INTRODUCTION:

Max Weber, one of the most well known and highly respected sociologists was an individual of wide learning. His interests
ranged among subjects covering a wide area and his writings covered the field of economics, law, philosophy, comparative
history as well as sociology. This may have been one of the most critical reasons for Weber having put forth his theory of
religion in which he talks about the influence of Protestantism1 on the rise of the Capitalistic Society.2

Our aim is the understanding of the characteristic uniqueness of the reality in which we move. We wish to understand on
the one hand the relationships and the cultural significance of individual events in their contemporary manifestations and on
the other the causes of their being historically so and not otherwise. The influence of Max Weber across the disciplines of
the humanities and social sciences persists, despite numerous scholastic and cultural advances, nearly one hundred years
after his death. His legacy is not only a result of his wide breadth of knowledge and study, but his keen attention to
methodology process and applications. Max Weber’s perception of sociology was an inclusive science of social action. His
main objective was to explain how western society had evolved, distinct from the East, and become dominated by goal
oriented by rationality.

Weber’s work is still widely used. He laid down a foundational theory and orientation to understand the motivations and
values that inform the actions of individuals. Weber began his work on the sociology of religion with what was originally
an essay, ‘The Protestant Ethic and sprit of Capitalism’. Other important work of Weber is: The religion of India: Sociology
of Hinduism and Buddhism (1958), Ancient Judaism (1967) and The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism (1968).

Maximilian Carl Emil Weber:

Maximilian Carl Emil Weber was born on 21 April, 1864 in Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany. He was greatly influenced by his
father Max Weber Sr., a wealthy and prominent politician in the National Liberal Party (Germany) and a civil servant.

His mother, Helene Fallen stein was a Protestant and a Calvinist, with strong moral absolutist ideas. He was a German
political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public
administration.

In 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student and chose as his major study the field of law. Along
with his law coursework, Weber attended lectures in economics and studied medieval history and theology. Intermittently,
he served with the German army in Strasbourg. In 1886 Weber passed the examination for "Referenda". Throughout the late
1880s, Weber continued his study of history. He earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a doctoral dissertation on legal
history entitled The History of Medieval Business Organisations. In 1889, he took doctor’s degree in medieval commercial
law, specializing in legal history with a study of Roman agrarian law. Never fully able to maintain a professional position
or academic output of his earlier years, life of a private scholar in Heidelberg, Weber eventually in 1903 became associate
director of the Achieve fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik. In 1910 , Weber had with Tonnies and Simmel founded
the German Sociological Society. The Sociology of religion consisting of the individual studies of the China, Hinduism, and
Ancient Judaism. On the 14th of June, 1920, Max Weber died. Weber gave his life, producing works of genius yet
unsurpassed in their excellence and boldness of analysis and style.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism:

The core of Weber’s theory is that the attitudes involved in the Spirit of Capitalism3 derived from religion. Around AD 1500,
many Roman Catholics in Western Europe were unhappy with the way the church was being run. The Popes and many of
the priests seemed interested only in wealth and power and set a bad example in the way they led their lives. This led to a
movement, which became known as the “Reformation”, to change and reform the Christian Church. People who joined the
movement were called “Protestants” because they were protesting about the things they thought were wrong.

In 1517, a German monk called Martin Luther nailed a list of complaints about the Church and the way the priests behaved,
to the door of Wittenberg church in Germany. Luther believed that everyone should be able to study God’s message for
themselves. So, he translated the Bible from Latin into German. Versions in other languages quickly followed. Luther was
condemned by a Church court, but several German princes supported him. He also won followers in Europe. Soon, there
were other religious leaders and the Protestants split into different groups. One such group was headed by a reformist named
John Calvin who set up a church in Geneva. Calvin stressed simplicity, austerity and devotion and the followers of Calvin
in England were called Puritans.

Weber, the last of the three writers, like Durkheim, invested significant time in the study of religion. Also similar to
Durkheim, Weber sees a great deal of contemporary society rooted in the processes of religion. However, like Marx, Weber
sees the driving force of history as material interests and not ideas, as found in religious beliefs. So in tying religion to the
spread of capitalism, as he does in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, he attempts to show that the
ideas4 behind the religious beliefs of Calvinists steer the direction of the forces that were already in motion. The combination
of technologies that facilitated capitalism and the ascetic habits of the Calvinists allowed capitalism to flourish in Europe
and spread to the Americas.

Weber summarized the Calvinist ethic in five points

a) There exists an absolute transcendent God who created the world and rules it, but who is incomprehensible and
inaccessible to the finite minds of men.
b) This all powerful and mysterious God had predestined each of us to salvation or damnation, so that we cannot by our
works alter a divine decree which was made before we were born.
c) God created the world for His own glory.
d) Whether he is to be saved or damned, man is obliged to work for the glory of God and to create the Kingdom of God
on earth.
e) Earthly things, human nature, and flesh belong to the order of sin and death and salvation can come to man only through
divine grace.5

The Spirit of Capitalism:

According to Weber, the capitalist desired wealth not for enjoyment or luxurious living. They wanted it so that they could
use it to make more wealth. The thirst for money making for its own sake is the very essence of the modern capitalism.
Capitalism is an economic system which aims at the limited accumulation of the profit through the rational organisation of
production.

In the seventeenth century, thirteen centuries after the fall of Rome, other civilizations were much more prominent than the
West in world history. Europe was a rather insignificant area while China, India and the Ottoman Empire in the Near East
were a; major powers. The Chinese in particular were way ahead of the West in terms of their levels of technological and
economic development. This brought him to a question and he tried to find an explanation to why capitalism developed only
in the West.

Weber reasoned that it was essential to understand what separated modern industry from earlier types of economic activity.
He found that the desire to accumulate wealth was common to all civilizations. People valued wealth for comforts, security,
power and enjoyment that it brought. With the accumulation of wealth, they used it to made themselves comfortable and
become free of want.

Max Weber: World Religions and Social Change:

Religion means set of ideas and believes about the “supernatural” and the impact on the lives of the human beings. Max
Weber’s sociology is the foundation of scientific sociology of religion in a sense of typological and objective understanding.
Rejecting Karl Marx's evolutionary law of class society, or Emile Durkheim's sustained law of moral society, Weber
established the understanding sociology of the subjective meaning of religious action or inaction. To make such knowledge
of the understanding objective, he founded the methodology of the ideal type and the elective affinity of causal relationships.
Weber "elaborated a set of categories, such as types of prophecy, the idea of charisma (spiritual power), reutilisation, and
other categories, which became tools to deal with the comparative material; he was thus the real founder of comparative
sociology."6 Religious believes give meaning to life. They help answer question about oneself and the world one lives in.
They provide certain guidelines or behaviour, certain codes of conduct which individual are expected to follow.

The term "religion" refers to both the personal practices related to communal faith and to group rituals and communication
stemming from shared conviction. "Religion" is sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" or "belief system," but it is
more socially defined than personal convictions, and it entails specific behaviours, respectively.

Weber’s work on the sociology of Religion needed to seen in the context of his methodological approach to social
phenomenon. Weber lived at a time, when positivism was the major approach for the scientific understanding and
interpretation of human behaviour.

Weber however, stressed a means of understanding social phenomena that took into the account the fact that the phenomena
of social experience were not ‘given things’, as the data of the natural sciences were, but were given their form and content
by the ideas and motives of human.7 Weber emphasised the subjective meaning –complex of action and stated that the study
of society required an interpretive understanding of social action, i.e., the methodology of natural sciences is not applicable
to the social sciences.
Sociologists define religion as a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate
meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing and supernatural. There are three key
elements to this definition.
1. Religion is a form of culture. Culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, norms and ideas that create a common
identity among a group of people. Religion shares all of these characteristics.
2. Religion involves beliefs that take the form of ritualized practices. All religions thus have behavioural aspect- special
activities in which believers take part and that identify them as members of a religious community.
3. Religion provides a sense of purpose – a feeling that life is ultimately meaningful. It does so by explaining coherently
and compellingly what transcends or overshadows everyday life, in ways that other aspects of culture typically cannot.

For sociologists, it is very important to study religion with an unbiased and non-judgmental perspective. There are certain
important implications for the study of religion.
The three classical thinkers of Sociology, though they all held that religion is in a fundamental sense an illusion and that the
‘other’ world which religion creates is our world, distorted through the lens of religious symbolism, each, viewed the role
of religion in society very differently. To Karl Marx, religion contained a strong ideological element that provided
justification for inequalities of wealth and power found in society. To Durkheim, religion is an important ingredient of
society because of the cohesive function it serves, especially ensuring that people meet regularly to affirm common beliefs
and values. To Weber, religion is important because of the role it plays in social change, particularly the development of
Western capitalism.

Confucianism in China:
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher
Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had
tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. When Confucianism first took birth in ancient China, it had a
well- developed economy. Trade, commerce, finance and manufacture were quite advanced. Despite the advancement in
civilization, Capitalism did not develop there. Weber through his studies pointed out why. According to Weber, the
Confucian ethic would not permit capitalism. Confucian ideas could be summed up as follows:
a) Belief in the order of the universe, the cosmos.
b) Man should aim at being in harmony with nature and the cosmos.
c) Behaviour is to be guided by tradition. All wisdom lies in the past.
d) Family and kin ties and obligations were never to be neglected.

The stress on harmony, traditionalism and family obligations are quite contradictory to a capitalist form of society. Thus,
the practice of capitalism in such a society would be considered improper and against the religious beliefs of the people.

Judaism in West Asia:

Judaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and explored and explained in later texts
such as the Talmud. Jews consider Judaism to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God developed with the
Children of Israel.

Weber analysed the interaction between the Bedouins, the cities, the herdsmen and the peasants. The conflicts between them
and the rise and fall of United Monarchy. He discusses the organisation of the early confederacy, the unique qualities of
Israelites relations to Yahweh, influence of foreign cults, types of religious ecstasy and the struggle of the priests against
ecstasy and idol worship. He describes the times of the Division of the Monarchy, social aspects of Biblical prophecy, social
orientation of the prophets, demagogues and pamphleteers, ecstasy and politics, ethic and theodicity of the Prophets.

Judaism, as we know is the foundation of Western Christianity. The Jews too believed themselves to be the chosen ones of
God who they believed were to establish God’s kingdom on earth. Judaism, unlike Confucianism and Hinduism speaks of
an ethnic mastery over the environment, not harmony. Weber felt that Judaism could have generated what he called ‘the
spirit of capitalism’. However, certain historical forces prevented this. The Exodus or mass migration of the Jews from their
homeland due to persecution left them scattered all over the world which limited their economic activity.

Hinduism in India:
The oldest of all the great religions still prominent in the world today is Hinduism, the core beliefs of which date back some
6000 years. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. Most Hindus accept the doctrine of the cycle of reincarnation- the belief that
all living beings are part of eternal process of the birth and rebirth. A second key feature is the caste system, based on the
belief that individual are born into a particular position in a social and rituals hierarchy, according to the nature activities in
previous incarnations.
The Hindu ideals of moksha8 or salvation talk of the liberation of the soul only when it is free of material desires or vasanas.
Hinduism preaches “other-worldly asceticism” in which the material world is de-emphasized. Material prosperity is
considered temporary and illusory and is not given importance to. Religions that place more stress on other-worldly
asceticism and de-emphasize the material world can hardly foster attitudes that promote capitalism.

Weber thus reached a conclusion that mere material conditions like finance, trade and technology are not enough to promote
capitalism. India and China had both of these, yet, the value systems of these countries were such that the pursuit of wealth
for one’s own sake and rational organization of work to achieve this purpose did not make sense. It did not fit in with the
ethos or the ideals of these societies.

Criticism:
Weber’s work on religion and economy has been subject to criticism. Some scholars are of the opinion that he concentrated
very selectively on certain aspects of religious ethics and interpreted them very narrowly so that they fit in with his theory.

His theory of the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism has also been criticized from many angles. According to some
scholars, his spirit of capitalism was a phenomenon that was prevalent among the Italian merchants in the twelfth century,
long before Calvinism9 was even heard of. Others were of the opinion that the key notion of “working in a vocation” which
Weber associated with the Protestantism already existed in Catholic beliefs.

Weber’s account and its essentials, although, are still accepted by many and the thesis remains as bold and illuminating in
the modern times as it was when it was first formulated. Weber’s theory is valid, modern economic and social development
has been influenced by something that seems at first sight utterly distant from it – a set of religious ideas. On the brighter
side, critics point out that Weber’s theory meets several criteria important in theoretical thinking in sociology.

Firstly, it is counterintuitive10. It suggests an interpretation that breaks with what common sense would suggest and develops
a fresh perspective on the issues it covers.

Secondly, the theory makes sense of something that is otherwise very puzzling - the idea of why individuals would want to
live frugally after making great efforts to accumulate large amounts of wealth.

Thirdly, it illuminates circumstances beyond those it was originally developed to understand. Though Weber’s principal
study dealt with the origin of capitalism, he implies that parallel values to those instilled by Puritanism 11 might be involved
in other situations of modern capitalist development.

Lastly, a good theory is not just one that happens to be valid. It is also one that is fruitful in terms of how far it generates
new ideas and stimulates further research work. Weber’s theory has been highly successful in these respects, providing the
springboard for a vast amount of subsequent research and theoretical analysis.

Having granted its virtues and its unquestionable advancement of modern society, Weber was the first to concede the vices
bureaucracy, viz., the inevitable de-personalization of human relationships in government and industry. He refers to the
formalism and the rule-bound and cool ‘matter-of-factness’ of bureaucratic organization, a crypto-plutocratic13 distribution
of power and increasing concentration of the materials of management. Yet, says Weber, it is inevitable, irrepressible, and
inescapable.

Weber’s theory of religion being the driving force behind capitalism may have applied and been a very logical explanation
for the rise of capitalism as an economic system in the west in the 18 th century. But if we were to apply the same theory in
modern society, it would fail because man today is motivated by the need to survive and not the desire for a peaceful life.
For what we make of what we have is under our control but what becomes of us when we lose our physical bodies is totally
and completely uncertain

CONCLUSION:
Weber made detailed studies on Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism14 and ancient Judaism and in The Protestant Ethic and the
Spirit of Capitalism and elsewhere, he wrote extensively about the impact of Christianity on the West.
Weber’s writings on religion concentrate on the connection between religion and social change. Weber argues that religion
is not necessarily a conservative force; on the contrary, religiously inspired movements 15 have often produced dramatic
social transformations.

Max Weber demonstrated a vast and profound knowledge of history which he analyzed with a conceptual precision that is
unsurpassed by any historian or sociologist to date. The wealth of material contained in his writings, the painstaking study
of concrete situation and historical processes, his analysis of the structure of social action, typology of behaviour,
comparative study of religions as well as economic, political and social systems and his insights into the contemporary
process of rationalization16 and bureaucratization could well be used by generations of sociologists to come. A prolific writer
and original thinker, Weber made extensive use of his knowledge of history, philosophical tradition, religious system and
social structures to refine his concepts and to developed genera theoretical schema dealing with a variety of social
phenomena.

Weber treated his research on world religions as a single project. His discussion of the impact of Protestantism on the
development of capitalism in the West is part of a comprehensive attempt to understand the influence of religion on the
economic life in varying cultures. Analyzing Eastern religions, Weber concluded that they provide inseparable barriers to
the development of industrial capitalism. He says this was not because the Eastern civilizations were backward, but because
they had simply come to accept values that were different from the ones that were predominant in Europe.

From his study of Hinduism, he inferred that its highest valued stress escape from the toils of a material world to a higher
plane of spiritual existence. The religion does not motivate its followers to focus or control the material world. Hinduism,
in fact sees material reality as a veil hiding the true concerns to which humankind should be oriented.

Though China was for a long time one of the most powerful and culturally most developed civilizations of the world, it was
dominated by its religious values that acted as an impediment to economic development. Confucianism directed effort away
from economic development, which means it emphasizes harmony with the world rather that promoting economic
development.

He regarded Christianity although as a salvation religion with values that say that human beings can be ‘saved’ if they adopt
the beliefs of religion and follow its moral tenets. The notions of sin and the rescue from sinfulness by God’s grace generate
a tension about emotional dynamism something essentially absent in eastern religions. Drawing the most significant
difference between the religions of the East and the West, Weber said that the religions of the East cultivated an attitude of
passivity in the believer towards the existing order whereas Christianity involves a constant struggle against sin, and hence
can stimulate revolt against the existing order of things.

ENDNOTES:
1. “Protestantism “word means when someone says something forcefully or complains about something.
2. Economic Society based on private ownership of the means of production.
3. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Scribner's Press, 1958, pp. 47 - 78.
4. Weber’s classic “switchman” metaphor
5. Aron 1967: 221-222
6. Ninian Smart. "The Study and Classification of Religions," in Encyclopedia, 15th ed.
7. Simey,1967:95
8. Moksha defined as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God;
realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental
peace; and as detachment from worldly desires.
9. A simple, frugal life-style along with hard work was recommended. Worldly or sensual pleasures were viewed with
horror; fine clothes, dance and music, theatre and novels came from the Devil as they would divert a person from working
for the glory of God.

10. Describes something that does not happen in the way you would expect it to.

11. Calvin stressed simplicity, austerity and devotion and the followers of Calvin in England were called Puritans.

12. A hidden system of government in which the richest people in a country rule or have power.

13. A religion developed originally in ancient China which emphasizes a simple and natural life.

14. Restorationists, Nontrinitarian movements, or the New Religious Movements, which share certain characteristics of the
Protestant churches, are termed 'Protestant' by outsiders, even though neither mainstream Trinitarian Christians, nor the
groups themselves, would consider the designation appropriate.
15. The rationalization is partially a product of the fact that Luther and his religious descendents read the Old Testament
and New with equal weight, and so is due to greater influence of Jewish thought.

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