Maps and Map Interpretation

Map interpretation
Contents
• Part 1 - Introduction to maps
• Title
• Key (sometimes called legend or explanation)
• Scales
• Contours
• Part 2 – Map interpretation

• Contour patterns
Part 1 - Introduction to maps
• A map is a representation of all or part of the Earth
drawn on a flat surface at a specific scale.
• Maps use a variety of symbols and colours to represent
selected features of an area.
TYPES OF MAPS
• General purpose maps (reference maps, )
• show both natural and human-made features such as
coastlines, lakes, rivers, boundaries, settlements, roads,
rail lines, and others.
• Thematic maps, (special-purpose maps, )
illustrate the geographical distribution of a particular theme or
phenomenon. Landforms, aspects of climate, vegetation and
soil types, demographics, industry, manufacturing, and natural
resources are examples of common thematic maps.
• topographic maps.
• As the term suggests, these maps show the topography or
surface features of the landscape through the use of
contour lines.
Key
N N
North Point
Scale
Title
UK Bedrock Geology
UK Annual Mean Wind Speed
The upper left side map is
political map for Europe
but the lower right-side map
is showing physical appearance
of Europe continent
• all maps share common properties or map basics that provide
information to assist the reader in studying and interpreting
the maps. and they are called map elements as listed below.
 Map elements
• a title,
• scale,
• legend,
• date of publication,
• direction,
• information about the map projection. etc
Direction: Direction tells you which way to hold the map.
By convention, most maps are made with their top portion
directed at North. The North direction is generally indicated by
an arrow in the maps
Legend is a guide which lists symbols and colours used on a map
to represent different geographic features. Legend helps to identify
what symbols and colours represent
Scale: can be defined as the ratio of the distance between two
points on the map and the same two points on the Earth’s surface.
topographic maps.
 As the term suggests, these maps show the topography or
surface features of the landscape through the use of contour
lines.
 Contours are lines on a map that join places of equal
elevation above sea level.
 This three-dimensional effect allows for detailed study of
landscape and drainage features.
 Topographic maps are usually of a large scale and show
many of the features of general-purpose maps in considerable
detail.
A
B
1 km
Topographic profile
topographic profile is a diagram that shows the
change in elevation of the land surface along
any given line (an area “looked from the side”).
By:-
Eng Shuaib
Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Contouring
• Basic Definitions in Contouring
• Contour Interval
• Characteristics of Contours
• purpose (uses) of contouring/contour map

 Basic Definitions in Contouring
• Contour An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known as contour.
•It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two-

dimensional plan or map.
• In other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on the map
represents a contour and is called contour line.
•Contouring is the science of representing the vertical

dimension of the terrain on a two-dimensional map.
Contour interval =30m

Contours

Different contour maps

5
Relief or shape of the land is shown by
Contours
• Contours are those light
brown or orange lines that can
see on maps.
• A contour line is an imaginary
line that joins points of equal
height above sea level.
• The lines are numbered giving
the height above sea level in
meters.
• It is important to remember that
the closer together the contour lines
the steeper the slope

Steep slopes
Area that is
flatter with
only a gentle
slope
8
XXX
X

• Contour Map: A map showing contour lines is
known as Contour map.
• A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of
the surface features as well as their relative
positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a
plan and a section.
• Contouring : The process of tracing contour

lines on the surface of the earth is called
Contouring.
9

× Contour Line : A Contour line is an imaginary outline of the
terrain obtained by joining its points of equal elevation.
× Contour Interval (CI) – It is the vertical distance between any
two consecutive contours.
Suppose a map includes contour lines of 100m, 98m ,96 m
and so on. The contour interval here is 2 m.
This interval depends upon
(i) the nature of the ground (i.e. whether flat or sleep).
(ii) the scale of the map
(iii) the purpose of the survey.
Contour intervals for flat country are generally small, e g. 0.25

m,
0.5 m, 0.75m. etc. Contour interval for a steep slope in a hilly
area is generally greater. e.g. 5m. 10 m, 15 m etc.
It should be remembered that the contour interval for a
particular map is Constant.

11

• Horizontal Equivalent (HE)
Horizontal equivalent is the horizontal distance
between two consecutive contour lines measured to
the scale of the map.
– It is not constant. It varies according to the steepness
of the ground.
– For steep slopes, the contour lines run close together,
and for flatter slopes they are widely spaced.
12

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
i) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
ii) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are

widely separated and steep-slope where they run close
together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are
uniformly spaced.
iv) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and
equally spaced.

examples

) A series of closed
contour lines on the 80
map represent a hill 75
, if the higher values 70

are inside 65
HILL
60
60
65
70
75
80

80
vi) A series of 75
closed contour 70
lines on the map 65
indicate a
depression if the 60
higher values
are outside
6
0
65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION

vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles. If the higher values
100 are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a
Ridge.
90
80
70
60
50
RIDGE LINE

vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles.
If the higher values are
outside the bend, it

100 represents a Valley
90
80
70
60
50
VALLEY LINE
viii). Contours cannot end anywhere but close

on themselves either within or outside the
limits
of the map.

ix).
Contour lines cannot 40
merge or cross one 30

another on map 20
exceptin the case of 10
an overhanging cliff.
40 30 20 10
OVERHANGING CLIFF
x)Contour lines never run 50
into one another except 40

in the case of vertical cliff. 30 VERTIC
CLIFF
In this case, several Contours 20
coincide and the horizontal

10
equivalent becomes zero.
1020 3040 50
50
OVERHANGING CLIFF

XI) Depressions between
summits is called a saddle.
It is represented by four sets
of contours as shown. It
represents a dip in a ridge
or
the junction of two ridges. 70 SADDLE 70
And in the case of a mountain 80
80 range, i t takes the form of 90
a 90 90
pass. 100
110
Line passing through the saddles and summits gives water shed line.
23

Think where is the steepest slope on this island?
200
150
100
50

Steepest slope –
contour lines are
closest together
Sparrow
point 227
200
. 76
150
100
50
Sometimes spot heights can be shown as a dot with a note of
the height of that particular place.
A trigonometrical point (or trig point) shows the highest point in
an area (in meters and is shown as a blue triangle

the shape and pattern of the contour lines

PURPOSE (uses) OF CONTOURING/CONTOUR MAP
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any

engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal,
a dam, a building etc.
i) contour maps are prepared in order to select the
most economical or suitable site.
ii)It helps to locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
iii) It helps to mark the alignment of roads and railways so

that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting and
filling should be minimum.

iv)It helps for getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
v) It helps to find the capacity of a reservoir and

volume of earthwork especially in a mountainous
region.
vi)It helps to trace out the given grade of a particular route.
vii) It helps to locate the physical features of the

ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep or
small slopes.
(Undulating – rising & falling

The scale bar shows a measurement on the map and
Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:04
--------------------------------------------
the specific distance it represents on the ground

Stress that scale bars are useful when
maps are being enlarged or reduced,
because they maintain their proportion
and can still be used (show reduced inset
map as an example)
Cowers Lane to Shottlegate is about 1 km

N
G alway to Dublin about 200 km

is
N
© Crown Copyright/database right 2014. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service.
1 km
200 km

Contours
• Contours are lines joining points of equal
value. This value on topographic maps is height
(or elevation/altitude) above mean sea level
(MSL)
• Each successive contour represents an increase or

decrease in constant value. Often every 5th
contour will be in bold to help identification
• Contours are normally associated with changes in

height, but they can represent any parameter
(e.g. thickness, pressure, rainfall). They can also
be called iso-lines (e.g. isopachs, isobars,
isohyets)

Contours show the distribution and relative
size of any measured value

Surface air pressure is measured in
millibars and is shown here as isobars

Contours can show the distribution and
relative size of any measured value
This map shows the thickness

of the Earth’s crust (in kms)
This map shows rainfall

data for Australia (in
mm)

Let’s return to topographic maps - on the map the land
surface looks flat, but the contours indicate otherwise
View from Point X towards the

SW, showing a valley and
a hill in the distance

1 km

Contours never cross and will at some point close, although
this may be off the map. Topographic contours that
close in concentric patterns delineate hills or
depressions

1 km

Contours are drawn perpendicular to the maximum slope,
with the spacing between contours
indicating the steepness of the slope
1 km

Based on the shape of contours, landforms such
as valleys and ridges can be recognised
Valley
and
Ridg
1 km

This image highlights the real shape of two hills
and how they are shown on a contour map
40m
30m
20m
10m
0 MSL
Image from OS Map reading made easy.

https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/resources/map-reading/index.html

You can watch a video explaining how to read
contour lines on an Ordnance Survey map
Click here to play…
The Ordnance Survey website has further information

on all aspects of maps and map reading, including how
to work out grid references and take compass bearings
https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/resources/map-reading/index.html

Practical exercise
1 Drawing
contours

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:05
--------------------------------------------
970m 1100 Sometimes topographic maps are shown
with height values at a given point, rather
975m than contours. These are called ‘spot
height’ maps and they are rather
difficult to interpret. In order to get a
better idea of the shape of the land
surface the data can be contoured.
900m 920m 900m

875m
800m 800m 835m

835m
880m
900m
950m
700m 1070
800m 900m

The easiest way to draw a contour map based on spot heights is to simply
interpolate between the known values.
As you interpolate between points make sure you label the new
values, as it quickly becomes very confusing if you don’t!
Then join identical values with smooth curves to create contours that
simulate topography
Start by interpolating 700m

800m between individual
800m
points, labelling new
values as you go. 750m
750m 750m
800m
Then join up all
the original and
interpolated
points of equal 850m
value to form
700m 800m contours.
750m
900m

970m 1100
975m
900m 920m 900m

875m
835m
835m
800m 800m 880m
950m
900m
700m
1070
800m
Prepared by Eng Shuaib 900m [Type here]

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:06
Completing the contouring exercise

--------------------------------------------
The highest ground is in the north (>1100m).
The lowest area is in the SW, in the valley bottom (<700m).
The major landforms are a sinuous valley that trends SW-NE,
then W-E, flanked by a broad ridge that trends NW-SE. The
ground rises from the valley bottom to a high point in the
north. The stream is flowing from east to west.
• Based on the contour map you have created:

• Where is the highest ground?
• Where is the lowest area?
• Describe the major landforms
• Mark on the most likely course of a stream
and determine in which direction it is flowing

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:07
--------------------------------------------
970m 1100m The highest ground is in the north (>1100m).
The lowest area is in the SW, in the valley bottom
(<700m).
975m
The major landforms are a sinuous valley that trends
SW-NE, then W-E, flanked by a broad ridge that
trends NW-SE. The ground rises from the valley
bottom to a high point in the north. The stream is
flowing from east to west.
950
900m 920m 900m
875m
900
835m
850 835m
880m
800m 800m
950m
900m
700m
1070m

800m
900m

Part 2 – Map interpretation
• Contour patterns can be used to
recognise distinctive landforms such as
ridges, valleys and hills
• Contours may appear as black or coloured

lines on maps, and are often supported by
colour shading to give an impression of relief
• Cross-sections provide a useful way of visualizing

the shape of the land surface, but care needs to
be taken in their construction, particularly in
terms of vertical exaggeration

Previously we looked at the topography in this area
– let’s take a closer look at the contours
N
1 km

The contour interval is
10m with bold lines every
50m
150m contour
1 km
What is the contour interval?
Locate the 150m contour between Shottle and Blackbrook

150m contour
If you walked along this contour, what would your route be like?
Flat, as long as you remain on the 150m contour

200m contour
150m contour
Downhill
100m contour
Which direction is downhill from the 150m contour?

N
What else about the contours help to determine the direction

of slope? The contour values are perpendicular to the slope,
with the bottom of the number on the downhill side

A B

A
What does the hillside look like if you stand at Point
1 km
and look towards Point B? It would go downhill to
the stream and then uphill again to Point B

A useful technique to visualise landforms is to
draw a cross-section. This one is between
Points A and B on the previous map
No vertical exaggeration
A B
Contour value (metres)
Valley with stream

200
This image shows a similar
100
valley in the area,
confirming the gentle slope
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Distance (metres)

The X axis represents distance and the Y axis height

When drawing cross-sections it is important to
be aware how the scales affect your
perception of slope angle
2x vertical exaggeration The purpose will dictate the

A B scales you use. If the cross-
section is to highlight relative
changes in topography then a
200
Valley with stream vertical exaggeration is fine,
despite the fact that it

increases the angles of all
100 sloping lines
If there is a need to add sub-

surface geology or calculate
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 true slope angles, then there
Distance (metres)

Compare the effects of vertical exaggeration
on the same cross-section
Notice how the change

in vertical exaggeration
affects the angles of
slope
Bear this in mind when

drawing your own
cross- sections and
decide how much (if

Uphill
You now know how to identify a sloping valley by the shape of

the contours. They form a V-shape that points uphill

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:09
Arrows--------------------------------------------
indicate
This map shows some of the main valleys
downhill direction
(not all of
have been marked)
valleys

There are lots of valleys on the map; mark them with an arrow
pointing in the downhill direction

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:09
Arrows--------------------------------------------
indicate
There is no permanent water in these
downhillvalleys,direction ofthere was
however in the past
sufficient water that flowed along these
valleys routes to cause erosion and form the
valley. Is there any time in the recent
geological past when there was greater
water flow in this area?

Notice that all the rivers are in valleys, but not all the valleys
have a river. Why is this the case?

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:09
--------------------------------------------
Notice that the contours have a similar
shape to a valley, but the V-shape points
downhill
What feature do the contours in the red area

represent? A broad, N-S trending ridge

Presenter
2017-11-28 13:52:09
--------------------------------------------
Answer: No; Point D is at the same height
(150m) as Point C, but the axis of the ridge
is higher (at 175m).
Axis of ridge
C
D
N
We can draw a cross-
section to confirm our idea
It may help if you imagine you are standing at Point C on the 150m
contour, looking towards Point D. Would you be able to see Point D?

Cross-section showing the broad, gentle ridge
between Points C and D
2x vertical exaggeration
C D Standing at Point C you

would be unable to see
Ridge Point D because the
200
crest of the ridge is

higher than Point D
100
Here some vertical
exaggeration is
appropriate because
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 the relief is very subtle
Distance (metres)

Practical exercise 2
Constructing cross-
sections

We will now draw our own
cross- section between Cowers
Lane (A) and Chevinside (A’)
Before constructing a cross-

A A’
section, look at the
contours and try to imagine
Widely
whatspacedthecontourssurface Closely spaced
showing less steep slopes contours
Narrower range of
compared to those in the showing a steep
contours between 140-
160m indicate a relatively

Use graph paper to mark
on every time a contour
crosses the chosen line of
Label each contour height

and plot the value directly
onto the Y-axis of the cross-
A A’
200m
1
0
1
1
9
8
150m
100m
50m

Once all the contour heights
along the section have been
plotted the land surface can be
This surface should be drawn

free hand to give a natural
shape that honours the
A
200m
A’
150m
100m
50m

A completed cross-section between A-A’
The vertical scale has been exaggerated in order to show
the subtle relief. To calculate the vertical exaggeration,
divide the horizontal scale (1cm to 200m) by the
vertical scale (1cm to 50m)
So, 200/50 = 4x vertical exaggeration
A 4x vertical exaggeration A’
200m
150m
100m
50m
0
West East
1 km 2 km 3 km
Scale 1: 20 000

Comparison between a vertically exaggerated
section and a true scale cross-section
200m
150m
100m
50m
No vertical exaggeration
200m

The vertically exaggerated section provides a clearer representation
of subtle landforms, the other a true representation of slope angles

Learning outcomes
You have now been introduced to the basic
elements of topographic maps
You have used contours to identify common landforms

and begun to visualise them in 3-D
You can now construct cross-sections and

understand the concept of vertical exaggeration

Handouts required for the practicals
Slide 50: print out at A4, in B/W, portrait format
Slide 51: print out at A4, in colour, portrait
format Slide 52: print out at A4, in colour,
portrait format Graph paper for constructing the
cross-section
970m 1100
975m
900m 900m
920m
875m
835m
835m
880m
800m 800m
900m
950m
700m 1070
800m 900m

N

1 km

A A’


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Map interpretation

• Part 2 – Map interpretation

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

•It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two-

•Contouring is the science of representing the vertical

Contour interval =30m

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

• Contouring : The process of tracing contour

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Contour intervals for flat country are generally small, e g. 0.25

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

i) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

ii) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

, if the higher values 70

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

outside the bend, it

viii). Contours cannot end anywhere but close

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

merge or cross one 30

into one another except 40

coincide and the horizontal

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any

iii) It helps to mark the alignment of roads and railways so

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

v) It helps to find the capacity of a reservoir and

vii) It helps to locate the physical features of the

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

the specific distance it represents on the ground

Cowers Lane to Shottlegate is about 1 km

G alway to Dublin about 200 km

© Crown Copyright/database right 2014. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service.

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

• Each successive contour represents an increase or

• Contours are normally associated with changes in

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

This map shows the thickness

This map shows rainfall

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

View from Point X towards the

© Crown Copyright/database right 2014. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service.

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]

Prepared by Eng Shuaib [Type here]