efficient heat performance, lower pressure drop, and high

energy transfer quality by generating smaller amount of entropy at the outlet compared to the

staggered arrangement. In order to broaden the investigation to cover the operation under both
 iv
cooling and heating processes using the inline arrangement, the inlet temperature is changed from

268K to 323K. Nusselt number, friction factor, velocity distribution, heat flux, and temperature

distribution are analyzed numerically and the results are shown quantitatively and qualitatively.
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... x

Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

Heat transfer enhancement ............................................................................................... 2

Classification of augmentation techniques ............................................................... 3
Active techniques ............................................................................................. 3
Passive techniques ............................................................................................ 4
Heat transfer jackets ......................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review ........................................................................ 9

Literature Review ............................................................................................................. 9

Chapter 3 Geometrical and Numerical Models....................................................................... 19

Geometry setup ................................................................................................................ 20

Numerical Model ............................................................................................................. 22
Thermo-fluid modeling ............................................................................................ 22
Turbulence modelling .............................................................................................. 23
Dimensionless Numbers........................................................................................... 29
Thermo-hydrodynamic fully developed flow........................................................... 30
Flow development and boundary conditions............................................................ 31
Thermo-hydraulic Entrance Region ......................................................................... 33
Entrance length calculations..................................................................................... 33

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................... 39

Thermo-Hydraulic Performance ...................................................................................... 39

Friction factor ........................................................................................................... 39
Nusselt number......................................................................................................... 40
Vorticity generation.................................................................................................. 42
Heat Transfer Analysis..................................................................................................... 45
Internal wall temperature distribution ...................................................................... 45
Parallel planes temperature distribution ................................................................... 46
Average temperature at the outlet of inline arranged channel .................................. 47
Fluid Flow Analysis ......................................................................................................... 48
Velocity distribution and flow recirculation ............................................................ 48
Pressure distribution ................................................................................................. 50

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Future Work ................................................................................ 52

 vi
Appendix Fully Developed Inlet Velocity ............................................................................. 54

References ................................................................................................................................ 55
 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Different active methods of heat transfer augmentation.. ..................................... 4

Figure 1-2: Different passive methods of heat transfer augmentation.. ................................... 5

Figure 1-3: A tank shielded by dimpled jacket (a) and dimpled sheet (b).. ............................. 6

Figure 2-1: Sketch of different dimples; spherical (a), elliptical (b), and teardrop (c) ............ 16

Figure 2-2: Sample of punched and laser welded dimples ...................................................... 18

Figure 3-1: 3D tank with dimple jacket with inline and staggered arrangements.................... 20

Figure 3-2: Comparison of inline and staggered arrangements of welded dimple channel. .... 21

Figure 3-3: Sketch of dimpled jacket and tank layers (a) with thermal resistance network
(b). .................................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3-4: Sketch of dimpled jacket with staggered arrangement (a) and inline
arrangement (b). ............................................................................................................... 28

Figure 3-5: Fully developed velocity profiles (a) at different locations on the channel (b). ... 32

Figure 3-6: Fully developed temperature profiles (a) at different locations on the channel
(b). .................................................................................................................................... 32

Figure 3-7: 3D computational domain and boundary conditions setup... ................................ 35

Figure 3-8: 3D meshed geometry of welded dimples. ............................................................. 37

Figure 4-1: Friction factor variation with Reynolds number for inline and staggered
arrangements .................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 4-2: Nusselt number variation with Reynolds number for inline and staggered
arrangements .................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 4-3: Vorticity distribution at Re =35000 in the mid plane of inline arrangement ........ 42

Figure 4-4: Vorticity distribution at Re =35000 in the mid plane of staggered arrangement .. 43

Figure 4-5: Local average of vorticity generation at different Re at the outlets of inline
and staggered patterns of dimples. ................................................................................... 44

Figure 4-6: Contour of the temperature distribution on the internal wall and dimples for
inline and staggered arrangements at Re=35000 and inlet temperature =323K............... 45
 viii
Figure 4-7: Contour of the temperature distribution on different planes perpendicular to
the flow direction for inline and staggered arrangements at Re=35000 and inlet
temperature = 323K. ........................................................................................................ 46

Figure 4-8: Average of temperature variation with Re at the exit of the channel with the
inline arrangement............................................................................................................ 47

Figure 4-9: Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines at the mid-plane for the
inline arrangement............................................................................................................ 49

Figure 4-10: Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines at the mid-plane for the
staggered arrangement ..................................................................................................... 49

Figure 4-11: 3D Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines in the channel for
inline and staggered arrangement..................................................................................... 50

Figure 4-12: Contour of pressure distribution in the flow channel for inline and staggered
arrangement...................................................................................................................... 51
 ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Heat transfer surfaces; selection criteria and applications...................................... 8

Table 2-1: Summary of geometric, operational, and performance parameters of dimpled

surfaces............................................................................................................................. 17

Table 3-1: The calculations of entrance lengths for 3x3 dimple configurations at different
Reynolds numbers ............................................................................................................ 34

Table 3-2: Physical and thermohydraulic boundary conditions ............................................... 36

Table 3-3: Numerical simulations given parameters ............................................................... 36

Table 3-4: The calculations of computational time and operational parameters for mech
independent study ............................................................................................................ 38
 x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere and deepest gratitude towards my advisor Dr. Anil,

and the committee members Dr. Brian Maicke and Issam Abu Mahfouz whom knowledge and

expertise of Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer helped me in improving my

academic knowledge and problem-solving skills tremendously. They have been very supportive

from the beginning of this thesis and their leadership and experience helped me a lot in achieving

the deliverables of this project. They have been a great inspiration for me, and their guidance has

been vital to the successful completion of this thesis. I would like to thank Mr. Stephan Kaiser

from Thermo Fisher Scientific, whose valuable inputs and feedback about my work helped me in

preparing the CFD software and mesh generation to meet the numerical simulation requirements.

Finally, I would like to thank the most important people in my life- my parents, brothers,

and sisters who have supported me unconditionally in my all ventures in life. I want to extend my

gratitude to my soulmate Elaf who supports me unconditionally and made my difficulties in this

academic and working environment a very smooth and memorable one, and without her love and

encouragement none of this would have been possible.

 Chapter 1

Introduction

Dimpled jackets are applied in many industrial applications, such as oil preheaters,

chemical process engineering, and pharmaceutical solutions vessels, etc. To enhance the technical

efficiency and economic effectiveness of a thermal system, numerous heat transfer boosting

techniques such as fins and ribs have been widely adopted in heat transfer fields in the last

decades. Nowadays, heat transfer augmentation has expanded significantly in many areas such as

micro-electronic cooling, airfoil of gas turbine blades, bio processing devices, thermal processes

in the evaporators, gas and steam power plants, refrigerators, HVAC equipment’s, radiators for

vehicles and automobiles, etc. A significant amount of time and energy have been dedicated to

developing new methods in order enhance heat transfer rate from the working fluid which can be

considered as a heat carrier through a surface to counter-part fluids. Turbulators, fins, protrusions,

and dimples have been utilized in thermal systems for the previously mentioned objective. In

field of biomedical and pharmaceutical industries, due to the demand for high quality and

homogenous solutions, the awareness of controlling solution temperature has increased.

Furthermore, the maximum and minimum temperatures of a solution are considered to be the

most important operating elements that control reliability and products quality of both mixers and

bioreactors.

Thermal and fluid flow management has always been one of the core matters in the bio-

medical and pharmaceutical industries, and its standing will continue growing in the next

decades. Heat transfer enhancement methods such as fins, twisted tapes, struts, coiled wires,

protrusions, and dimples, etc. are considered common applications for improving thermal and

fluid flow management in the jacketed vessels. Thermal performance of any heat exchanger can
 2
be evaluated by several factors such as: type of surface material, surface area, uniformity of

contact surfaces, arrangement, and pumping conditions. Heat transfer jackets are widely used in

industrial and engineering applications and it is highly recommended for its efficient thermal

energy conversion process[1][2]. The procedure of designing the heat transfer jackets generally is

quite complicated, as it needs more detailed analysis of the performance parameters such as heat

transfer rate, effectiveness, and pressure drop. This procedure can be considered as a part of the

technical and economic study of the whole thermal system[3][4]. Whichever boosting

mechanisms are applied to enhance the rate of heat transfer as well as reducing the pressure drop

which increases the pumping cost. Therefore, any thermal boosting systems or mechanisms

utilized on the heat exchangers need to be analyzed and then optimized in order to perform

thermal and economic gains[5].

Heat transfer enhancement

Generally, the main purpose of augmenting the heat transfer in a thermal system is to

save the fuel power and increase the thermal effect at lower pressure drop, and ultimately reduce

the greenhouse gas emissions and save the environment. This goal can be achieved by applying

some type of inserts in the flow path with the aim of increasing the flow mixing, then boost the

rate of heat transfer, however, these inserts restrict the flow path i.e. reduce the hydraulic

diameter, consequently, increase the pressure drop. In tubing systems, heat transfer augmentation

can be achieved with wire coils, twisted tapes, dimples, ribs, and protrusions. The three

phenomena that can occur are the flow obstacle, flow separation, and secondary flow. Truly, a

flow obstacle raises the pressure drop and ultimately leads to increased viscous and turbulence

effects.
 3
A flow obstacle also increases the fluid velocity, and, in some cases, such as flow around

welded dimples, that can lead to a considerable secondary flow. Basically, secondary flow

delivers a good quality of thermal contact between a fluid and the surface, because it generates

eddies and vortices, which results in fluid mixing and improves the temperature difference, which

causes a high heat transfer coefficient. In summary, heat transfer can be boosted by one of these

methods: (1) decreasing the boundary layer thickness, (2) increasing the turbulence intensity in

the fluid, and (3) encouraging the mixing effect inside the fluid.

Classification of augmentation techniques

In general, mechanisms of boosting heat transfer rate in thermal systems can be categorized

into three broad classifications:

• Active,

• Passive,

• Compound.

The active and passive techniques are illustrated with cases in the subsequent sections.

However, compound techniques are hybrid techniques in which both active and passive

techniques are applied in combination. The compound techniques consist of complicated designs

and consequently it has limited applications.

Active techniques

This technique requires power from external sources as an input for enhancing thermal

performance and the design using this method is not more complicated compared to other designs.

Additionally, connection to external sources of power is difficult to offer in many applications.

 4
Figure 1-1 provides examples of active techniques that include reciprocating motions of

cam and piston which generates pulsation, and applying of a magnetic field to interrupt the fluid

particles in the flow path and increase particles collision and then enhance the heat transfer[6].

Electro
hydro-
dynamics
Jets
Injection
(Single
and
and multi
suction
steady)

Active
techniques
Fluid
Spray
vibration

Surface Mechanial
vibration aids

Figure 1-1: Different active methods of heat transfer augmentation.

Passive techniques

These techniques do not require power from external sources like the active techniques,

however additional power is still needed to enhance the rate of heat transfer. This accomplished by

the local available sources that are part of the system such as turbulators, which eventually produce

high pressure loss and increase the pumping power. Nowadays, the industry of heat exchangers

generally has been struggling for long time to develop an efficient thermal contact i.e. enhanced

heat transfer coefficient between fluids and heat transfer surfaces and then less pumping power

requirements, which ultimately leads to improve the effectiveness and thermo-hydraulic efficiency

of heat exchangers technically and economically. The design of a heat exchanger can be described
 5
as good if it offers compact geometry and efficient thermo-hydraulic and thermodynamic

performances i.e. stable structure, high heat transfer rate, low pressure loss, and less entropy

generation or low exergy (work destruction) in the whole thermal system. Researchers concluded

that entropy generation is unavoidable and it is almost difficult to stop work destruction or exergy

drop entirely, but this unavoidable phenomena can be reduced through a design that is thermally

efficient and structurally compact [7].

Twisted
Tape
Insert

Wire Coil
Fins
Insert

Passive
techniques Surface
Dimples
coating at
and
the micron
protrusions
scale

Nanoscale
Nanofluids
coating

Figure 1-2: Different passive methods of heat transfer augmentation.

Heat transfer jackets

The jackets are heat transfer surfaces characterized by surrounding the vessels and offers

enough space between the jacket and the vessel for the thermal fluid to flow through it. Dimpled

jackets are made of thin stainless-steel sheet, the method of creating the dimples is called punch

and plug welding using laser technology. The dimples patterns on the jacket sheet metal are either

inline, staggered, or combination. The two main purposes of dimples are to mechanically enhance
 6
the structural stability of the jacket sheet metal attached to the vessel and create fluid mixing by

interrupting the thermo-hydraulic boundary layer to improve the performance of heating or cooling

of working fluid in the jacket.

Dimpled jackets can be manufactured to work at different pressures and dimples are

arranged at patterns validated and proof tested per ASME regulations. Selection factors of dimpled

jackets include applications of thermal system, operating and fixed costs, working experience,

materials, method of manufacturing, and operating pressure.

(a) (b)

Figure 1-3: A tank shielded by dimpled jacket (a) and dimpled sheet (b) from (Hallway America
company, www.hollowayamerica.com).

Generally, a dimpled jacket heat exchanger offers a large surface area for heating or

cooling processes and up to 1.38MPa working pressure. Dimpled jackets are adaptable, flexible

and can be used to provide cooling and heating thermal energies for wide range of vessels with

different shapes and sizes as shown in Figure 1-3. Dimpled jacket technology is not only limited

to tanks but can also be used in other thermal applications such as boilers and nuclear reactors.

Using dimpled jackets with large vessels is economically more viable and technically more
 7
efficient than conventional jackets. However, on small scale tanks, conventional jackets show

more economic viability compared to dimpled and half pipe jackets. Table 1-1 shows a

comparison between different types of heat transfer surfaces based on selection criteria, operating

pressure, structural characteristics, and applications.

 8

Table 1-1: Heat transfer surfaces; selection criteria and applications.

Heat transfer Criteria Operating Characteristics Applications

surface pressure

Large volume of Require greater Small vessel

working fluid shell thickness design.
0.34 MPa
Conventional and constant and expansion
temperature joints.
gradient

Allows high It is economical, it High

working may not provide temperature
1.72 MPa
Dimpled pressure with drainage. applications
no effects on the such as steam
wall thickness. and hot gasses
Allows high More condensate Wide range of
working may be available working fluids
3.45 MPa
Half-pipe pressure with on surface area like water, oil,
no effects on the and it requires and steam.
wall thickness. more sections

Efficient heat Possibility of Wide range of

transfer spreading working fluids
6.21 MPa
Internal coils advantages. contamination in like water, oil,
the process and steam.
solution
 Chapter 2

Background and Literature Review

Dimple jackets are applied in many industrial applications, such as oil preheaters,

chemical process engineering, and pharmaceutical solutions vessels. In order to improve the

technical and economic efficiency of any thermal system, many boosting techniques of heat

transfer are widely available and easy to use like fins, ribs, have widely adopted in heat transfer

fields in last decades.

Literature Review

Previously, most of the research studies have demonstrated that dimpled surfaces can

handle smoothly heat transfer process with moderately less pressure drop compared to other

boosting techniques of heat transfer. Afanasyev et al. [8] experimentally investigated thermal and

hydrodynamics characteristics of a dimpled plate prepared with staggered arrangement of the

dimple at higher Reynolds number. The results reported that the overall heat transfer

improvement is about 30–40% with slight pressure loss.

Chyu et al. [9], [10] presented an innovative type of dimple called teardrop dimple

which is mainly aimed to thermally and hydrodynamically augment the performance of

rectangular cooling channels. The research focuses on a comparison between two types of

dimples; teardrop and hemispherical dimples at Re = 10,000–50,000. The results reported that

teardrop dimples are thermally more efficient than hemispherical dimples. Furthermore, overall

heat transfer enhancement of teardrop and hemispherical dimples is about 2.5 compared with the
 10
smooth surface. Additionally, the combination of teardrop and hemispherical dimples offers

remarkably low hydrodynamic drawbacks.

Acharya and Zhou [11] studied experimentally and computationally heat transfer, mass

transfer, and fluid flow in a square internal passage having a wall constructed with different types

of dimples such as square shape, triangular shape, circular shape, and teardrop shape at Reynolds

number of 21000. The result shows the teardrop dimple gives the highest thermal performance

and lower flow losses among the four other dimple shapes that have been studied.

Vicente et al. [12] experimentally studied thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of

fluid flow on a circular channel with helically-organized elliptical dimples at 2000< Re< 100,000

and at various depths and pitches of the dimple set for cooling process. In this study, it is reported

that the dimple depth has more effect on heat transfer rate as well as pressure drop than the

dimple pitch; Nusselt number and pressure drop surge with the dimple depth, however, the

dimple pitches have no effect on Nu and pressure drop.

Chen et al. [13] Conducted numerical investigation using detached eddies simulation

(DES) model to compare the heat transfer and hydrodynamic performance over two surfaces

furnished separately with symmetric and asymmetric dimples. The results indicated that the

asymmetric dimples that has center skewed towards the rear zone have more practical structure

and enhance heat transfer more efficiently compared to the symmetric dimples, because of the

strong flow mixing, weak flow recirculation regions, and it generates intense vortices and eddies.

Usachev et al. [14] along with Turnow et al. [15] computationally investigated the vortex

generation mechanism and thermal features of fluid through a micro-channel prepared with

hemispherical/oval dimples using large eddies simulation (LES) and unsteady Reynolds averaged

Navier Stokes (URANS) methods for laminar flow with Re of 100 to 2500 and turbulent flow at

Re ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 respectively. The result shown that the oscillation and coherent

vortices with low frequency occur entirely inside the internal zone of the dimples. Additionally,
 11
the thermal and hydrodynamic performance of the oval dimpled channel is higher than the

hemispherical dimpled channel; the oval dimples demonstrates 10% heat transfer improvement

more than hemispherical dimple.

Kim et al. [16] performed a numerical analysis to examine the general features of heat

transfer and fluid flow for a cooling channel with dimpled and protrusion-in-dimple surfaces at a

Reynolds number of 2800. The results shown that the overall thermo-hydrodynamic performance

of the innovative surface is higher than the conventional dimpled surface.

Doo et al. [17] performed a direct numerical analysis to discuss the improvement of the

plate heat exchanger compactness by applying a recently constructed surface with Riblet-

mounted dimples at Re of 2800 and Pr of 0.71 and using air as working fluid. It is reported that

the case of Riblet-mounted dimple with 60° offered higher performance thermally and

aerodynamically based on goodness factor of volume in comparison to the traditional case.

Samad et al. [18] conducted an optimization study on a rectangular channel with smooth

and rough walls; the roughed wall is prepared by staggered arrays of dimples using Reynolds

averaged Navier stokes (RANS) method and sampling of Latin hypercube. The results indicated

that the optimum design happens at lower channel height, wide spacing of dimple and higher

dimple depth. In another study, Kim et al. [19] also utilized RANS method and sampling of Latin

hypercube to optimize an oval dimpled channel designed with staggered arrangement for cooling

purposes. The thermal performance parameters of cooling such as Nu ratio and friction factor

ratio were selected to represent the heat transfer rate as well as the pressure loss respectively. The

calculations presented that the structure with longer span diameter has Nu ratio raises by 32.8%

and friction factor ratio rises also by approximately 12%. However, the structure with extended

streamwise diameter has Nu ratio drops by 54.5% and friction factor declines also by 34.6%.

Xie et al. [20] numerically studied the performance and features of fluid flow and heat

transfer rate in rectangular channels designed with teardrop and hemispherical dimpled/protruded
 12
walls; and also performed a parametric study to point out the effect of eccentricities and Reynolds

number using the realizable turbulence κ–ε model and walls are treated with the enhanced wall

function at Re number of 3000 to 9000. The results shown that Nu ratio decreases uninterestingly

as Re increases for teardrop protrusions and dimples. However, Nu ratio increases when

eccentricity-diameter ratio expands from −0.4 to 0.4. Additionally, friction factor ratio decreases

as Re and eccentricity-diameter ratio increases. Focusing only on teardrop dimples, it is also

found that Nu ratio decreases marginally when eccentricity-diameter ratio changes from 0 to 0.1

on other side, and it improves slightly when eccentricity-diameter ratio is larger than 0.1.

Generally, it is obvious that the thermal performance declines slowly with the increasing of Re at

constant eccentricity for the two cases.

Mahmood and Ligrani [21] experimentally studied and investigated the structural

characteristics and features of fluid flow through a channel with dimpled and smooth surfaces at

different values of channel height to dimple diameter ratio (H/D) that varies 25%, 50%, and

100% at ReH of 600 to 11,000. The results reported that the vortex pairs shed periodically and

continuously from the dimpled space. Moreover, the zones with the maximum Nusselt number

are the dimple edges and the flat zone behind the dimple. The local Nu ratio increases as H/D

decreases and inlet to wall temperatures ratio (Toi/Tw) decreases. It is concluded that the region

with low heat transfer happens to be at the upstream half of the dimples and the rear zone edge of

the dimple shows the higher heat transfer rates. Additionally, the primary and secondary vortex

pairs flow starts from the dimple central part and the dimple edges in the spanwise direction,

respectively.

Vorayos et al. [22] performed experimental investigation of heat transfer behavior of 14

dimpled surfaces with staggered and inline arrangements. Furthermore, the effect of dimple pitch

was also studied. The results expressed that for both the staggered and inline arrangements,
 13
Nusselt number for surfaces with dimples is about 26% and 25% higher than dimples-free

surface, respectively.

Ligrani et al. [23] analyzed experimentally the flow structural characteristics in a

dimpled channel and also performed a parametric study to understand the effect of channel height

to dimple diameter ratio which is ranging 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00 on the vortex size and intensity at

Re ranging from 600 to 11 000. The presented results shown that the pair of major vortices are

regularly and continuously start shedding from the center of each dimple, including a large

upstream zone followed by inflow of fluid bulk into the dimple. Additionally, it is found that the

intensity of major and minor vortex pairs increases by decreasing the ratio of height to diameter

of the dimple significantly.

Ligrani et al. [24] performed experimental works to examine rate of heat transfer and

flow parameters and characteristics for a channel with dimpled surfaces at Reynolds numbers of

3,700 to 20,000, as well as the effects of inlet turbulence intensity level (ITIL) of 3% to 11%.

From the results, it is revealed that for a dimple, the downstream zone, edges on spanwise

direction, and downstream zone are the areas where the maximum local Nusselt number occurs.

Furthermore, ITIL slightly affects the local and spatially averaged Nu ratios, and significantly

increases the friction factor ratios.

Burgess and Ligrani [25] studied experimentally the effect of geometrical parameters

such as the dimple depth to diameter ratio (that varies between 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3) on the Nusselt

number and friction factor for a rectangular channel with dimpled surfaces at height based

Reynolds numbers ranging from 9940 to 74,800. The results reported the effect of dimple depth

on heat transfer rate and fluid flow parameters such as Nusselt number and the friction factor.

These are accredited to:

(i) Increases the vortices intensity and the related secondary flows generated by the

dimples.
 14
(ii) Increases the amounts of 3D turbulence generation and transport.

The impacts of these two cases obviously shown as the local distributions of Nu ratio

which is estimated within and downstream edges of the dimples. Another efficient and useful heat

transfer surfaces, in terms of fluid flow and heat transfer regulation, are the dimpled jacket heat

exchangers, due to perfect construction and high thermal efficiency. Additionally, dimple jacket

heat exchangers can also be applicable for immersion coil application for heating and cooling

purposes, by direct contact with fluids.

A flexible construction and design make dimple jackets as heat exchanger, a perfect option

for many energy, thermal regulation, production processes industries, such as pharmaceutical

industry, paintings plants, food and dairy, textile industry, falling film coolers, chemical industry,

, and data center cooling. As previously stated, applications can vary from thermoregulation of

fluids in tanks using temperature control to cooling and heating in HVAC applications, free cooling

using low external air temperature, and heat recovery. Furthermore, one of the applications of

dimpled jacket is the laser-welded dimple jacket integrated into process tank where the large dimple

jacketed surface ensures safe process control by controlling temperature to mostly be homogeneous

and uniform. As result, the dimple jacket design as tank cooling jacket allows the temperature

control of products during other process steps. This saves a separate thermal process stage and often

increases productivity and product quality. Manufactured tanks out of laser-welded dimple jackets

have also less weight, because of less stainless-steel material. Tanks can be manufactured cheaper

by even higher product quality.

Shaped dimples used with tubing:

Generally, there are three shapes of dimples that are applied to the tubing thermal system

such as spherical, elliptical, and teardrop dimples. These shapes have been widely studied

numerically and experimentally by many researchers to investigate and visualize the characteristics

of fluid flow and heat transfer rate, it is presented that the recirculation flow induced by these
 15
dimples varies meaningfully in terms of strength and extension depends on the dimple outer shape,

and the zones of flow recirculation are primary source that causes the dominant vortex to occurs

and shades periodically and continuously from each dimple.

Spherical dimple

Generally, in the spherical dimpled tube, most of fluid near to tube center moves alongside

in the direction of fluid flow. However, some of the fluid that is left in the frontal region of spherical

dimple, will immediately impinge onto the upwind dimple surface, then coverts the fluid kinetic

energy into pressure energy, which will later boost the boundary layer to break down. Then, the

flow separation occurs locally on or before the upwind surface based on either the flow is laminar

or turbulent. Along with that the rest of the fluid flows around the curved surfaces of the dimple.

Subsequently, the separated fluid flows to zone downstream of the dimple where the pressure is

very low. Ultimately, that generates vortices with different structures and sizes at the dimple

downstream zone, like a three-dimensional structure vortex. Additionally, the spherical dimples

enhance heat transfer performance through the recirculation flows generated on both surfaces;

windward surface and leeward surface of spherical dimple, and this will enhance the kinetic

turbulent energy and then the heat transfer.

Elliptical dimples

For tubes with elliptical dimples, when the fluid flows around elliptical profile of the

dimples, it generates a pair of counter-rotating vortex at the tail zone of the elliptical dimples. Still,

the intensity and size of vortices are significantly less in comparison to the ones generated by the

spherical dimples. This sensation is credited to the smooth curving of the elliptical dimple that gets

smaller along the flow direction compared with spherical dimple, which reduce the separation

effect and then peacefully force the flow to easily run into the rear zone of the dimple dome.
 16
Teardrop dimples

Another type of dimples called a teardrop dimple has been studied by many researchers to

improve the flow mixing and reduce the pressure drop. This type is different from the other two

(spherical and elliptical dimples), the 3D vortex structure generated by teardrop dimple occurs at a

very small and narrow zone downstream of the dimple, so when the fluid flows over the dimple

surface very smoothly and once it leaves the teardrop surface, it recovers quickly at the leeward

surface. In this type of dimples, the vortex structure looks very small compared with elliptical and

spherical dimples, consequently the pressure loss will remarkably decrease and then save the

pumping power. Moreover, research shows that the intensity and size of the vortices generated at

the front zone is higher and bigger respectively, than the downstream vortices, this phenomenon

produced by the streamlined shape of teardrop surface, which creates a smooth and easy motion of

a fluid on the rear zones. Additionally, another advantage of the teardrop dimple, it is enhancing

the flow separation phenomena at frontal area and simultaneously creates the flow reattachment,

these changes can break the boundary layer and then expand the fluid flow mixing, which

eventually enhances the heat transfer rate.

Figure 2-1: Sketch of different dimples; spherical (a), elliptical (b), and teardrop (c)[27].

Currently, the literature lacks a comprehensive information concerning the characteristics

of heat transfer, fluid flow, and thermodynamics of a coolant fluid inside welded dimple channel

during cooling and heating processes in addition to thermal performance parameters behavior

such as Nusselt number. Additionally, it also lacks the comparison of thermo hydraulic efficiency

of staggered and inline welded dimples. Finally, the current work primarily intended to quantify
 17
the characteristics of heat transfer and fluid flow for welded dimple channel with inline and

staggered arrangements operating under steady flow at different operating conditions such as

Reynold numbers and inlet temperatures applied at the inlet and convective heat transfer

coefficients applied on the internal walls.

Most of the work that has been accomplished previously focused on investigating the

geometric, operational, and performance parameters that were used in the literature to identify the

characteristics of fluid flow and heat transfer in dimpled channels and tubes for laminar and

turbulent flows.

Table 2-1: Summary of geometric, operational, and performance parameters of dimpled surfaces.
Geometric parameters Operational parameters Performance parameters

Dimple diameter Inlet temperature Local Nusselt number

Channel width Reynolds Number Nusselt number ratio (ratio of dimpled

Channel height Inlet velocity surface to the smooth one)

Surface shaping density Different working fluids Local friction factor

Dimple depth Friction factor ratio (ratio of dimpled

Stream-wise pitch surface to the smooth one)

Span-wise pitch Thermo-hydraulic performance factor

Dimple arrangements (inline Velocity field

or staggered) Pressure field

Temperature field
 18
In conclusion, there are two types of dimples: shaped dimples and welded dimples. The

shaped dimples are generated by changing the shape of the surface to a specific geometry on that

surface such as spherical, hemispherical, elliptic, teardrop etc. However, the welded dimples are

generated by punching and plugging the jacket layer and the vessel shell together using the laser

plug welding method as shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: Sample of punched and laser welded dimples[28].

 Chapter 3

Geometrical and Numerical Models

Nowadays, vessels with different sizes range from 50L to 5000L are used in

pharmaceutical industry for multi purposes such as mixing, storing, and fermenting process

products. These process products require precise control of temperature during both heating and

cooling processes. The thermal load in the vessel is provided by what is called a jacket using

both conduction and convection heat transfer modes, the jacket is single or multiples sheet metals

formed and divided into channels using specific manufacturing processes to contain the thermal

load handler which should be a selective type of working fluid such as water-glycol mixture, the

working fluid passes through these channels and transfers thermal load to the process product

inside the vessel. Currently, there are different types of jackets in the industrial markets such as

conventional jackets, dimpled jackets, half pipe jackets, and internal coil jackets, some more

information is mentioned before and shown in table 1-1. The dimpled jackets have shown great

mechanical performance and stability through strength offered by the plug and laser welded

dimples onto the external walls of the vessel, there are two configurations of dimples on the

jacket; inline and staggered as shown in Figure 3-1. Additionally, these welded dimples benefit

the vessel with another important advantage, which is enhancing thermal performance by

breaking the boundary layer and create fluid mixing. In this study, the dimpled jacket is

considered as a milestone because it is complicated, require more experimental works and

therefore using numerical simulation as an option for analysis would save time, money, and

provide good results.

 20

3D 250L tank Tank with Tank with dimple

Tank with plain
dimple jacket jacket(staggered)
jacket
(inline)

Figure 3-1: 3D tank with dimple jacket with inline and staggered arrangements.

Geometry model

Dimple geometrical patterns available currently in the market come with a standard 1/2”

hole and 1/4” pillow height. Standard spot spacing include 2” x 2”, 2-1/2” x 2-1/2”, and 3” x 3”

and formed using the laser plug welding. This research focuses on characterize the fluid flow and

heat transfer during both cooling and heating processes for two configurations of dimples; inline

and staggered with 3” x 3” dimension pattern as shown in Figure 3-2, at Re number based on the

channel height which is ranging from 2,000 to 35,000 and inlet temperatures of the coolant is in

the range of 10 to 50 0C.

Figure 3-2: Comparison of inline and staggered arrangements of welded dimple channel.
 22
Numerical Model

The equations that govern fluid flow and heat transfer from one point of high pressure

and temperature to lower one are presented in this chapter. In addition to the basic assumptions

that simplify the conservation equations, the thermal and fluid flow boundary conditions are also

described in this chapter.

Thermo-fluid modeling

Fluid flow and heat transfer of a fluid are governed using a set of conservation laws such

as, energy, momentum, and mass. In a partial differential scope, these equations are called the

Navier-Stokes equations which represent the momentum equation, continuity equation, and

energy equation to help estimate the fluid temperature under convection and conduction heat

transfer modes. In this work, an algebraic entity called tensor is used to represent and formulate

the three Navier-Stokes equations and energy and continuity equations in just one naturally

concise equation each can be listed as below for steady, 3D dimensional flow, laminar and

turbulent, compressible and incompressible flow, and neglected body force.

Continuity equation

𝜕
[𝜌𝑢𝑖 ] = 0 (3.1)
𝜕𝑥𝑖

Momentum equation

𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
(𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 ) = − + (𝜇𝑡 + 𝜇) [ + ] (3.2)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖

Energy equation
 23

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜇 𝜕𝑇
(𝑢𝑖 𝑇) = [( + ) ] (3.3)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑟 𝜕𝑥𝑖

Where ρ is the fluid density, u is flow velocity, T is the fluid temperature, p is fluid flow

pressure, μt is the flow turbulent viscosity or eddy viscosity due to turbulent velocity

fluctuations, Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number which is defined as the ratio between the dynamic

eddy diffusivity and the thermal eddy diffusivity. Pr is the thermal Prandtl number, μ is the

fluid dynamic viscosity.

Turbulence modelling

Turbulence is available in many aspects of human being daily life, it describes the chaotic,
unsteady, violent motion, in fluid mechanics typically turbulence is defined by irregularity, energy
dissipation, quick changing of velocity and pressure, and three dimensional. Physically, these
characteristics seem to be random but mathematically can be governed by a set of (partial
differential equation (PDE) generated from Navier-Stokes equations. Further, a full calculation of
all turbulence properties and effects on fluid flow and heat transfer would require the equations to
be a well-refined in space and time. Commonly, the solutions of most problems would require
computational resources with high memories and processers, that may be beyond what is available.
Currently, there are numerous models available in order to help estimate the turbulence and gain
accurate numerical predictions for complicated geometries using CFD. In this particular case of
analyzing a channel to predict the thermal and hydrodynamic performance of dimpled jacket, as it
has been suggested in many previous studies to use the realizable k-epsilon (k-ε) model because of
the ability to handle the free shear flow and capture the flow features around sharp corners and
turns. The realizable k-ε turbulence model has indicated significant advancements compared to the
standard turbulence k-ε model considering the flow features such as strong curvature, vortex
generation, geometry rotation. Moreover, the realizable k-ε model includes a new-found formula
for estimating the turbulent viscosity. In this model a new equation for estimating the energy
 24
dissipation rate, has been formulated from a transport equation that count for the fluctuation of
vorticity (An Introduction to Turbulence Models).
Turbulence kinetic energy (k) equation

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝑘
(𝜌𝑘𝑢𝑗 ) = [(𝜇 + ) ] + Γ − 𝜌𝜀 (3.4)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗

Specific dissipation rate (ε) equation

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝜀 𝜀2
(𝜌𝜀𝑢𝑗 ) = [(𝜇 + ) ] + 𝐶1 Γ𝜀 − 𝐶2 (3.5)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝜀 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 + √𝜐𝜀

Where г can be expressed as follows

𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑖

Γ = −𝑢
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = [ + ] (3.6)
𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜌 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗

𝜇𝑡 𝑘2
𝐶t1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 [0.43, ], 𝐶t2 = 1.00, 𝜎𝑘 = 1.00 , 𝜎𝜀 = 1.20, 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜌𝐶𝜇
𝜇𝑡 + 5 𝜀
In this study, the numerical simulations were carried out by applying the commercial code
Fluent 19.0, which is written by ANSYS. FVM (finite volume method) is employed for
discretizing the partial differential equation and solve the final algebraic for velocity, temperature,
pressure, and other turbulence factors. Additionally, the SIMPLE algorithm is implemented to
compute the set of velocity and pressure pairing, and in order to handle the convection and diffusion
terms numerically the upwind differencing scheme with second order accuracy is considered and
adopted for the discretization step. Furthermore, the turbulence model applied is realizable k-
ε along with near-wall treatment formula which is enhanced wall function is also employed in this
research in order to handle the open loop in the major equations. The solutions convergence
absolute criteria are set to the residual reduced less than 10−5 for energy equation, momentum
equations, and turbulence equations.
 25
Thermal resistance network

To understand the dimpled jacket-vessel overall heat transfer rate equation, consider the

thermal circuit model shown in Figure 3-3. Scale or fouling deposit layers are also considered and

presented on each side of the wall. Additionally, the conduction and convection heat transfer in

the dimpled jacketed tanks are processes that usually occur in series with each other. In the steady

state, heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the cold fluid by the following processes: convection

to the hot fluid wall, conduction through the wall, and subsequent convection from the wall to the

cold fluid. In many dimpled jackets, a fouling film is formed as a result of accumulation of scale

or rust formation, deposits from the fluid, chemical reaction products between the fluid and the

wall material, and/or biological growth. This undesired fouling film usually has a low thermal

conductivity and can increase the thermal resistance to heat flow from the hot fluid to the cold

fluid. This added thermal resistance on individual fluid sides for heat conduction through the
1
fouling film is taken into account by a fouling factory 𝑟𝑓 = where the subscript f denotes
ℎ𝑓

fouling (or scale) as it shown in Figure 3-3.

 26

Figure 3-3: Sketch of dimpled jacket and tank layers (a) with thermal resistance network (b).

Consider steady, one‐dimensional heat flow through two plane walls in series which are exposed
to convection on internal wall side and isolated from the other side, see Figure 3-2. Under steady
state condition,
At the undimpled regions (detail B):
Rate of heat convection and conduction through the walls= constant.

𝑅𝑜𝐴 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑠,𝑓 + 𝑅𝑤 + 𝑅𝑐,𝑓 + 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑐,𝑖𝑛𝑠 (3.7)

At the dimpled regions (detail B):

Rate of heat convection through the tank wall = rate of heat conduction through the tank
wall = rate of heat conduction through jacket wall = rate of heat conduction through insulation wall
which very small and can be neglected.

𝑅𝑜𝐵 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑠,𝑓 + 𝑅𝑤 (3.8)

 27
Then depending on the local or mean value, we define
1
𝑅𝑠 = vessel solution side convection resistance =
(ℎ𝐴)𝑠
1
𝑅𝑠,𝑓 = vessel solution side fouling resistance =
(ℎ𝑓 𝐴)𝑠
𝑡𝑤
𝑅𝑤 = wall thermal resistance =
𝑘𝑤 𝐴𝑤
1
𝑅𝑐,𝑓 = dimpled jacket fluid side fouling resistance =
(ℎ𝑓 𝐴)𝑐
1
𝑅𝑐 = dimpled jacket fluid side convection resistance =
(ℎ𝐴)𝑐
1
𝑅𝑐,𝑖𝑛𝑠 = dimpled jacket fluid side with insulation convection resistance
(ℎ𝐴)𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑠

In the previous definitions, h is the heat transfer coefficient, hf is referred to as the fouling

coefficient (inverse of fouling factor), Ac represents the net primary undimpled surface area

whereas, As represents the total of the vessel internal surface area. 𝑡𝑤 is the wall plate thickness,

𝐴𝑤 the total wall area of all flat and dimpled walls for heat conduction, 𝑘𝑤 is the thermal

conductivity of the wall material.

Fluid flow and heat transfer areas in dimpled jacket

The fluid flow area in dimpled jacket is defined as a dimensioned space between dimples
in which a fluid can flow through whether in staggered or inline arrangements as shown in Figure
3-4; it helps in calculation of mass flow rate.
The net primary cross section area can be calculated as

2𝑃𝑦 − 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
𝐴𝑐 = (n𝑑 + 1) [ ]𝑡 (3.9)
4
 28
The net primary undimpled surface area can be calculated as

𝜋 2
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑗 − 𝐴𝑑 = wH − n𝑑 𝑑 (3.10)
4 1

Where j is referred to jacket, while d referred to dimple. w and H are the width and height of the

dimpled sheet, respectively, nd is the number of dimples, t is the flow channel thickness, Px and Py

are the dimple pitches in x and y directions respectively, and d1 and d2 are the smaller and larger

diameter of dimple respectively.

Figure 3-4: Sketch of dimpled jacket with staggered arrangement (a) and inline arrangement (b).
 29

Dimensionless Numbers

In this work, the dimensionless parameters that include Reynolds number (Re) that
represents inertial and viscous forces ratio, Nusselt number (Nu) shows convection and conduction
ratio, friction factor (f) denotes pressure drop and kinetic energy ratio, and performance evaluation
criteria (PEC) characterizes thermal to pressure effect ratio. These parameters are defined
mathematically as follow:
Reynolds number (Re)

𝜌𝐷𝑢
Re = (3.11)
𝜇

Friction factor (f)

It is defined as frictional resistance of a fluid flow in a duct or a pipe, and can calculated
from the equation below,

2Δ𝑝 𝐷
f= (3.12)
𝜌𝑢𝑖2 𝐿

Where D represents the equivalent hydraulic diameter at the inlet, the flow pressure difference
through dimpled channel is Δp, L is the domain length.
Nusselt number (Nu)

ℎ𝐷
Nu = (3.13)
𝑘

Convective heat transfer coefficient is specified locally in this research as below:

𝑞
ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = (3.14)
𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 − 𝑇𝑓

where Twall is the channel wall temperature and Tf is the fluid bulk temperature.
 30
The local heat flux is estimated locally as below:

𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘 (3.15)
𝜕𝑛 𝑤

From above n represents the space direction that is normal to the channel wall where heat flows
through it in and out.

Thermo-hydrodynamic fully developed flow

Generally, the flow is called fully developed or formed flow, when the shear stress
generated by the effects of fluid viscosity between the fluid particles and the walls is enough so
that it can create a fully developed velocity and temperature profiles. In this work, the glycol-water
mixture is considered as the working fluid, and as it travels through the straight dimpled channel
along the length, the fluid momentum shows no change in the direction of fluid flow, as well as the
heat transfer, then the flow is called thermally and hydrodynamically fully developed flow.
Additionally, the boundary layer converges at the center line as shown in Figure 3-5. It should also
be noted that there is a delay of the glycol-water mixture at the wall region which is accompanied
by simultaneous acceleration in the central zone to maintain conservation of mass. In CFD field,
some outlet boundary conditions are totally depending on the criteria of thermally and
hydrodynamically fully developed flow such as pressure outlet and outflow.
Mathematically, the fully developed flow could be defined as the flow with the unchanged
temperature and velocity profiles in the fully developed zone, so hydrodynamic and thermal fully
developed profiles for laminar flow is defined as:

𝜕𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕∆𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= 0, =0 (3.16)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 31
Flow development and boundary conditions

In this study, the computational domain is divided into three regions: entrance region,

study region, and fully developed region as shown in Figure 3-2. In the entrance region, the flow

is considered steady and three-dimensional, and the fluid enters a rectangular channel with

Reynolds number ranges of 2000 to 35000. As a result of non-slip condition, it is noticed that the

glycol-water mixture velocity everywhere on the channel surface is zero. The velocity varies in

all three directions of x-, y-, and z-coordinates. The flow velocity profile can completely grow

and continues unaffected after specific distance from the entrance; for turbulent flow, it is around

8 times the channel hydraulic diameter, and larger in laminar flow. The flow in this zone is called

fully developed as shown in Figure 3-5. For study simplification, the fluid flow in a rectangular

channel can be considered as 2D because the velocity changes in the radial y- and z- directions

but not in the axial x-direction, as depicted in Figure 3-5, and the fully developed profiles at the

entrance region outlet is considered as an inlet for the study region.

In study region, the glycol water mixture enters this dimpled zone with fully developed

velocity profile as an inlet boundary condition and then starts to decelerate from its fully

developed velocity to zero at the stagnation point that is attached to the dimple front area. In the

front zone of the dimple, the velocity is zero and the pressure is high and then the flow starts to

accelerate over the dimple surface and due to the pressure gradient and narrow area between the

dimples and top and bottom walls, then the boundary layer will grow due to no-slip condition,

the boundary layer separates at an angle larger than 90 deg from the front stagnation point

depending on the upstream velocity, much further downstream. In fact, all the cases predict

boundary layer separation on the downstream side of the dimple rather than the upstream side. in

the dimple back zone, the velocity is not uniform with peak value at the gap space between the
 32
dimples and the top/bottom walls, and it is lower at the wake region behind the dimples due to the

vortices that generate vacuum pressure in the rear area.

Figure 3-5: Fully developed velocity profiles (a) at different locations on the channel (b).

Figure 3-6: Fully developed temperature profiles (a) at different locations on the channel (b).
 33
Thermo-hydraulic entrance region

When a liquid or gas enters a pipe or a channel with non-isolated walls, velocity and

temperature will often be uniform through the conduit cross-section as presented in Figure 3-5.

Close to the channel or pipe entrance, the fluid bulk can be behave differently into two zones, at

the walls and in the center, in the center of the channel, fluid is not impacted by the wall frictional

roughness, but while the flow moves down the channel, the wall friction effects start to move in

toward the central zone of the channel, until the velocity and temperature profiles across the

channel length become continuously constant. The inlet zone of a fluid channel, where the

velocity and temperature profiles vary unpredictably, is called the entrance region, and the flow

after that entrance zone is called thermal or hydrodynamic fully developed flow. Next, it is

needed to estimate the length of the entrance region for both laminar and turbulent flow.

Entrance length calculations

The hydrodynamic entrance length can be defined as the distance from the entrance of

tubing or channel to the section where the shear stress produced by viscous and frictional effects,

it ranges to roughly around 2% of the value of fully developed flow. In laminar flow, the entrance

length is given approximately as.

𝐿𝑙
= 0.05𝑅𝑒 (3.17)
𝐷ℎ

The intensity of mixing in turbulent flow, during indiscriminate fluctuations usually

minimizes the impacts of molecular diffusion. The entrance length for turbulent flow is

approximately defined as
 34

𝐿𝑡
= 1.359𝑅𝑒 0.25 (3.18)
𝐷ℎ

Dh is the hydraulic diameter for noncircular pipes which can be identified as the ratio

between the flow cross sectional area and moistened perimeter of the channel as follow.

4𝐴
𝐷ℎ = (3.19)
𝑃

Table 3-1: The calculations of entrance lengths for 3x3 dimple configurations at different
Reynolds numbers.

3.0 X 3.0 @ Dh = 0.0122m

Re 2000 4500 11000 15000 25000 35000

Ve (m/s) 0.19 0.43 1.05 1.43 2.39 3.35

Le (m) 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.21 0.23

nh

Boundary conditions

Generally, boundary conditions (BCs) are borders of geometric space that are necessary

for the solution of any physical phenomena that can be represented by differential equations

inside that space. BCs are extremely important as they model a vast majority of phenomena and

applications, from solid mechanics to heat transfer, from fluid mechanics to acoustic diffusion. In

the current study, the outlet of the extended channel of circular bottom dimpled channel, the fully

developed velocity profile is acquired and shown below at different sections along the fluid flow.
 35
The length of the extended channel needed to obtain the fully developed velocity profile is

estimated so that it can cover the total range of Reynolds number of 2000 - 35000. The generated

3D velocity profile at the exit of the dimpled channel is imported into FLUENT and used as the

inlet velocity profile for simulating the fluid flow and heat transfer in the dimpled channel.

Figure 3-7: 3D computational domain and boundary conditions setup.

 36

The full set of physical, hydrodynamic, and thermal boundary conditions and numerical

simulation operating parameters are shown in table 3-2 and table 3-3, respectively.

Table 3-2: Physical and thermohydraulic boundary conditions.

Boundary Fluid flow Heat transfer

Inlet Velocity inlet (3D profile) Uniform temperature
Outlet Gauge pressure outlet (Zero) Heat flux = 0
Internal walls Standard no slip wall on no Convective heat transfer
penetration
External walls Standard no slip wall on no Insulated
penetration

nh

Table 3-3: Numerical simulations given parameters.

Parameter Description
Working fluid water-glycol mixture
Coolant channel thickness (in) 0.25
Coolant channel height (in) 6.00
Welded dimple outer diameter (in) 1.50
Welded dimple inner diameter (in) 0.52
Dimple pitch (in) 3.00
Internal wall thickness (in) 0.01
Reynold number (-) 2000 - 35000
Inlet temperature (K) 268 - 323
Convective heat coefficient (kW/m2.K) 5 – 25
 37
Mesh independent study

In this numerical analysis, the multi-zones meshing is created using the adaptive sizing

function with fine relevance center and smooth transition in Meshing (ANSYS Workbench 19.0),

and the grids around dimples are shown in Figure 3-7 (A) and (B). The hexa mapped grids were

adapted in the fluid mainstream zone and at the vicinity of the tube wall, and more importantly

for creating a boundary layer around the dimples to cover the thermal and hydrodynamics

gradients. As such, enhanced wall functions are employed in realizable k-e turbulence model for

the turbulences and vorticity predictions. For the selection of a proper mesh numbers that could

retain a balance and stability between prediction accuracy and computational efficiency in terms

of time and capacity, the grids system needs repeat repairing and filtering.

Figure 3-8: 3D meshed geometry of welded dimples.

A geometrical sample of dimpled jacket walls has been selected with velocity inlet,

symmetry, outflow, and constant wall temperature boundary conditions as an example for the grid
 38
independence test as shown in as shown in Figure 3-7. Four sets of mesh that cover the coarse

and finest mesh in a range of 0.476M, 0.567M, 0.786M, and 1.68M were chosen to achieve the

mesh independent study. In order to select the optimum grid system in terms of the accuracy and

computational memory; four parameters of Nu, Q, f, and computational time were selected to

evaluate the quantitative differences between the mesh sets. The numerical simulation on

successfully has been completed using ANSYS-Fluent on different type of elements and the

results are depicted in table 3-3. As shown in table 3-3, Nu, Q, and f are changing by 2.61%

,16.42%, and 2.12% from grid size of 0.786M to 1.68M, respectively, so it is clearly noted that

after grids system exceeded 0.786M, the variations in Nu, Q, and f can be negligible with further

increasing of element numbers. Additionally, as shown in table 3-3 as the number of elements

increases, the computational time increases as well due to the lower need to the requirements of

processing. Therefore, in order to save the computer capacity and keep proper accuracy, the grid

system of 0.786M elements is chosen for the study.

Table 3-4: The calculations of computational time and operational parameters for mech
independent study.
Total Heat
Computational
Elements NU# Variation f Variation Transfer Rate Variation
time
(w)
1,680,501 170.82 base case 0.052 base case 698.51 base case 59 min
785,772 175.31 2.63% 0.053 2.15% 584.14 16.37% 28 min
567,192 176.45 3.30% 0.057 9.77% 545.62 21.89% 20 min
463,716 177.44 3.88% 0.061 17.09% 484.43 30.65% 19 min

nh
 Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

Thermo-hydraulic Performance

In order to select the efficient arrangement which provides more heat transfer with low

pressure loss and little noises due to fluid flushing for welded dimples,

Friction factor

Generally, the friction factor represents the contact force between a conduit wall and

working fluid, which leads to increase the shear stress between the fluid layers and ultimately

increasing the pumping power and potentially generates heat due to friction between fluid

particles.

Friction factor depends on fluid properties such as density and viscosity, channel material

properties like roughness, geometrical properties such as diameter and channel length, and finally

flow type; laminar, transition, and turbulent. Figure 4-1 shows the average friction factor

distribution of channels with two different welded dimples arrangements; inline and staggered for

Re number varies between 2000 to 35000 for glycol water mixture. It shows that friction factor is

decreasing for staggered and inline welded dimples arrangements by increasing Reynolds

number, for laminar flow at Re between 2000 and 2300 varies linearly due to the smooth motion

and a smaller amount of shear stress between fluid layers, and slightly decreasing in the transition

zone to balance the hydrodynamic stability between the laminar zone and fully developed

turbulent zone, where the friction factors decreases significantly by increasing Reynolds number
 40
at the earlier stages and then starts to be independently impacted t higher values of Reynolds

number.

0.1
0.09
0.08
Staggered Inline
0.07
0.06
0.05
f

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
500 5500 10500 15500 20500 25500 30500 35500
Re

Figure 4-1: Friction factor variation with Reynolds number for inline and staggered arrangements.

Nusselt number

In the fluid mechanics and heat transfer, Nusselt number is a common dimensionless

number that represents the convective and conductive heat transfer strength between moving fluid

and a contact surface. It basically links the thermal and hydraulic power of heat to technically

participate in the final performance of heat transfer.

Explicitly Nusselt number depends on thermal conductivity; surface materials related

properties, characteristics length; geometry related properties, and convective heat transfer

coefficient; which is combine thermal conditions, flow conditions, fluid properties, and geometry

features. Figure 4-2 shows average Nusselt number variation with Reynold number for both inline
 41
and staggered arrangements of welded dimples. It is shown that Nusselt number increases with

increasing Reynolds number for both arrangements, this due to enhancement that generated by

Reynolds number for both fluids mixing and turbulence and then ultimately boost the heat

transfer performance of the welded dimple jacket. In a comparison between inline and staggered

arrangements of dimples, it is clearly shown that inline arrangement provides efficient thermal

performance than staggered arrangement due to the size and intensity of vortices generated by

inline arranged dimples, which is enhance the turbulence and fluid mixing more than the

staggered arranged dimples.

110

90
Nu

70

50

30 Inline Staggered

10
500 5500 10500 15500 20500 25500 30500 35500
Re

Figure 4-2: Nusselt number variation with Reynolds number for inline and staggered arrangements.
 42
Vorticity generation

Vorticity is an infinitesimal measure of a fluid flow rotation, which mathematically can be

defined as a rate of change of flow velocity with a normal coordinate; that phenomena of normal

variation of the specific velocity component with the perpendicular coordinate leads to change the

fluid particle direction, which is can happen due to frictional contact naturally between the fluid

particles, or by the fluid particle motion over the wall surface or placing obstacles in the flow

direction. This rotational motion creates frequency due to enclosed contour of fluid particles, the

effect of this hydrodynamic phenomena generates noises and thermal energy, which effectively

impact the system performance. Figure 4-3 and 4-4 show the vorticity distribution at the mid-

plane of both inline and staggered arrangements at Re = 35000.

Figure 4-3: Vorticity distribution at Re =35000 in the mid plane of inline arrangement.
 43

Figure 4-4: Vorticity distribution at Re =35000 in the mid plane of staggered arrangement.

Figure 4-5 shows the variation of average vorticity magnitude with Reynolds number for both

inline and staggered arrangements of dimples. As shown for both staggered and inline

arrangements, the vorticity increases linearly at low Reynolds number i.e. for the laminar flow

and transitional regions. However, due to the vortex shedding and high alternatives motion of

flow in the wake region of staggered arrangement, the magnitude of vorticity remains almost

steadily constant, unlike the inline arrangement vorticity which continue to grow linearly due to

the steady pattern of eddies in the wake region.

 44

1600

1400

1200
Vorticity (1/s)

1000

800

600

400
staggered Inline
200

0
500 5500 10500 15500 20500 25500 30500 35500
Re

Figure 4-5: Local average of vorticity generation at different Re at the outlets of inline and
staggered patterns of dimples.
 Heat Transfer Analysis

Internal wall temperature distribution

Figure 4-6 shows the temperature distribution for both inline and staggered patterns on

the internal wall, which is indirectly exposed to convective heat transfer through interface wall

from the tank layer, the red spots are the dimples bottom base that are connected directly to the

tank layer and in fact are empty fluid spots. As shown the high temperature gradient occurs at the

zones next to the dimples due to the flow recirculation and reattachment that take place at this

region. Also, the fluid average temperature increases along the flow direction for both inline and

staggered arrangement. Moreover, the average temperature of the fluid in the inline pattern is

larger compared to the staggered pattern, due to the large size of vortices at the wake regions of

inline welded dimples, which enhances the flow mixing.

Figure 4-6: Contour of the temperature distribution on the internal wall and dimples for inline and
staggered arrangements at Re=35000 and inlet temperature =323K.
 46
Temperature distribution along the flow direction

Figure 4-7 illustrates the temperature variation for the inline and staggered dimple

arrangements on X planes. The welded dimples significantly impact the temperature fields along

and across the flow direction, which led to change and twist the temperature distribution

considerably, particularly on the zones behind the dimples. This drastic change in distribution of

temperature field is more uniform in staggered arrangement than inline one along the flow

direction, therefore, it enhances the cooling and heating effect by improve the mixing of fluid at

these zones.

Inline arrangement Staggered arrangement

Figure 4-7: Contour of the temperature distribution on different planes perpendicular to the flow
direction for inline and staggered arrangements at Re=35000 and inlet temperature = 323K.
 47
Average temperature at the outlet of inline arranged channel

Figure 4-8 depicts the variation of the average local temperature of a working fluid at the

dimpled channel outlet at different values of Re as well as different inlet temperatures in the

inline arrangement, as shown the average fluid temperature at the outlet increases significantly by

increasing inlet temperature, as the result, the fluid gains heat at 268K and 288K, since the

internal wall is more hot than working fluid and that creates the temperature gradient. However,

from 303K to 323K, the fluid loss heat through internal wall, therefore, the average temperature

at the outlet decrease slightly for both inline and staggered arrangement. Finally, with more

investigation, it is found that the inline arrangement is highly efficient in terms of temperature

gradient handling and then heat transfer compared to the staggered arrangement.
Outlet temperature (K)

321.3
314.55 268K
307.8
301.05 288K
294.3
287.55 303K
280.8 313K
274.05
267.3 323K
260.55
2000 4500 11000 15000 25000 35000
Re

Figure 4-8: Average of temperature variation with Re at the exit of the channel with the
inline arrangement.
 48
Fluid Flow Analysis

Velocity distribution and flow recirculation

Figure 4-9 and 4-10 show the velocity magnitude distribution for inline and staggered

arrangements, respectively, on the mid-plane across the channel thickness. The velocity

accelerates around the side surfaces of welded dimple and decreases at the upwind and wake

regions of welded dimple for both inline and staggered arrangements. The periodic variation of

velocity due to vortices generated in the wake region, which excites the flushing flow of fluid

against the channel wall and leaving from the wall, it is shown clearly on the staggered

arrangement more than inline arrangement. With additional review, it is found that the maximum

velocity occurs on the areas in-between welded dimples and between the dimples and channel

walls, however, the minimum velocity happens in the upwind surface of the dimples for the two

arrangements. Furthermore, it is also noticed that due to the pressure generated by continuous

flow of fluid in the wide in-between areas, the size of vortices accumulated behind the dimples is

bulkier and more stretched in the inline arrangement compared to the staggered arrangement.
 49

Figure 4-9: Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines at the mid-plane for the inline
arrangement.

Figure 4-10: Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines at the mid-plane for the staggered
arrangement.
 50
With the aim of evidently understanding fluid flow recirculation, which is initiated and

boosted by welded conical dimples, Fig. 4-11 presents 3D streamlines outlined based on the

velocity magnitude on the midplane for both inline and staggered arrangements. As anticipated,

the circulation flow is just started at the separation point and continuously extended to moderately

cover the downstream zone of the dimples with a pair of vortices. The size of the recirculation

zone for the upfront two dimples is quietly large for inline arrangement compared with the

staggered arrangement, accordingly, the vortex pairs generated are relatively larger as well and

more parallelized, this phenomenon occurs due to the pressure resistance generated from the

central and sideways fluid flow in the inline arrangement.

Figure 4-11: 3D Contour of velocity distribution and flow pathlines in the channel for inline and
staggered arrangements.

Pressure distribution

Figure 4-12 shows the contour of pressure distribution for conical dimple welded on the

vessel external walls in an inline and staggered arrangements. As shown the maximum flow
 51
pressure zone is sparkling on the upwind side of the dimple in both arrangements, precisely, at

what is called stagnation point. In fact, this phenomenon occurs due to the dimples stand and

blocking the flow direction which reduces the flow velocity and consequently increases the flow

pressure according to the law of energy. In the light of maximum pressure tracking, the other

relatively high-pressure zones start after the stagnation point and continue actively declining

along the welded dimples conical surface before the separation point. The sudden variation from

the positive pressure to negative pressure that is essentially happen at the separation point,

enhances vortices creation and growth at dimple downwind zone for both dimple arrangements

(as depicted in Figure 4-8).

Figure 4-12: Contour of pressure distribution in the flow channel for inline and staggered
arrangements.
 Chapter 5

Conclusions and Future Work

In conclusion, heat transfer, fluid flow, and thermodynamics characteristics of dimpled

channel with inline and staggered arrangements with varies inlet temperature and Reynolds

number were studied. A mesh was successfully generated using ANSYS Work Bench and mesh

independent study performed effectively at different size of mesh to conclude with size of that

would save computational time and memory. Inlet and wall boundary conditions were setup to

inlet velocity and convective heat transfer on the internal walls and insulated the rest of the walls

with zero heat flux. The numerical simulations were carried at Reynolds numbers that ranged

from 2000 to 35,000 to encounter for laminar, transition, and turbulent flows, and inlet

temperature ranged from 268K to 323K to cover the heating and cooling processes. The pressure

and velocity distributions for both inline and staggered arrangements of dimples were performed

and visualized at Reynolds number of 35000. The change of inlet temperatures had mixed effects

on the outlet temperature and entropy generation both increase at various inlet conditions for both

inline and staggered arrangements of dimples. The observed changes these parameters with

respect to Reynolds number and inlet temperature for both arrangements could be due to a change

in a heat transfer direction which the system gain or loss heat based on those conditions.

There are still many aspects of heat transfer and fluid flow through different dimple

arrangements that need to be investigated. For this work, it seems that there is a peak in the

generated entropy for both inline and staggered arrangements where the generated entropy of the

inline arrangement of dimples is less than that of staggered arrangement. These changes happen

at different Reynolds numbers for the inline and staggered arrangement at Reynolds number of
 53
35000. It would be beneficial to investigate both arrangements at Reynolds number greater than

35000 to see if there is a peak not just in the generated entropy, but also Nusselt number and

friction factor to see if it occurs at higher values of Reynolds. Where specific peaks in these

performance parameters occur would be beneficial knowledge because that information could be

used to decide operation conditions of a specific process in order to gain the benefits of enhanced

heat transfer and reduce the pressure loss for different dimple arrangements.

Based on the literature identified in this thesis, the heat transfer boosting mechanisms,

which have a significant impact on the heat transfer behavior, fluid flow characteristics, and

entropy generation features are a compound function of many different variables; dependent and

independent including working fluid, channel material, dimple size, dimple pitch, laminar and

turbulent flows, flow environment (pipe flow, channel flow, etc.), heat transfer carrier properties,

boundary conditions and others. Therefore, it is necessary to isolate each parameter in order to

understand its effect on the heat transfer, fluid flow, and thermodynamic performance. With a

better understanding of each individual mode, the effects of all modes could be assembled to

more accurately predict how the orientation and dimples size and dimensions will affect the

Nusselt number, friction factor, vortices, and entropy generation.

Extensive work has been conducted in this field already, but there remains significant

uncertainty as to the effect of dimple angle, diameter, channel thickness, on heat transfer, fluid

flow, and entropy generation for both inline and staggered arrangements of dimples. Efforts in

computational fluid dynamics should be continued and validated with experimental results to

begin to locate the different mechanisms of augmentation of heat transfer and reducing the

pressure drop and energy destruction in dimpled channels.

 Appendix

Velocity profile at the outlet

Case 1: Re=2000 Case 2: Re=4200

Case 3: Re=11000 Case 4: Re=15000

Case 5: Re=25000 Case 6: Re=35739.40

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