Q.

1 Discuss the major contributions of Max Weber in understanding the

society theoretically.
1. The Iron Cage and Why It's Still Relevant Today
Max Weber’s concept of the ‘iron cage’ is even more relevant today than when
he first wrote about it in 1905. Weber explained that as the force of
Protestantism decreased in social life over time, the system of capitalism
remained, as did the social structure and principles of bureaucracy that had
grown along with it. This bureaucratic social structure, and the values, beliefs,
and worldviews that supported and sustained it, and the technological and
economic relationship that grew out of capitalist production, became the main
forces to shaping social life. It was this very phenomenon that Weber called an
‘iron cage’.
Even today the iron cage made up of techno-rational thought, practices,
capitalism and economic relationship shows no sign of disintegrating anytime
soon. The problems such as climate change are unable to be addressed
because of the influence of the iron cage that constrains our thought and
behavior i.e. we focus on technology but less on climate because of the result
of iron cage made up of techno-rational thought that emphasizes development
in technology and capitalism.
Thus, if you are born into a society organized this way, with the division of
labor and hierarchical social structure that comes with it, you can't help but
live within this system. As such, one's life and worldview are shaped by it to
such an extent that one probably can't even imagine what an alternative way
of life would look like. So, those born into the cage live out its dictates, and in
doing so, reproduce the cage in perpetuity. For this reason, Weber considered
the iron cage a massive hindrance to freedom.
2. His Thinking on Social Class
Social class is a deeply important concept and phenomenon in sociology.
Today, sociologists have Max Weber to thank for pointing out that one's
position in society relative to others is about more than how much money one
has. He reasoned that the level of prestige associated with one's education and
occupation, as well as one's political group affiliations, in addition to wealth,
combine to create a hierarchy of people in society.
Weber's thoughts on power and social stratification, which he shared in his
book titled Economy and Society, led to the complex formulations of
socioeconomic status and social class.
3. What Makes Authority Possible
Weber, in his theory of authority articulated in the essay Politics as a Vocation,
made a very important contribution to the way we understand how people
and institutions come to have authority in society, how they keep it, and how it
influences our lives. Weber theorized that there are three forms of authority
that allow people and institutions to attain legitimate rule over society:
A. Traditional, or that rooted in the traditions and values of the past that
follows the logic of "this is the way things have always been."
B. Charismatic, or that premised on individual positive and admirable
characteristics like heroism, being relatable, and showing visionary
leadership.
C. Legal-rational, or that which is rooted in the laws of the state and
represented by those entrusted to protect them.
This theory of Weber's reflects his focus on the political, social, and cultural
importance of the modern state as an apparatus that strongly influences what
happens in society and in our lives.
4. Max Weber’s Social Action Theory
Weber argued that before the cause of an action could be ascertained you had
to understand the meaning attached to it by the individual. Verstehenn is a
german term that means to understand, perceive, know, and comprehend the
nature and significance of a phenomenon, or to grasp or comprehend the
meaning intended or expressed by another.Weber (1936) used this term to
refer to the attempts of social scientists to understand both the intent and
context of human action.
In one of his most important works ‘Economy and Society’, first published in
the 1920s, he said ‘Sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive
understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its
course and consequences.’
Weber’s Four Types of Action (and types of society)
Weber believes that there are four ideal types of social actions. Ideal types are
used as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see
where they fall. No social action is purely just one of the four types.
a. Traditional Social Action: actions controlled by traditions, “the way it
has always been done.”
b. Affective Social Action: actions determined by one’s specific affections
and emotional state, you do not think about the consequences
c. Value Rational Social Action: actions that are determined by a conscious
belief in the inherent value of a type of behavior (ex: religion)
d. Instrumental-Rational Social Action: actions that are carried out to
achieve a certain goal, you do something because it leads to a result
Max Weber was particularly interested in the later of these – he believed that
modern societies encouraged ‘Instrumental-Action’ – that is we are
encouraged to do things in the most efficient way (e.g. driving to work) rather
than thinking about whether driving to work is the right thing to do (which
would be value-rational action.
Weber believed that modern societies were obsessed with efficiency –
modernizing and getting things done, such that questions of ethics, affection
and tradition were brushed to one side – this has the consequence of making
people miserable and leading to enormous social problems. Weber was
actually very depressed about this and had a mental breakdown towards the
end of his life.
5. Weber on the Relationships Between Culture and Economy
Positioned against Marx's historical materialist approach to theorizing the
emergence and development of capitalism, Weber presented a theory in which
the values of ascetic Protestantism fostered the acquisitive nature of the
capitalist economic system.
Weber tried to understand why some countries were more able than others to
build strong, capitalist economies.He theorized that religion was the key to this
issue. He argued that Protestantism i.e. protestant work ethic and belief in
living life frugally (saving by not spending much unnecessarily) helped foster
the development of the capitalist economic system in the Western world
which means that it is the Protestant religious values that boost capitalism. But
in Eastern religions, Weber saw barriers to capitalism.For example, Hinduism
stresses attaining higher levels of spirituality by escaping from the trap of the
mundane materialistic world. Such a perspective constrains people from
making money (or capital accumulation).
Weber identified the following values embedded in Protestantism which are
in harmony with the spirit of capitalism:
1. The shift from ritualistic and other:
Worldly orientation to down-to-earth pragmatism: The finite mind of man
cannot comprehend the infinite mind of God who created the world for His
own glory. Therefore, there is no point in indulging in mysticism; rather man
should seek to understand the natural order. This is essentially anti-ritualistic
attitudes that favour the development of science and rational investigation.
2. Changed attitude toward work:
Protestant ethic proclaims work as virtue, something not only good and
desirable but contributing to the glory of God as well.
3. The concept of calling:
This idea emerged from the Calvinist doctrine of predestination according to
which every soul is predestined at birth for heaven or hell and that nothing an
individual does in his life can change his ultimate fate. But there are signs by
which God indicates to every individual whether he is among the elect, success
in life being the most important one.
Since every man is anxious to know if he is marked for salvation or damnation,
he should select a calling, a vocation, work hard at it, and be successful. The
new doctrine encourages people to seek gainful enterprises, accumulate
wealth and prove their destiny.
4. The new attitude toward the collection of interest on loans:
The theological doctrine of Catholicism proscribed the collection of interest on
loans. However, according to Calvinism, there is no restriction on the collection
of interest on loans. This Calvinistic ethic led to a spurt of economic activity:
establishment of lending houses, new investments and new floating capital.
5. Structures on alcoholism:
Protestant ethic prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages; there is no
comparable theological doctrine in Catholicism.
6. Encouragement of literacy and learning:
Protestant ethic emphasized that every man should read his own Bible rather
than depend on priestly interpretations. This led to the development of mass
education and of specialized skills.
7. Rejection of holidays:
The Catholic Calendar is full of holy days and almost every holy day is a holiday.
However, according to Protestant ethic, work contributes to the glory of God
and thus there is no need for celebrations on holy days.
8. Protestant Asceticism:
Protestant ethic emphasizes the notion that earthly things and flesh belong to
the order of sin and death and therefore, one should abstain from the
pleasures of the world. Thus, on the one hand, Protestant ethic encourages
people to accumulate wealth and on the other hand, it forbids the use of
wealth for enjoyment. The wealth should be used for producing more and
more, undoubtedly a condition par excellence for the development of
capitalism.

Q.2 Discuss Migration as a Social Phenomenon.

Migration is a very complex phenomena in the perspective of socio-
cultural and economic life. Human migration is the movement of people
from one country to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-
permanent residence, usually across a political boundary. For thousands of
years people have migrate to search for food, survive conquer frontiers,
colonize new territories, escape from war zone or political authorities and look
for new and more rewarding and existing opportunities. People can either
choose to move or voluntary migration and be forced to move or
involuntary migration. According to a widely used definition, migrants are
persons who have been outside their country of birth or citizenship for a
long period of time and stay there for different reasons. On the migrant side,
one can usefully distinguish three main groups: economic, forced and
family migrants, which is a distinction based on the motivations for
leaving one’s country of origin.
Migration: An engine for social change
The movement of people into societies that offer a better way of life is a more
powerful driver of cultural evolution than conflict and conquest.
Migration has a profound effect on how societies evolve culturally because it is
selective. People move to societies that provide a more attractive way of life
and, all other things being equal, this process spreads ideas and institutions
that promote economic efficiency, social order and equality.
Immigration is not a modern phenomenon. The growth of ancient empires
seems to have owed much to the assimilation of border peoples. Conquering
elites, such as the Mongols in China, the Mughals in India and the Goths in
Rome, largely adapted to their highly successful host culture rather than the
other way around. In every case, these durable systems had institutions — the
Confucian merit-based bureaucracy, the Hindu system of self-governing castes,
Roman law — that endure today in one form or another. These examples
support the idea that societies that attract immigrants tend to have ideas
and institutions that cause them to be richer, less violent and less exploitative
than the societies that supply them.
Confucian humanism, with its concern for good government, replaced the
predatory and quarrelsome landed elite as the backbone of Chinese society.
Hindu tolerance and productive organization of cultural diversity led to one of
the world’s wealthiest societies in medieval times. Medieval Islam attracted
converts spanning from North Africa to southeast Asia because it supported
effective statecraft, intellectual advancement and trade on a vast scale.
Societies that achieve more order and economic efficiency will grow even if
they begin by conquest, because people are attracted to join them. Alexander
the Great and Genghis Khan were successful conquerors, but they made a less
durable impact on the world than, say, Mohammed, Buddha, Christ and the
institution builders they inspired such as Constantine and the Umayyad caliphs.
The government envisioned by Confucius, and implemented by Han Dynasty
emperors centuries after his death, was the engine of assimilation for the
peoples of south China. US revolutionaries and British Commonwealth
reformers built societies that have proven highly attractive to incomers.
Social Integration and Dilemmas of Social Identity of Migrants
Migration involves a series of events that can be highly traumatizing of identity
and problems of integration. The process involves uprooting, being separated
from traditional values, being placed in new social and cultural different
situations of hosted countries. So for many migrants, social integration process
is not quite easy. Most of the time integration brings out social and cultural
identities problems. Resistance to migrants participation in society results
from language problems and culturally defined behavior that often
reinforce stereotypes and prejudices. This situation, in turn, ensues
many challenges in the social identity and integration problems of
migrants life in hosted countries.
The concept ‘integration’ is used form social researches in migration field
to refer to the degree of involvement of migrants, and their families, in the
social, cultural political and economic life of the host country. Integration
emphasizes respect for and incorporation of differences and the need for
mutual adaptation.
At the same time, integration does not mean that emigrants must sever ties to
their countries of birth nor abandon their cultures, traditions, values, and
identities. For most newcomers, the initial focus upon arrival will be on
adoption to the host society social life. But sometimes facing the social and
economic realities pose formidable barriers to integration of many migrant.
For the members of hosted countries they need to accept diversity of
migrants for helping social solidarity and cohesion of society.
So integration is a process that takes time and not all time is successful for
both migrants and hosted societies too.Integration may be defined as a
two-way process where new migrants and the hosted societies members
have responsibility for wellbeing and social cohesion of society.
Social impacts on the origin country
At its best, migration can be a rewarding experience that is made in the
interest of the household welfare, but in most cases moving to another
country and being separated from one’s immediate family takes place at
considerable emotional cost. Especially temporary circular migration
increases the risk for family breakdown, fragmentation of social networks
and psychosocial stress. The emotional impact is not just limited to the
migrants themselves, but also to the family left behind. Especially in poorer
households where the whole family cannot afford to emigrate together,
they emigrate one member at a time resulting in eroded family structures
and relationships. The longer the separation between the migrating
parents and their children, the more children lose parents’ reference in
the management of the household, their authority and their role as
providers of love and material care.
Parents are gradually replaced by other family members, or the children
take upon themselves the task of parenting. The feelings of rejection,
abandonment and loss follow the children left behind, and cannot
be compensated by the material gifts and remittances sent from abroad. To
some extent the recent technological advances in terms of e-mail and
affordable telephone calls might allow the transnational families to form
and foster social ties even at a distance.
Separation from the parents has also long-term consequences in all aspects of
the children’s lives. Evidence from Mexico points to the fact that the offspring
from migrantfamilies have lower educational attainment than other
children, as the boys of the migrants are more likely to opt for migration
themselves (implying decreasing returns to education) while the domestic
workload of the daughters increase.
Adolescents left behind are also commonly overrepresented in adapting risky
behavior, and absence of mothers has been found to be associated with
the involvement of children with violence: 80 percent of children in conflict
with the law in Jamaica had their mothers absent, while this was the case
for only 30 percent of other children.
On the other hand, recent evidence suggests that migration could also
strengthen social networks as the higher income from remittances reduces the
cost for the migrant-sending household to participate in these networks.
Thiscloser inter-family collaboration can, to some extent, remedy the absence
of within-family cohesion and safety nets. Even though migration is usually
a voluntary and planned choice of the individual, the reality might
turn out to be very different from the original expectations. Too often
the intended aspirations of the migrants do not materialize but many are
trapped in trafficking.
Social impacts on the destination countries.
Apart from the increased competition at the labor markets, increasing inflows
of migrants impose an integration challengein all areas of social life. In
many of the developing countries, however, policies to manage immigration
are lacking while control of the same is failing to curtain the inflow of
migrants due to scarce resources, weak administrative capacity, and porous
borders. Some of the cross-border migration is often widely accepted, but
sometimesimmigrants even from neighboring countries are treated as
unwanted foreigners.
When the economy is already under pressure, failure of integrationhas
sometimes led to massive expulsions of migrants mostly in the South.
The Nigerian Government, for instance, expelled over 2 million immigrants
mainly from Ghana in 1983 due to a domestic economic crisis. More
recent examples of forced repatriation can be found both in the North as
well as in the South: the United States deported more than 350,000
immigrants and South Africa 300,000 in 2008 alone (UNDP 2009).
The challenge of integration is most prominent in urban areas.Most internal as
well as international migrants end up in the cities of developing countries
because of employment opportunitieswith manyworking in the informal
sector of business, transport, crafts and services. If the excess supply of
labor is combined with poor ability of the local authorities to manage
immigration, the result is commonly increased disparities and expansion of
slum areasin the cities.
Forced migration can also contribute to urbanization. War, environmental
degradation, and economic crisis lead to large population movements
from rural areas into cities where people take refuge. In Dhaka, Bangladesh,
60,000 people were forcibly cleared from the slums in early 2007; in
Jakarta, Indonesia, migrants are required to show proof of employment
and housing to enter the city (UNDP 2009).
Migration is only a part of the urbanization challenge, but the interaction
betweenmigration and rapid urbanization is likely to be important for
policy in the destination countries in the South.
Q.3 Discuss in detail the Karl Marx’s “Theory of Labor”.
Labor Theory of Value
The labor theory of value is a major pillar of traditional Marxian economics,
which is evident in Marx’s masterpiece, Capital (1867). The theory’s basic claim
is simple: the value of a commodity can be objectively measured by the
average number of labor hours required to produce that commodity.
If a pair of shoes usually takes twice as long to produce as a pair of pants, for
example, then shoes are twice as valuable as pants. In the long run, the
competitive price of shoes will be twice the price of pants, regardless of the
value of the physical inputs.
Mathematically, the LTV is represented in either of the two ways:
P=C+V+SV
 P is price of a commodity (its worth)
 C are payments made to constant capital (machinery and material).
 V are payments made to variable capital (labor).
 SV is the surplus value made to the capitalist (profit).
OR
TL=EL+LL+SL
 TL is the total labor in a commodity (worth).
 EL is the embodied labor/dead labor (machinery and materials).
 LL is the living labor (workers)
 SL is the surplus labor (profit)
It should be noted that modern Marxist economists accept the laws of supply
and demand as determinants of price. However, they still consider the labour
theory of value as being valid tool for analysis-used to understand the
distribution of value(how much of the revenue from a product sold, goes to
workers, means of production, and what are the profits that are not paid out).
The labor theory of value was also popular among other economists, e.g.,
Adam Smith and David Ricardo. However, Karl Marx and Marxian economics
took a further view on the labor theory of value; he applied the labor theory of
value to labor, better known as labor-power. Labor-power is the ability of a
worker to produce a commodity.
Labor power is the worker’s capacity to produce goods and services. Marx,
using principles of classical economics, explained that the value of labor power
must depend on the number of labor hours it takes society, on average, to
feed, clothe, and shelter a worker so that he or she has the capacity to work. In
other words, the long-run wage workers receive will depend on the number of
labor hours it takes to produce a person who is fit for work. Suppose five hours
of labor are needed to feed, clothe, and protect a worker each day so that the
worker is fit for work the following morning. If one labor hour equaled one
dollar, the correct wage would be five dollars per day.
Marx concluded that the wage of workers should be directly proportional to
the labor-power of the worker. The concept of labor-power gave rise to Marx’s
questioning of the distribution of surplus value in a capitalist society; he
argued that capitalists overwork employees to achieve profits, resulting in the
employees producing more value than what they are being compensated for.
Marx then asked an apparently devastating question: if all goods and services
in a capitalist society tend to be sold at prices (and wages) that reflect their
true value (measured by labor hours), how can it be that capitalists enjoy
profits—even if only in the short run? How do capitalists manage to squeeze
out a residual between total revenue and total costs?
Capitalists, Marx answered, must enjoy a privileged and powerful position as
owners of the means of production and are therefore able to ruthlessly exploit
workers. Although the capitalist pays workers the correct wage, somehow—
Marx was terribly vague here—the capitalist makes workers work more hours
than are needed to create the worker’s labor power. If the capitalist pays each
worker five dollars per day, he can require workers to work, say, twelve hours
per day—a not uncommon workday during Marx’s time. Hence, if one labor
hour equals one dollar, workers produce twelve dollars’ worth of products for
the capitalist but are paid only five. The bottom line: capitalists extract “surplus
value” from the workers and enjoy monetary profits.
Although Marx tried to use the labor theory of value against capitalism by
stretching it to its limits, he unintentionally demonstrated the weakness of the
theory’s logic and underlying assumptions. Marx was correct when he claimed
that classical economists failed to adequately explain capitalist profits. But
Marx failed as well. By the late nineteenth century, the economics profession
rejected the labor theory of value. Mainstream economists now believe that
capitalists do not earn profits by exploiting workers (see profits). Instead, they
believe, entrepreneurial capitalists earn profits by forgoing current
consumption, by taking risks, and by organizing production.
Surplus Value: The difference between the value of the product when it is sold
(its exchange value) and the value of the elements, especially labor, consumed
in the formation of the product. Example: Workers are paid for the value of
four hours of labor but they work eight hours. The value of four additional
hours of labour is surplus value kept by the capitalists.
Use value refers to a product's utility in satisfying needs and wants as afforded
by its material properties. Exchange value is the “quantitative relation, as the
proportion in which values in use of one sort are exchanged for those of
another sort” (Marx 1996, 46)

Q.4 Define the term “Social Problem” and discuss Crime as a Social Problem?
A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences
for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or
behavior that needs to be addressed.
Crime as a social problem:
Crime is a violation of given law in which there is penalties incurred after a
certain violation. Crimes represents atype of formal deviation from social
customs and norms administered by a certain authority or state. Depending on
the country or authority, crimes are divided into categories by law, theexact
age of the offender, the severity or intensity of crime or offence, the potential
punishment that can be undertaken as a result of violation of law.
Biological and physiological explanation has not fully given an explanation of
howand why higher crime rates are associated with certain location or even
social background of people. For instance ifTexas has higher crime rate than
LosAngeles and the United states has higher crimes than Russia, it would be
wrongto say that people in Texas and United States have the same biological
problem and psychological problems than those from Los Angeles and Russia.
Sociological explanations have found their ways to explain the social pattern of
crime, also the increase in number ofcrime rate, and to give us some possible
solution from it. According to the functional perspective, social structural
theorysuggests that most crime is due to the fall of society norms including
societies organization and the root crime problem isfrom the society itself
rather than one's biological or psychological life. Society has been disorganized
in such a way thatcertain number of social characteristics experienced in the
neighborhood are the major contributors of high crime rates. Thesetraits are
poverty, population density and population turnover of the society. As said by
Merton Robert, crime committed bythe poor comes from a space or a gap
created between culture emphasis and society's success, and the incapacity to
attainaccomplishment through more logistical way which is working.
According to Sutherland Edwin's, crime is a social problemsince criminal
behavior can be learnt due to close friends who practice such crime and
teaches another person. Another aspect of crime is emergency of conflict.
Conflict arise from different factors socialclass, ethnicity, race and class. As a
result crime has seen its way in and become a social problem since the rich or
those whoare wealthy use resource to fight the law if they commit a violation.
Since the society comprises of different people with different ethnical
background or has categorized themselves to different groups, this creates
desire for power and control overresources. People of a certain group, if
powerful, can influence certain laws to be passed in which they do not favor
theother group.
Crime is a social issue because it cannot exist without society. Society decides
what actions are criminal and which are not. For example, abortion is legal in
some countries but in others it is not.
Also, in societies, the powerful decide what is a crime and what is not. Take for
example the debate around marijuana. If it were up to the majority of people it
would most probably be legal. But it is not. So a lot of people suffer needlessly
in this respect. Take for example the idea in some Muslim countries that
women should be covered from head to toe, a woman wearing jeans is
committing a crime, etc.
Crime is not just a lower-class issue. There are many crimes committed by the
wealthy and powerful too, including sex crimes, financial crimes and
environmental crimes, like illegally dumping toxic waste, or insider trading.
There will never be a society that is free from crime, simply because it would
need everyone in that society to think in exactly the same way, believe in
exactly the same things and have exactly the same goal. Even in a homogenous
society, this is impossible. So crime is normal.
The US Sociologist Robert Merton worked out what he termed the “Theory of
Anomie” which goes a long way to explaining why poor people commit more
crimes than rich people. According to Merton, society decides what the goals
are for the people participant in society. So for instance the idea that wealth
the most important thing. You can tell how successful someone is by the car
they drive, the bling they wear, the kind of home they live in. At the same time,
society provides an acceptable means to attain this wealth - work hard at
school, get a good job, be good at your job.
However, this acceptable means is harder for some people than it is for others,
and nearly impossible for many. If someone is born into a poor neighborhood,
to struggling parents, goes to a bad school etc, they are not very likely to end
up being wealthy by using the acceptable means. Yet society scorns those who
do not live up to its expectations. How often are poor people called lazy,
stupid, dumb, low IQ, having no ambition and so on? So these people who
have no hope of achieving societal goals and put under this immense pressure
to achieve the goals are very likely going to turn to crime to do it.
Further, children in places where crime is rife are likely to model themselves
on the most successful people in their neighborhood, which would be the
leader of the gang, a drug dealer, a pimp and so on.
And yes, there are exceptions to the rule. There are people who pull
themselves up out of poverty. But it is a superhuman effort that is impossible
for mere mortals. So it is society which places the burden on its people, but is
not giving them a fair means of achieving the goal, through racism or poverty.

Q.5 Discuss the application of Sociology in agriculture, health and industries

with examples.
AGRICULTURE
Rural Sociology “The sociology of rural life is a study of rural population, rural
social organization and the rural social processes operative in rural society.” —
F. S. Chapin.It is just like a mirror of the rural social life. It provides a detailed
study of knowledge about different aspects of rural life, its problems, its
culture, its religion, its economic and political life.
Agriculture is a sector of society, and has feedback loops with all the other
sectors.There are distinct factions within agriculture that fracture along various
lines: organics (even they can be split into no-till, Steiner’s, and whatever other
ones my limited exposure can grasp), natural pesticides, fertilization methods
— all that stuff. Agriculture has implications for famines, and how we actually
have MORE than enough food to feed the world, but political division makes
distribution problematic.
Rural sociology has as its primary aim improving the well-being ofthe farm
population. It originated as a recognized discipline inteaching and research less
than 25 years ago as a part of the generalimpulse to improve agriculture
technologically, economically, andsocially. Since then it has developed quite an
elaborate body ofresearch findings, but it has not yet brought to bear the full
impact ofavailable knowledge either from general sociology or from
studiesmade in fields other than agriculture.
Owing to the fact thatsocial causes are complex and sometimes deeply laid in
the pasthistory of social situations, recognition of the existence of problems
isthe necessary first step in their solution. It is the function of sociology,
therefore, to reveal problems as well as to assist in solving them.
The roots of some of our most distressing agricultural problemsare in part
social, in part psychological, and in part cultural. Wehave widespread soil
erosion partly because some of the customs,habits, and attitudes of farm
people, instead of contributing to theconservation of soil, have speeded its
destruction. We have hundredsof thousands of farm families living on lands
which will not supportadequate standards of living partly because great
population movements of the past swept these people into places where
successfulsettlement cannot be sustained.
We are today in the midst of even more rapid social change thanin the past,
and new problems are developing while we are in theprocess of correcting old
maladjustments and seeking new adjustments. Both maladjustments and
adjustments depend to a considerable extent on the habits and attitudes of
rural people, and an understanding of this fact demands a knowledge not only
of social problemsas such but also of what rural people themselves think about
their problems and the extent to which they can mobilized to assist in the
solution of them.
________________________________________________________________
You can talk about crop choices as an expression of culture — ever wonder how
tomatoes — a new world plant — became so central to traditional Italian food?
Or how corn — also a new world plant — became such a staple of African life?
Look up pellagra — there’s a story there, as well.
________________________________________________________________
HEALTH
Sociology has been relevant ever since Comte conceived it as a science that
would provide salvation from all the social problems i.e health problems
confronting the world.
Medical sociology is simply the application of sociological perspectives and
methods in the study of health issues in human societies with a skewed focus
on the sociocultural milieu that accounts for human health and illness. The pre-
comprehension is that humans exist within a socio-spatial milieu, which often
affects their health. Such social conditions and the nature of human interaction
are instrumental to the well-being of every individual in society.
Medical sociology observes how social factors (e.g., class, race, gender, religion
,ethnicity, kinship network, marriage, educational status, age, place , and
cultural practices) influence human health. It is in this sense that some
diseases may be referred to as diseases of poverty (e.g., malaria and TB)
because they are much more prevalent in poor regions or among the poor. For
example, a person residing in a slum is at a higher risk of being exposed to
certain diseases which a person in affluent area may have lower risk of being
exposed to.
These social factors also include culture (e.g., values, beliefs, normative
expectations), organisational processes (e.g., hospital setting), politics (e.g.,
health care policy, health budget, political ideology), economic system (e.g.,
capitalism , the costs of health care), and microlevel processes such as
socialization and identity formation.
Apart from pure research, medical sociologists are also interested in
implementation or applied research. This involves the implementation of
interventions to improve the health of the population through community
engagement and participation in policy formulation and implementation.
Furthermore, not only do medical sociologists proclaim self-relevance to
medicine but medical scientists have increasingly come to the realisation that a
number of significant health care issues are outside the walls of the hospitals,
pharmaceutical and medical laboratories and require a holistic approach in
which the social and cultural aspects of human behaviour are appropriately
related to the biological nature of every human being and the physical
environment in which he[/she] lives.”
From the 1960s onwards, there has been a growing realisation that social
issues are relevant and significant in explaining population health in Africa and
elsewhere. The study of sexual behaviour and other social aspects of HIV/AIDS
seemingly demonstrate the sociological milieu in the understanding of health.
Medical sociologists also collaborate with non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) to address social determinants of health in communities.
Improved relevance of sociology in human society will alleviate human
suffering and provide equitable well-being. Therefore, the application of
sociological methods and perspective and attention to the social dimensions of
disease should provide a vital step forward in disease control.In short,
sociology shapes the understanding of health and illness in the society.
INDUSTRIES
Scope of Industrial Sociology
Industrial Sociology is an applied discipline. The following things come under
its scope. This list is not exhaustive.
1. It studies the process of industrialisation historically.
2. It looks at the influence of physical and social environment on industrial
development and vice versa.
3. It studies the role of government and state in industrial management
and development and helps in the formation of government policies in
relation to industries, the education system for a better workforce, loans
to industries, etc.
Importance of Industrial Sociology
1. Stability in Industrial Society– having a constant database of social
industrial phenomena and theories that explain it allows for better
administration of industries.
2. Remedies to Problems of Industrial Society– the revolution in the
industrial age has led to differences in status and role of social
institutions which has created social unrest. Industrial Sociology allows
for the study of problems and proposes solutions to problems such as
 strikes, lockdowns, unemployment, wages, health sanitation, housing,
education, social security, etc.
3. Helping in Personality Development– underdeveloped personality
increases social disorganization. Industrial sociology is used for
personality development of those individuals involved in the industry.
4. Aid to Familial Integration– family is the central social unit of society.
Most families in poor industrial neighbourhoods face social evils such as
poor recreation, prostitution, alcoholism, unhealthy living conditions,
overcrowding, etc. Industrial sociology addresses these issues.
5. Industrial Planning– in the age of planning, industrial sociology makes
industrial processes more efficient by gaining maximum output out of
minimum input. This planning is possible only with the knowledge base
provided by industrial sociology.
6. Peace and Prosperity– economic stability, labour satisfaction and
efficient distribution of resources (which can be achieved with the help
of industrial sociology) allows for maintenance of national and
international peace and prosperity.
Why do we require Industrial Sociology?
The concept of industrial sociology is wide and is very vital to the organization.
The following could be stated a few of the reasons why we would require
industrial sociology.
 They help us identify the problems existing in the industry and also gives
us the probable solutions to it.
 At the times of industrial distress, they would help us understand the
situations better.
 It helps us understand the relationship between one’s personal activities
with that of industrial activities.
 They show us the way human interaction flows through the organization
helping in times of miscommunication.
 It analyses the depth of the industrialization and magnitude of the
problems arising along with the development.
  It helps with industrial planning, in maintaining a good relationship
between the labour unions and the management.
 The trade relations can be easily identified and chaos with the
organization channels can be reduced.
 The most important reason would be to maintain peace and prosperity
within an organization.
With the event of industrialization and vast developing economy, it is very
important for us to realize the human potential in order to compete in the vast
competition. In order to realize human potential, it is important for us to learn
human behaviours in the first place in a given situation. Industrial sociology
serves as a platform to learn about the human pattern of behaviour.

Q.6 Culture is the essence of the worthwhile, but there is a clear menace to
the very soul of the citizen when culture becomes a tool in the hands of the
regime of the day with which to transform the outlook of the citizen.
Comment.
Example:
POLITICS is the art of the possible; economics is the science of the useful;
culture is the essence of the worthwhile. The Spanish intellectual, Salvador de
Maradiaga’s summing is apt. There is a clear menace to the very soul of the
citizen when culture, “the essence of the worthwhile”, becomes a tool in the
hands of the regime of the day with which to mould the outlook of the citizen.
Addressing the University of Rochester in June 1936, Walter Lippmann said
that one of the reasons why democracy “has worked in America is that outside
the government and outside the party system, there have existed independent
institutions and independent men ... notably the free churches, the free press,
the free universities”.
In India, the state has amassed enormous power over the cultural and
intellectual life of the nation. Universities and the literary and cultural
academies in Delhi depend on the state. The Indian Council of World Affairs in
New Delhi was a highly respected autonomous institution. It is now virtually a
department of the Ministry of External Affairs by a statute of The Indian
Council of World Affairs Act.
Artists, writers and actors have returned awards this year in large numbers.
This unprecedented gesture was provoked by an unprecedented assault by the
BJP government, headed by Narendra Modi, on institutions of learning and
culture.
Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen was ousted from the chancellorship of the
Nalanda University. He wrote: “Nothing on the scale of interference has
happened before. Every institution where the government has a formal role is
being converted into [one] where the government has a substantial role.”
He provides interesting details. “Often enough, the persons chosen for heading
institutions of national importance have been exceptionally dedicated to
promoting Hindutva priorities. For example, the newly appointed head of the
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR),Yellapragada Sudershan Rao, may
not be known for research in history, but his Hindutva-oriented opinions are
well-known. For example, in his paper Indian Caste System: A Reappraisal, Rao
gives his endorsement to the caste system, which we are told is often
“misrepresented as an exploitative system”.
Similarly, Baldev Sharma who was removed as editor of the RSS organ
Panchjanya only two years earlier was made chairman of the National Book
Trust in March. The Central Advisory Board of Education, India’s highest
policymaking body on education, was reconstituted in June. Yoga teachers,
Sanskrit scholars, actors were appointed.
Other institutions received the same treatment. Mahesh Rangarajan was
pressurised to resign from the internationally famous Nehru Memorial
Museum & Library in New Delhi which houses private papers of two
generations of public figures for scholars to consult. The ousted director is a
respected scholar. Students and alumni of the Film and Television Institute of
India at Pune angrily agitated against the appointment of Gajendra Chauhan as
president of its governing council. He is a member of the BJP.
The appointments constitute an organised purge and bear the imprints of
orders from the RSS.
Its constitution says that it “has no politics and is devoted purely to cultural
work”. In its lexicon, however, culture is synonymous with the ideology of
Hindutva. The cultural cleansing at work is part of a move to cast India in the
Hindutva mode.