AIRFIELD PAVEMENT MARKINGS

Developed by
Course Development Unit
Indian Aviation Academy
New Delhi, India
Second Edition, 2021
 GLOSSARY
Aerodrome. A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and
equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface
movement of aircraft.

Aerodrome identification sign. A sign placed on an aerodrome to aid in identifying the

aerodrome from the air.

Aircraft classification number (ACN). A number expressing the relative effect of an

aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard subgrade category.

Note. C The aircraft classification number is calculated with respect to the center of gravity
(CG) position which yields the critical loading on the critical gear.

Aircraft stand. A designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft.

Apron. A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes
of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance.

Declared distances.

a) Take-off run available (TORA). The length of runway declared available and suitable for
the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.

b) Take-off distance available (TODA). The length of the take-off run available plus the
length of the clearway, if provided.

c) Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA). The length of the take-off run available plus
the length of the stopway, if provided.

d) Landing distance available (LDA). The length of runway which is declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.

Dependent parallel approaches. Simultaneous approaches to parallel or near-parallel

instrument runways where radar separation minima between aircraft on adjacent extended
runway centre lines are prescribed.

Displaced threshold. A threshold not located at the extremity of a runway.

Heliport. An aerodrome or a defined area on a structure intended to be used wholly or in part

for the arrival, departure and surface movement of helicopters.

Holding bay. A defined area where aircraft can be held, or bypassed, to facilitate efficient
surface movement of aircraft.
Independent parallel approaches. Simultaneous approaches to parallel or near-parallel
instrument runways where radar separation minima between aircraft on adjacent extended
runway centre lines are not prescribed.

Independent parallel departures. Simultaneous departures from parallel or near-parallel

instrument runways.

Instrument runway. One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of
aircraft using instrument approach procedures:

a) Non-precision approach runway. An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-
visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in approach.

b) Precision approach runway, category I. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or

MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200
ft) and either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m.

c) Precision approach runway, category II. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or
MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft)
but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not less than 350 m.

d) Precision approach runway, category III. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or
MLS to and along the surface of the runway and:

A. Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft), or no decision
height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m.

B. Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft), or no decision
height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.

C. Intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations.

Note. Visual aids need not necessarily be matched to the scale of non-visual aids provided.
The criterion for the selection of visual aids is the conditions in which operations are intended
to be conducted.

NOTAM (Notice to Airmen): A notice distributed by means of telecommunication

containing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical
facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel
concerned with flight operations.

Intermediate holding position. A designated position intended for traffic control at which
taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall stop and hold until further cleared to proceed, when so
instructed by the aerodrome control tower.

Landing area. That part of a movement area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft.
Manoeuvring area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing and
taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons.

Marking. A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the movement area in
order to convey aeronautical information.

Movement area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing and taxiing of
aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area and the apron(s).

Near-parallel runways. Non-intersecting runways whose extended centre lines have an

angle of convergence/divergence of 15 degrees or less.

Non-instrument runway. A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.

Precision approach runway, see Instrument runway.

Primary runway(s). Runway(s) used in preference to others whenever conditions permit.

Road. An established surface route on the movement area meant for the exclusive use of
vehicles.

Road-holding position. A designated position at which vehicles may be required to hold.

Runway. A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-
off of aircraft.

Runway end safety area (RESA). An area symmetrical about the extended runway centre
line and adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an
aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the runway.

Runway-holding position. A designated position intended to protect a runway, an obstacle

limitation surface, or an ILS/ MLS critical/sensitive area at which taxiing aircraft and
vehicles shall stop and hold, unless otherwise authorized by the aerodrome control tower.

Runway strip. A defined area including the runway and stopway, if provided, intended:

a) To reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off a runway; and

b) To protect aircraft flying over it during take-off or landing operations.

Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line
of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.

Safety Management System. A system for the management of safety at aerodromes

including the organizational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes and provisions
for the implementation of aerodrome safety policies by an aerodrome operator, which
provides for control of safety at, and the safe use of, the aerodrome.

Segregated parallel operations. Simultaneous operations on parallel or near-parallel

instrument runways in which one runway is used exclusively for approaches and the other
runway is used exclusively for departures.

Shoulder. An area adjacent to the edge of a pavement so prepared as to provide a transition

between the pavement and the adjacent surface.

Sign.

a) Fixed message sign. A sign presenting only one message.

b) Variable message sign. A sign capable of presenting several pre-determined messages or

no message, as applicable.

Stopway. A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run available
prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned
take-off.

Take-off runway. A runway intended for take-off only.

Taxiway. A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and
intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another, including:

a) Aircraft stand taxi lane. A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to
provide access to aircraft stands only.

b) Apron taxiway. A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to

provide a through taxi route across the apron.

c) Rapid exit taxiway. A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to
allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways
thereby minimizing runway occupancy times.

Taxiway intersection. A junction of two or more taxiways.

Taxiway strip. An area including a taxiway intended to protect an aircraft operating on the
taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft accidentally running off the taxiway.

Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing

Touchdown zone. The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended
landing aeroplanes first contact the runway.
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Background
This training program is aimed to meet the demand of trained airfield pavement
markings Engineers. The existing professionals have been carrying out the job are
using conventional methods and are having some basic knowledge of airfield
pavement markings due to their experience without any systematic knowledge of the
subject. Considering the steep growth in aviation sector resulting in manifold increase
in aircraft movements at airports and the sizes of the airports including airfields, it has
become necessary to train present and future airfield pavement markings Engineers to
enable them effectively and efficiently implement, inspect and maintain Airfield
Pavement Marking.

1.2 Course Goal

This course aims to provide participants with Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes
required to perform the duties airfield pavement markings engineer effectively and
efficiently in accordance with DGCA India Civil Aviation Requirements, section-4
(Aerodrome Standards & Licensing), series ‘B’ Part I.

1.3 Course Objectives

At the end of this course the participants will be able to:

1. Familiarize with Airfield Pavement Markings in accordance with DGCA India

Civil Aviation Requirements, section-4 (Aerodrome Standards & Licensing),
series ‘B’ Part I & ICAO Annex -14 Vol. I Eighth edition.
2. Apply Airfield Pavement Markings in accordance with DGCA India Civil
Aviation Requirements, section-4 (Aerodrome Standards & Licensing), series ‘B’
Part I & ICAO Annex -14 Vol. I Eighth edition.
3. Inspect conspicuity of Airfield Pavement Markings in accordance with DGCA
India Civil Aviation Requirements, section-4 (Aerodrome Standards &
Licensing), series ‘B’ Part I & ICAO Annex -14 Vol. I Eighth edition.
4. Maintain Airfield Pavement Markings in accordance with DGCA India Civil
Aviation Requirements, section-4 (Aerodrome Standards & Licensing), series ‘B’
Part I & ICAO Annex -14 Vol. I Eighth edition.

1.4 Operating Requirements and Visual Aids

Before we proceed to discuss airfield pavement markings, let us appreciate the task of
the pilot-in-command in relation to the use of and reliance upon visual aids and visual
cues in approaching, landing and operating on the airport surface.
The operating requirements for visual aids vary according to the type of aircraft being
flown, the meteorological conditions, the type of navigation aid used for the approach,
the physical characteristics of the runway and taxiways, and whether or not landing
information is available through radio communications. Major components of an
airport and its operational area are depicted in Figure 1-1.

Fig-1-1 Components of an airport and its operational area

The operating requirements are:

A) Airport location;

B) Airport identification;

C) Landing information:

1. Wind direction and speed;

2. Runway designation;
3. Runway status — closed or usable;

D) Circling guidance;

E) Final approach guidance to touchdown

1. Runway edge and threshold delineation;

2. Approach slope guidance;
3. Aiming point guidance;
4. Runway centre line delineation;
Note: - Runway Centre line delineation is not feasible for unpaved runways. Such
runways are normally used only in conditions of good visibility. Thus, centre line
delineation is not as important as it is at airports where operations in low visibilities
are authorized in conjunction with an instrument approach aid.
 F) Roll-out guidance:
1. Runway centre line delineation; see note under E) 4;
2. Runway edge delineation;
3. Exit taxiway location;
4. Exit taxiway edge and centre line delineation;
5. Runway end indication;

G) Taxiing guidance:
1. Taxiway edge and/or centre line delineation;
2. Information signs to parking and servicing areas;
3. Mandatory instruction signs;

H) Departure information;
Note: The information needed is the same as that listed in C) above; however,
pilots normally obtain all such information prior to leaving the Operations
Office without reference to visual aids.

I) Take-off guidance:
1. Runway centre line delineation.
2. Runway edge delineation;
3. Runway end indication.

1.5 Requirement of markings

a) Airport pavement markings and signs provide information that is useful to a pilot
during takeoff, landing, taxiing, safe manoeuvring of aircraft on the stand and precise
positioning of aircraft.

b) Uniformity in airport markings and signs from one airport to another enhances
safety and improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the operators of
the airports they use to achieve the marking and sign standards described in this
section.

c) Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or confusing markings or signs on an

airport should make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. These situations
may also be reported under the Aviation Safety Reporting Program of the airport
Markings and markers provide essential information to pilots by their location, size
and colour characteristics. Standardization is important. Where provided, markings
and marker aids contribute to the safety and operational efficiency of aircraft and
vehicle movements. Good maintenance of these aids is essential to ensure that the
cues that they provide are available in all circumstances.
 NOTES

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
 Chapter 2

Airfield Pavement Marking Specifications

2.1 Aerodrome Categories

The intent of the reference code is to provide a simple method for inter relating the
numerous specifications concerning the characteristics of aerodromes so as to provide a
series of aerodrome facilities that are suitable for the aeroplanes that are intended to
operate at the aerodrome. The code is not intended to be used for determining runway
length or pavement strength requirements. The code is composed of two elements which
are related to the aeroplane performance characteristics and dimensions. Element 1 is a
number based on the aeroplane reference field length and element 2 is a letter based on
the aeroplane wing span. The code letter or number within an element selected for design
purposes is related to the critical aeroplane characteristics for which the facility is
provided. When applying this Standard, the aeroplanes which the aerodrome is intended
to serve are first identified and then the two elements of the code are determined.

2.1.1 An aerodrome reference code; code number and letter; which is selected for
aerodrome planning purposes shall be determined in accordance with the
characteristics of the aeroplane for which an aerodrome facility is intended.
2.1.2 The aerodrome reference code numbers and letters shall have the meanings
assigned to them in Table 2-1
2.1.3 The code number for element 1 shall be determined from Table 2-1, column 1,
selecting the code number corresponding to the highest value of the aeroplane
reference field lengths of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended.
Note: The determination of the aeroplane reference field length is solely for the
selection of a code number and is not intended to influence the actual runway
length provided.
2.1.4 The code letter for element 2 shall be determined from Table 2-1, column 3, by
selecting the code letter which corresponds to the greatest wing span of the
aeroplanes for which the facility is intended.

Note: Guidance on determining the aerodrome reference code is given in the

ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Parts 1 and 2.
 Table 2-1 Aerodrome Reference Code
2.2 Markings

Interruption of runway markings

2.2.1 At an intersection of two (or more) runways the markings of the more
important runway, except for the runway side stripe marking, shall be
displayed and the markings of the other runway(s) shall be interrupted. The
runway side stripe marking of the more important runway may be either
continued across the intersection or interrupted.
2.2.2 The order of importance of runways for the display of runway markings shall
be as follows:
1st — Precision approach runway;
2nd — Non-precision approach runway; and
3rd — Non-instrument runway.
2.2.3 At an intersection of a runway and taxiway the markings of the runway shall
be displayed and the markings of the taxiway interrupted, except that runway
side stripe markings may be interrupted.
Note: See section 2.2.8.7 regarding the manner of connecting runway and
taxiway centre line markings.

Colour and conspicuity

2.2.4 Runway markings shall be white.
Note1: It has been found that, on runway surfaces of light colour, the
conspicuity of white markings can be improved by outlining them in black.

Note 2: It is preferable that the risk of uneven friction characteristics on

markings be reduced in so far as practicable by the use of a suitable kind of
paint.
 Note 3: Markings may consist of solid areas or a series of longitudinal stripes
providing an effect equivalent to the solid areas.

2.2.5 Taxiway markings, runway turn pad markings and aircraft stand markings
shall be yellow.
2.2.6 Apron safety lines shall be of red colour.
2.2.7 At aerodromes where operations take place at night, pavement markings
should be made with reflective materials designed to enhance the visibility of
the markings.

Note: Guidance on reflective materials is given in ICAO Aerodrome Design

Manual (Doc 9157), part 4.

Unpaved taxiway
2.2.8 An unpaved taxiway shall be provided with the markings prescribed for paved
taxiways.

2.3 Runway designation marking

Application
2.3.1 A runway designation marking shall be provided at the thresholds of a paved
runway.
2.3.2 A runway designation marking should be provided, so far as practicable, at the
thresholds of an unpaved runway.
Location
2.3.3 A runway designation marking shall be located at a threshold as shown in
Figure 2-1 as appropriate.

Note: If the runway threshold is displaced from the extremity of the runway, a
sign showing the designation of the runway may be provided for aeroplanes
taking off.
 Figure 2-1. Runway designation, centre line and threshold markings

Characteristics
2.3.4 A runway designation marking shall consist of a two-digit number and on
parallel runways shall be supplemented with a letter. On a single runway, dual
parallel runways and triple parallel runways the two-digit number shall be the
whole number nearest the one-tenth of the magnetic North when viewed from
the direction of approach. On four or more parallel runways, one set of
adjacent runways shall be numbered to the nearest one-tenth magnetic azimuth
and the other set of adjacent runways numbered to the next nearest one-tenth
of the magnetic azimuth. When the above rule would give a single digit
number, it shall be preceded by a zero.
2.3.5 In the case of parallel runways, each runway designation number shall be
supplemented by a letter as follows, in the order shown from left to right when
viewed from the direction of approach:
For two parallel runways: “L” “R”;
For three parallel runways: “L” “C” “R”;
For four parallel runways: “L” “R” “L” “R”;
For five parallel runways: “L” “C” “R” “L” “R” or “L” “R” “L” “C” “R”; and
For six parallel runways: “L” “C” “R” “L” “C” “R”.
2.3.6 The numbers and letters shall be in the form and proportion shown in Figure
2-2. The dimensions shall be not less than those shown in Figure 2-2, but
where the numbers are incorporated in the threshold marking, larger
dimensions shall be used in order to fill adequately the gap between the stripes
of the threshold marking.
 Figure 2-2 Form and proportions of numbers and letters for runway designation
markings

2.4 Runway centre line marking

Application
2.4.1 A runway centre line marking shall be provided on a paved runway.

Location
2.4.2 A runway centre line marking shall be located along the centre line of the
runway between the runway designation markings as shown in Figure 2-1,
except when interrupted in compliance with 2.2.

Characteristics
2.4.3 A runway centre line marking shall consist of a line of uniformly spaced
stripes and gaps. The length of a stripe plus a gap shall be not less than 50 m
or more than 75 m. The length of each stripe shall be at least equal to the
length of the gap or 30 m, whichever is greater.
2.4.4 The width of the stripes shall be not less than:
0.90 m on precision approach category II and III runways;
0.45 m on non-precision approach runways where the code number is 3 or 4,
and precision approach category I runways; and
0.30 m on non-precision approach runways where the code number is 1 or 2,
and on non-instrument runways.

2.5 Threshold marking application

Application
2.5.1 A threshold marking shall be provided at the threshold of a paved instrument
runway, and of a paved non-instrument runway where the code number is 3 or
4 and the runway is intended for use by international commercial air transport.
2.5.2 Recommendation: A threshold marking should be provided at the threshold
of a paved non-instrument runway where the code number is 3 or 4 and the
runway is intended for use by other than international commercial air
transport.
2.5.3 Recommendation: A threshold marking should be provided, so far as
practicable, at the thresholds of an unpaved runway.

Note. — The Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 4, shows a form of
marking which has been found satisfactory for the marking of downward
slopes immediately before the threshold.

Location
2.5.4 The stripes of the threshold marking shall commence 6 m from the threshold.

Characteristics
2.5.5 A runway threshold marking shall consist of a pattern of longitudinal stripes of
uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the centre line of a runway
as shown in Figure 2-1(A) and (B) for a runway width of 45 m. The number of
stripes shall be in accordance with the runway width as follows:

Runway width Number of stripes

18 m 4
23 m 6
30 m 8
45 m 12
60 m 16

Except that on non-precision approach and non-instrument runways 45 m or

greater in width, they may be as shown in Figure 2-1 (C).

2.5.6 The stripes shall extend laterally to within 3 m of the edge of a runway or to a
distance of 27 m on either side of a runway centre line, whichever results in
the smaller lateral distance. Where a runway designation marking is placed
within a threshold marking there shall be a minimum of three stripes on each
side of the centre line of the runway. Where a runway designation marking is
placed above a threshold marking, the stripes shall be continued across the
runway. The stripes shall be at least 30 m long and approximately 1.80 m wide
with spacing’s of approximately 1.80 m between them except that, where the
 stripes are continued across a runway, a double spacing shall be used to
separate the two stripes nearest the centre line of the runway, and in the case
where the designation marking is included within the threshold marking this
spacing shall be 22.5m.

Transverse stripe
2.5.7 Where a threshold is displaced from the extremity of a runway or where the
extremity of a runway is not square with the runway centre line, a transverse
stripe as shown in Figure 2-3 (B) should be added to the threshold marking.
2.5.8 A transverse stripe shall be not less than 1.80 m wide.

Arrows
2.5.9 Where a runway threshold is permanently displaced, arrows conforming to
Figure 2-3 (B) shall be provided on the portion of the runway before the
displaced threshold.
2.5.10 When a runway threshold is temporarily displaced from the normal position,
it shall be marked as shown in Figure 2-3 (A) or 2-3 (B) and all markings prior
to the displaced threshold shall be obscured except the runway centre line
marking, which shall be converted to arrows.

Note 1: In the case where a threshold is temporarily displaced for only a short
period of time, it has been found satisfactory to use markers in the form and
colour of a displaced threshold marking rather than attempting to paint this
marking on the runway.

Note 2: When the runway before a displaced threshold is unfit for the surface
movement of aircraft, closed markings, as described in 2.19.4, are required to
be provided.
 Fig 2-3 (A & B) Displaced Threshold Marking

2.6 Aiming point marking

Application
2.6.1 An aiming point marking shall be provided at each approach end of a paved
instrument runway where the code number is 2, 3 or 4.
2.6.2 An aiming point marking shall be provided at each approach end of:
a) A paved non-instrument runway where the code number is 3 or 4,
b) A paved instrument runway where the code number is 1, When additional
conspicuity of the aiming point is desirable.

Location
2.6.3 The aiming point marking shall commence no closer to the threshold than the
distance indicated in the appropriate column of Table 2-2, except that, on a
runway equipped with a visual approach slope indicator system, the beginning
of the marking shall be coincident with the visual approach slope origin.
2.6.4 An aiming point marking shall consist of two conspicuous stripes. The
dimensions of the stripes and the lateral spacing between their inner sides shall
be in accordance with the provisions of the appropriate column of Table 2-2.
Where a touchdown zone marking is provided, the lateral spacing between the
markings shall be the same as that of the touchdown zone marking.
 Table 2-2 Location and Dimensions of aiming point marking

2.7 Touchdown zone marking

Application
2.7.1 A touchdown zone marking shall be provided in the touchdown zone of a
paved precision approach runway where the code number is 2, 3 or 4.
2.7.2 A touchdown zone marking shall be provided in the touchdown zone of a
paved non-precision approach or non-instrument runway where the code
number is 3 or 4 and additional conspicuity of the touchdown zone is desirable

Location and characteristics

2.7.3 A touchdown zone marking shall consist of pairs of rectangular markings
symmetrically disposed about the runway centre line with the number of such
pairs related to the landing distance available and, where the marking is to be
displayed at both the approach directions of a runway, the distance between
the thresholds, as follows:

Landing distance available or Pair(s) of markings

the distance between thresholds
less than 900 m 1
900 m up to but not including 1 2
200 m
1 200 m up to but not including 1 3
500 m
1 500 m up to but not including 2 4
400 m
2 400 m or more 6
 2.7.4 A touchdown zone marking shall conform to either of the two patterns shown
in Figure 2-4. For the pattern shown in Figure 2-4 (A), the markings shall be
not less than 22.5m long and 3 m wide. For the pattern shown in Figure 2-4
(B), each stripe of each marking shall be not less than 22.5 m long and 1.8 m
wide with spacing of 1.5 m between adjacent stripes. The lateral spacing
between the inner sides of the rectangles shall be equal to that of the aiming
point marking where provided. Where an aiming point marking is not
provided, the lateral spacing between the inner sides of the rectangles shall
correspond to the lateral spacing specified for the aiming point marking in
Table 2-2 (columns 2, 3, 4 or 5, as appropriate). The pairs of markings shall be
provided at longitudinal spacing of 150 m beginning from the threshold except
that pairs of touchdown zone markings coincident with or located within 50 m
of an aiming point marking shall be deleted from the pattern.
2.7.5 On a non-precision approach runway where the code number is 2, an
additional pair of touchdown zone marking stripes shall be provided 150 m
beyond the beginning of the aiming point marking.

2.8 Runway side stripe marking

Application
2.8.1 A runway side stripe marking shall be provided between the thresholds of a
paved runway where there is a lack of contrast between the runway edges and
the shoulders or the surrounding terrain.
2.8.2 A runway side stripe marking shall be provided on a precision approach
runway irrespective of the contrast between the runway edges and the
shoulders or the surrounding terrain.

Location
2.8.3 A runway side stripe marking shall consist of two stripes, one placed along
each edge of the runway with the outer edge of each stripe approximately on
the edge of the runway, except that, where the runway is greater than 60 m in
width, the stripes shall be located 30 m from the runway centre line.
2.8.4 Where a runway turn pad is provided, the runway side stripe marking should
be continued between the runway and the runway turn pad.
2.8.5 A runway side stripe should have an overall width of at least 0.9 m on
runways 30 m or more in width and at least 0.45 m on narrower runways
 Figure 2-4 (A & B) Aiming point and touchdown zone markings

2.9 Taxiway centre line marking

Application
2.9.1 Taxiway centre line marking shall be provided on a paved taxiway, de-
icing/anti-icing facility and apron in such a way as to provide continuous
guidance between the runway centre line and aircraft stands.
2.9.2 Taxiway centre line marking should be provided on a paved taxiway, de-
icing/anti-icing facility and apron where the code number is 1 or 2 in such a
 way as to provide continuous guidance between the runway centre line and
aircraft stands.
2.9.3 Taxiway centre line marking shall be provided on a paved runway when the
runway is part of a standard taxi route and:
a) There is no runway centre line marking; or
b) Where the taxiway centre line is not coincident with the runway centre line.
2.9.4 Where it is necessary for runway incursion prevention measures and to denote
the proximity of a runway-holding position, enhanced taxiway centre line
marking should be provided.
2.9.5 Where provided, enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall be installed at
each Taxiway/ Runway intersections.

Location
2.9.6 On a straight section of a taxiway the taxiway centre line marking shall be
located along the taxiway centre line. On a taxiway curve the marking shall
continue from the straight portion of the taxiway at a constant distance from
the outside edge of the curve. Refer Appendix 4 for details.
2.9.7 At an intersection of a taxiway with a runway where the taxiway serves as an
exit from the runway, the taxiway centre line marking shall be curved into the
runway centre line marking as shown in Figure 2-5 (Refer Appendix 4 for
details on taxiway curves). The taxiway Centre line marking shall be extended
parallel to the runway centre line marking for a distance of at least 60 m
beyond the point of tangency where the code number is 3 or 4, and for a
distance of at least 30 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
2.9.8 Where taxiway centre line marking is provided on a runway in accordance
with 2.9.3, the marking shall be located on the centre line of the designated
taxiway.
2.9.9 Where provided:
(1) An enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall extend from the runway-
holding position Pattern A (as defined in Figure 2-5, Taxiway markings)
to a distance of up to 47m in the direction of travel away from the runway.
See Figure 2-6 (a).
(2) If the enhanced taxiway centre line marking intersects another runway-
holding position marking, such as for a precision approach category II or
III runway that is located within 47m of the first runway-holding position
marking the enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall be interrupted
0.9m prior to and after the intersected runway-holding position marking.
The enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall continue beyond the
intersected runway-holding position marking for at least 3 dashed line
segments or 47m from start to finish, whichever is greater. See Figure 2-6
(b).
(3) If the enhanced taxiway centre line marking continues through a
taxiway/taxiway intersection that is located within 47m of the runway-
holding position marking, the enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall
 be interrupted 1.5m prior to and after the point where the intersected
taxiway centre line crosses the enhanced taxiway centre line. The
enhanced taxiway centre line marking shall continue beyond the
taxiway/taxiway intersection for at least 3 dashed line segments or 47m
from start to finish, whichever is greater. See Figure 2-6 (c).
(4) Where two taxiway centre lines converge at or before the runway-holding
position marking, the inner dashed line shall not be less than 3m in length.
See Figure 2-6 (d).
(5) Where there are two opposing runway-holding position markings and the
distance between the markings is less than 94m, the enhanced taxiway
centre line markings shall extend over this entire distance. The enhanced
taxiway centre line markings shall not extend beyond either runway-
holding position marking. See Figure 2-6 (e).

Characteristics
2.9.10 A taxiway Centre line marking shall be at least 15 cm in width and continuous
in length except where it intersects with a runway-holding position marking or
an intermediate holding position marking as shown in Figure 2-5.
2.9.11 Enhanced taxiway Centre line marking shall be as shown in Figure 2-6 A.
 Figure 2-5 Taxiway Markings
(shown with basic runway marking)
 Figure 2-6 Enhanced Taxiway Centerline Markings

2.10 Runway turn pad marking

Application
2.10.1 Where a runway turn pad is provided, a runway turn pad marking shall be
provided for continuous guidance to enable an aeroplane to complete a 180-
degree turn and align with the runway centre line.
 Location
2.10.2 The runway turn pad marking shall be curved from the runway centre line
into the turn pad. The radius of the curve shall be compatible with the
manoeuvring capability and normal taxiing speeds of the aeroplanes for which
the runway turn pad is intended. The intersection angle of the runway turn pad
marking with the runway centre line shall not be greater than 30 degrees.
2.10.3 The runway turn pad marking shall be extended parallel to the runway centre
line marking for a distance of at least 60 m beyond the point of tangency
where the code number is 3 or 4, and for a distance of at least 30 m where the
code number is 1 or 2.
2.10.4 A runway turn pad marking shall guide the aeroplane in such a way as to
allow a straight portion of taxiing before the point where a 180-degree turn is
to be made. The straight portion of the runway turn pad marking shall be
parallel to the outer edge of the runway turn pad.
2.10.5 The design of the curve allowing the aeroplane to negotiate a 180-degree turn
shall be based on a nose wheel steering angle not exceeding 45 degrees.
2.10.6 The design of the turn pad marking shall be such that, when the cockpit of the
aeroplane remains over the runway turn pad marking, the clearance distance
between any wheel of the aeroplane landing gear and the edge of the runway
turn pad shall be not less than those specified in Appendix 4.
Note: For ease of manoeuvring, consideration may be given to providing a
larger wheel-to-edge clearance for codes E and F aeroplanes. See Appendix 4

Characteristics
2.10.7 A runway turn pad marking shall be at least 15 cm in width and continuous in
length.

2.11 Runway-holding position marking

Application and location

2.11.1 A runway-holding position marking shall be displayed along a runway-
holding position.

Characteristics
2.11.2 At an intersection of a taxiway and a non instrument, non-precision approach
or take-off runway, the runway-holding position marking shall be as shown in
Figure 2-5, pattern A.
2.11.3 Where a single runway-holding position is provided at an intersection of a
taxiway and a precision approach category I, II or III runway, the runway-
holding position marking shall be as shown in Figure 2-5, pattern A. Where
two or three runway-holding positions are provided at such an intersection, the
 runway-holding position marking closer (closest) to the runway shall be as
shown in Figure 2-5, pattern A and the markings farther from the runway shall
be as shown in Figure 2-5, pattern B.
2.11.4 The runway-holding position marking displayed at a runway-holding position
established in accordance with 3.12.3 shall be as shown in Figure 2-5, pattern
A.
2.11.5 Until 26 November 2026, the dimensions of runway-holding position
markings shall be as shown in figure 2-7, pattern A1 (or A2) or pattern B1 (or
B2), as appropriate.
2.11.6 As of 26 November 2026, the dimensions of runway-holding position marking
shall be as shown in Figure 2-7, pattern A2 or pattern B2, as appropriate.
2.11.7 Where increased conspicuity of the runway-holding position is required, the
dimensions of runway holding position marking shall be as shown in Figure 2-
7, pattern A2 or pattern B2, as appropriate.

Note: An increased conspicuity of the runway-holding position can be

required, notably to avoid incursion risks.

2.11.8 Where a pattern B runway-holding position marking is located on an area

where it would exceed 60 m in length, the term “CAT II” or “CAT III” as
appropriate shall be marked on the surface at the ends of the runway-holding
position marking and at equal intervals of 45 m maximum between successive
marks. The letters shall be not less than 1.8 m high and shall be placed not
more than 0.9 m beyond the holding position marking.
2.11.9 The runway-holding position marking displayed at a runway/runway
intersection shall be perpendicular to the centre line of the runway forming
part of the standard taxi-route. The pattern of the marking shall be as shown in
Figure 2-7, pattern A2.
 Figure 2-7 Runway-holding position markings
2.12 Intermediate holding position marking

Application and location

2.12.1 An intermediate holding position marking should be displayed along an
intermediate holding position.
2.12.2 An intermediate holding position marking should be displayed at the exit
boundary of a remote de-icing/anti-icing facility adjoining a taxiway.
2.12.3 Where an intermediate holding position marking is displayed at an intersection
of two paved taxiways, it shall be located across the taxiway at sufficient
distance from the near edge of the intersecting taxiway to ensure safe
clearance between taxiing aircraft. It shall be coincident with a stop bar or
intermediate holding position lights, where provided.
2.12.4 The distance between an intermediate holding position marking at the exit
boundary of a remote de-icing/ anti-icing facility and the centre line of the
adjoining taxiway shall not be less than the dimension specified in Table 3-1,
column 11.

Characteristics
2.12.5 An intermediate holding position marking shall consist of a single broken line
as shown in Figure 2-5.
2.13 VOR aerodrome check-point marking

Application
2.13.1 A VOR aerodrome check point shall be established on an aerodrome served
with a VOR. It shall be indicated by a VOR aerodrome check-point marking
and sign.

Location
2.13.2 A VOR aerodrome check-point marking shall be centered on the spot at which
an aircraft is to be parked to receive the correct VOR signal.

Characteristics
2.13.3 A VOR aerodrome check-point marking shall consist of a circle 6 m in
diameter and have a line width of 15 cm (see Figure 2-7 (A)).
2.13.4 When it is preferable for an aircraft to be aligned in a specific direction, a line
should be provided that passes through the centre of the circle on the desired
azimuth. The line should extend 6 m outside the circle in the desired direction
of heading and terminate in an arrowhead. The width of the line should be 15
cm (see Figure 2-7 (B)).
2.13.5 A VOR aerodrome checkpoint marking shall be white in colour.
Note: To provide contrast, markings may be bordered with black.

2.14 Aircraft stand markings

Guidance on the layout of aircraft stand markings is contained in 2.21
2.14.1 Aircraft stand markings should be provided for designated parking positions
on a paved apron and on a de-icing/anti-icing facility.
2.14.2 Aircraft stand markings on a paved apron and on a de-icing/anti-icing facility
should be located so as to provide the clearances when the nose wheel follows
the stand marking (For clearances please see Appendix 5)
2.14.3 Aircraft stand markings shall include such elements as stand identification,
lead-in line, turn bar, turning line, alignment bar, stop line and lead out line, as
are required by the parking configuration and to complement other parking
aids.
2.14.4 An aircraft stand identification (letter and/or number) should be included in
the lead-in line a short distance after the beginning of the lead-in line. The
height of the identification should be adequate to be readable from the cockpit
of aircraft using the stand.
2.14.5 Where two sets of aircraft stand markings are superimposed on each other in
order to permit more flexible use of the apron and it is difficult to identify
which stand marking should be followed, or safety would be impaired if the
wrong marking was followed, then identification of the aircraft for which each
set of markings is intended should be added to the stand identification.
 Note: Example: 2A-B747, 2B-F28.
2.14.6 Lead-in, turning and lead out lines should normally be continuous in length
and have a width of not less than 15 cm. Where one or more sets of stand
markings are superimposed on a stand marking, the lines should be continuous
for the most demanding aircraft and broken for other aircraft.
2.14.7 The curved portions of lead-in, turning and lead-out lines shall have radii
appropriate to the most demanding aircraft type for which the markings are
intended.
2.14.8 Where it is intended that an aircraft proceed in one direction only, arrows
pointing in the direction to be followed shall be added as part of the lead-in
and lead-out lines.
2.14.9 A turn bar should be located at right angles to the lead-in line, abeam the left
pilot position at the point of initiation of any intended turn. It should have a
length and width of not less than 6 m and 15 cm, respectively, and include an
arrowhead to indicate the direction of turn.
Note: The distances to be maintained between the turn bar and the lead-in line
may vary according to different aircraft types, taking into account the pilot’s
field of view.
2.14.10 If more than one turn bar and/or stop line is required, they should be coded.
2.14.11 An alignment bar should be placed so as to be coincident with the extended
centre line of the aircraft in the specified parking position and visible to the
pilot during the final part of the parking manoeuvre. It should have a width of
not less than 15 cm.
2.14.12 A stop line should be located at right angles to the alignment bar, abeam the
left pilot position at the intended point of stop. It should have a length and
width of not less than 6 m and 15 cm, respectively.
Note: The distances to be maintained between the stop line and the lead-in
line may vary according to different aircraft types, taking into account the
pilot’s field of view.

Figure 2-8 VOR aerodrome checkpoint marking

2.15 Apron safety lines
Note: Guidance on apron safety lines is contained in 2.21

Application
2.15.1 Apron safety lines should be provided on a paved apron as required by the
parking configurations and ground facilities.

Location
2.15.2 Apron safety lines shall be located so as to define the areas intended for use by
ground vehicles and other aircraft servicing equipment, etc., to provide safe
separation from aircraft.

Characteristics
2.15.3 Apron safety lines should include such elements as wing tip clearance lines
and service road boundary lines as required by the parking configurations and
ground facilities.
2.15.4 An apron safety line should be continuous in length and at least 10 cm in
width.

2.16 Road-holding position marking

Application
2.16.1 A road-holding position marking shall be provided at all road entrances to a
runway.

Location
2.16.2 The road-holding position marking shall be located across the road at the
holding position.

Characteristics
2.16.3 The road-holding position marking shall be in accordance with the local road
traffic regulations.

2.17 Mandatory instruction marking

Note: Guidance on mandatory instruction marking is contained in 2.21

Application
2.17.1 Where it is impracticable to install a mandatory instruction sign, a mandatory
instruction marking shall be provided on the surface of the pavement.
2.17.2 Where operationally required, such as on taxiways exceeding 60 m in width,
or to assist in the prevention of a runway incursion a mandatory instruction
sign should be supplemented by a mandatory instruction marking.
Location
2.17.3 The mandatory instruction marking on taxiways, where the code letter is A, B,
C, or D, shall be located across the taxiway equally placed about the taxiway
centerline and on the holding side of the runway-holding position marking as
shown in Figure 2-8 (a). The distance between the nearest edge of the marking
and the runway holding position marking or the taxiway centre line marking
shall be not less than 1 m.
2.17.4 The mandatory instruction marking on taxiways, where the code letter is E or
F, shall be located on the both sides of the taxiway centre line marking and on
the holding side of the runway-holding position marking as shown in Figure 2-
9(B). The distance between the nearest edge of the marking and the runway
holding position marking or the taxiway centre line marking shall be not less
than 1 m.
2.17.5 Except where operationally required, a mandatory instruction marking shall
not be located on a runway.

Figure 2-9 Mandatory instruction marking

Characteristics
2.17.6 A mandatory instruction marking shall consist of an inscription in white on a
red background. Except for a NO ENTRY marking, the inscription shall
provide information identical to that of the associated mandatory instruction
sign.
2.17.7 A NO ENTRY marking shall consist of an inscription in white reading NO
ENTRY on a red background.
2.17.8 Where there is insufficient contrast between the marking and the pavement
surface, the mandatory instruction marking shall include an appropriate
border, preferably white or black.
 2.17.9 The character height should be 4 m for inscriptions where the Code letter is C,
D, E or F, and 2 m where the code letter is A or B. The inscriptions should be
in the form and proportions shown in Appendix 3 of this book.
2.17.10 The background should be rectangular and extend a minimum of 0.5m
laterally and vertically beyond the extremities of the inscription.

2.18 Information marking

Note: Guidance on information marking is contained in 2.21

Application
2.18.1 Where an information sign would normally be installed and is impractical to
install an information marking shall be displayed on the surface of the
pavement.
2.18.2 Where operationally required information sign should be supplemented by an
information marking.
2.18.3 An information (location/ direction) marking shall be displayed prior to and
following complex taxiway intersections and where operational experience has
indicated the addition of a taxiway location marking could assist flight crew
ground navigation.
2.18.4 An information (location) marking shall be displayed on the pavement surface
at regular intervals along taxiways of great length.

Location
2.18.5 The information marking shall be displayed across the surface of the taxiway
or apron where necessary and positioned so as to be legible from the cockpit
of an approaching aircraft.

Characteristics
2.18.6 An information marking shall consist of:
a) An inscription in yellow upon a black background, when it replaces or
supplements a location sign; and
b) An inscription in black upon a yellow background, when it replaces or
supplements a direction or destination sign.
2.18.7 Where there is insufficient contrast between the marking background and the
pavement surface, the marking shall include:
a) A black border where the inscriptions are in black; and
b) A yellow border where the inscriptions are in yellow.
2.18.8 The character height shall be 4 m. The inscriptions shall be in the form and
proportions shown in Appendix 3 of this book.

2.19 Restricted Use Areas Markings

2.19.1 Closed runways and taxiways, or parts thereof

Application
2.19.1.1 A closed marking shall be displayed on a runway or taxiway or portion
thereof which is permanently closed to the use of all aircraft.
2.19.1.2 Recommendation: A closed marking should be displayed on a temporarily
closed runway or taxiway or portion thereof, except that such marking may
be omitted when the closing is of short duration and adequate warning by
air traffic services is provided.

Location
2.19.1.3 On a runway a closed marking shall be placed at each end of the runway,
or portion thereof, declared closed, and additional markings shall be so
placed that the maximum interval between markings does not exceed 300
m. On a taxiway a closed marking shall be placed at least at each end of
the taxiway or portion thereof closed.

Characteristics
2.19.1.4 The closed marking shall be of the form and proportions as detailed in
Figure 2-10, Illustration a), when displayed on a runway, and shall be of
the form and proportions as detailed in Figure 2-10, Illustration b), when
displayed on a taxiway. The marking shall be white when displayed on a
runway and shall be yellow when displayed on a taxiway.
Note: When an area is temporarily closed, frangible barriers or markings
utilizing materials other than paint or other suitable means may be
used to identify the closed area.
2.19.1.5 When a runway or taxiway or portion thereof is permanently closed, all
normal runway and taxiway markings shall be obliterated.

Figure 2-10. Closed runway and taxiway marking

 2.19.2 Restricted Use Areas (Non-load-bearing surfaces) Markings

Application
2.19.2.1 Shoulders for taxiways, runway turn pads, holding bays and aprons and
other non-load-bearing surfaces which cannot readily be distinguished
from load-bearing surfaces and which, if used by aircraft, might result in
damage to the aircraft shall have the boundary between such areas and the
load-bearing surface marked by a taxi side stripe marking.
Note: The marking of runway sides is specified in 2.8.

Location
2.19.2.2 Recommendation: A taxi side stripe marking should be placed along the
edge of the load-bearing pavement, with the outer edge of the marking
approximately on the edge of the load-bearing pavement.
2.19.2.3 Recommendation: A taxi side stripe marking should consist of a pair of
solid lines, each 15 cm wide and spaced 15 cm apart and the same colour
as the taxiway centre line marking.
Note: Guidance on providing additional transverse stripes at an
intersection or a small area on the apron is given in the Aerodrome Design
Manual (Doc 9157), Part 4. Appendix 4

2.20 Pre-threshold area

Application
2.20.1 Recommendation- When the surface before a threshold is paved and exceeds
60 m in length and is not suitable for normal use by aircraft, the entire length
before the threshold should be marked with a chevron marking.

Location
2.20.2 Recommendation: A chevron marking should point in the direction of the
runway and be placed as shown in Figure 2-11.

Characteristics
2.20.3 Recommendation: A chevron marking should be of conspicuous colour and
contrast with the colour used for the runway markings; it should preferably be
yellow. It should have an overall width of at least 0.9 m.
 Figure 2-11 Pre-threshold marking

2.21 Markings and markers

Markings and markers provide essential information to pilots by their location, size
and colour characteristics. Standardization is important. Where provided, markings
and marker aids contribute to the safety and operational efficiency of aircraft and
vehicle movements. Good maintenance of these aids is essential to ensure that the
cues that they provide are available in all circumstances

2.21.1 ADDITIONAL MARKING OF PAVED SHOULDERS

2.21.1.1 Aprons and taxiways may be provided with shoulder stabilization which
has the appearance of pavement but which is not intended to support
aircraft. Similarly, small areas within the apron area may have non-load
bearing pavement which appears to be full strength. This stabilization may
be provided to prevent blast and water erosion as well as to provide a
smooth surface that can be kept free of debris.
2.21.1.2 On straight sections this stabilization may be readily recognizable by the
provision of the taxi side stripe markings. At intersections of taxiways and
on other areas where, due to turning, the possibility for confusion between
the side stripe markings and centre line markings may exist or where the
pilot may not be sure on which side of the edge marking the non-load
bearing pavement is the additional provision of transverse stripes on the
non-load bearing surface has been found to be of assistance.
2.21.1.3 As shown in Figure 2-12, the transverse stripes should be placed
perpendicular to the side stripe marking. On curves, a stripe should be
placed at each point of tangency of the curve and at intermediate points
along the curve so that the interval between stripes does not exceed 15 m.
If deemed desirable to place transverse stripes on small straight sections,
the spacing should not exceed 30 m. The width of the marks should be 0.9
m, and they should extend to within 1.5 m of the outside edge of the
 stabilized paving or be 7.5 m long, whichever is shorter. The colour of the
transverse stripes should be the same as that of the edge stripes, i.e.
Yellow.

Figure 2-12 marking of paved taxiway shoulders

2.21.2 APRON MARKINGS

Objective of guidance on aircraft stands

2.21.2.1 The main objective of guidance on aircraft stands is to provide:
a) Safe manoeuvring of aircraft on the stand; and
b) Precise positioning of aircraft.
This objective can often be met by means of apron markings. Several
lighting aids are used to supplement the guidance provided by apron
markings at night and in poor visibility conditions. Of special interest are
the aircraft stand manoeuvring guidance lights and the visual docking
guidance systems.

Safe manoeuvring of aircraft

2.21.2.2 Aircraft stands are, in general, arranged relatively close to one another so
as to minimize as much as possible the paved area as well as the walking
distance of passengers. The manoeuvring of aircraft, therefore, needs to be
precisely controlled so that at all times they will be kept clear of the
adjacent aircraft, buildings and service vehicles on the apron.
Consideration should also be given to ensuring that the blast of the
manoeuvring aircraft will not interfere with activities at the adjacent stand
 and that the marking is well within the castoring capabilities of all aircraft
using the stand. The clearances between manoeuvring aircraft and other
aircraft, buildings or other obstacles for various circumstances are given in
Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 3 (appendix 4 3.13.6 of annex 14). Control of
ground equipment and vehicles should be exercised to ensure that the
aircraft manoeuvring area at the stand is clear. Ground equipment and
vehicles should be kept outside predetermined safety lines when aircraft
are manoeuvring or when the equipment is left unattended.

Manner of following guide lines

2.21.2.3 There are two recognized ways for aircraft to follow guide lines. In one,
the nose of the aircraft (or pilot’s seat) is kept over the line; in the other,
the nose wheel traces the line.
Further reading: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 3; specifies that the
taxiway curves should be designed so as to provide the required
clearances when the cockpit of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway
center line markings. This is primarily because of the difficulty the pilot
would have in ensuring that the nose wheel follows the guidelines. In
some aircraft the nosewheel is displaced as much as 5m behind the
cockpit.
The requirements for aircraft stand markings, however, are not comparable
to those for taxiway centre line markings. There are two differences in
the manoeuvring of aircraft on aircraft stands:
a) Because of reduced area for manoeuvring, much smaller radii of
turn are needed; and
b) Trained marshallers are often used to assist in the manoeuvring of
the aircraft.
Further reading: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5; specifies that the
aircraft stand markings be designed on the nose wheel on guide line
principle.

Types of aircraft stand markings

2.21.2.4 Aircraft stand markings consist of guidelines to denote the path to be
followed by aircraft, and reference bars to provide supplementary
information. Guide lines may be separated into:
a) Lead-in lines;
b) Turning lines; and
c) Lead-out lines.

Lead-in lines
2.21.2.5 These lines provide guidance from apron taxiways into specific
aircraft stands. They may be required to enable taxiing aircraft to
 maintain a prescribed clearance from other aircraft on the apron.
They may be considered as important as the turning line to align the
aircraft axis with the predetermined final position. For nose-in stands,
the lead-in lines will mark the stand centre line to the aircraft
stopping position. There will be no lead-out lines, and the tractor
drivers will use the lead-in lines for guidance during the push-back
manoeuvre.
2.21.2.6 Figure 2-13 shows a simple lead-in line. The advantage of this line is
that it presents the most natural method of turning and it is least likely
to be misunderstood. Its disadvantages are that it is not suitable for
marking a stand where the aircraft is to be located centrally over the
lead-in line and that it requires more apron space than the type of
marking that can achieve this. The lines are to be followed by the
aircraft nose wheel. When these lines are used, it should be noted that
the track of the aircraft centre is inside the curve of the guide line.
In some instances the apron area available may require the use of a
different type of marking. Figure 2-14 shows an offset lead-in line.
When the aircraft nose wheel follows these lines, the centre of the
aircraft does not cut as far inside the curve but makes tighter turn.
As a consequence, the size of stand positions need not be as great. It
should however be noted that while this type of marking positions the
aircraft centrally over the lead-in line, a given line can only be fully
suitable for one single aircraft type or where the aircraft geometry,
in terms of the wheel bases of all the different types using the stand, is
virtually identical. Where it is necessary for a stand to be used by a
variety of aircraft types and they do not have similar undercarriage
geometry, yet the available space requires aircraft to be centrally
positioned over the lead-in line, the aims are best achieved by using
a short arrow at 90 degrees to the taxiway centre line as in Figure
2-15. One drawback of this arrangement is that the entry point and
degree of turn needed to align the aircraft centrally over the lead-in line
are left to the pilot’ s judgement.
Figure 2-13 Simple nose wheel lead-in line

Figure 2-14 offset nose wheel lead-in line

 Figure 2-15 Straight lead-in line

Turning lines
2.21.2.7 Where the aircraft is required to make a turn on the stand prior to
stopping or after “break away”, a turning line may be needed for the
aircraft to follow. The primary purpose of this line is to limit the
turning of aircraft within the designated area so as to keep aircraft
clear of obstacles and to aid in accurate positioning of the aircraft. The
former is of special importance where clearances between the stand
and near structures or other stands are marginal.
2.21.2.8 Figure 2-16 shows a typical example for a nose wheel turning line. The
line might well be supplemented by reference bars as shown and as
discussed later in 2.22.2.15.
2.21.2.9 Straight portion of the turning line. The turning line should incorporate
a straight portion at least 3 m in length at the final aircraft position.
This provides a 1.5 m section prior to the final stopping position to
relieve pressure on the landing gear and at the same time to correct the
aircraft alignment, and a section 1.5 m long after the stopping
position to reduce the thrust required and, thereby , blast on “break
away”. The length of the straight portion referred to above can be
reduced to 1.5 m in the case of stands meant for small aircraft.
 Figure 2-16. Turning line and reference bars

Lead-out lines
2.21.2.10 These lines provide guidance from stands to taxiways and ensure that
the prescribed clearance from other aircraft and obstacles is
maintained. These lines are shown in Figure 2-17. Where aircraft have to
make a turn prior to leaving the stand to keep clear of the adjacent
obstacles, the lead-out line may be as shown in Figure 2-17 a).
Where the clearance from the adjacent stand is less marginal, the
lead-out line of Figure 2-17 b) or c) might be practical. Offset nose-
wheel lead-out lines as shown in Figure 2-18 may be needed where
clearances are marginal.

Figure 2-17 Simple nose-wheel lead-out lines

 Figure 2-18 Offset nose-wheel lead-out lines
Method of computing the radii of curved portions of lead-in, turning
and lead-out lines
2.21.2.11 Whether one uses a nose-wheel line or only a straight lead-in as in
Figure 2-15, the assumed or marked radius must be within the
turning capability of the aircraft for which the stand is intended. In
calculating the radius, one needs to assess the likely effect of blast
which can result from using too tight a radius. It is also possible for
the minimum acceptable radius of turn to vary with operators even
though they are using the same aeroplane. Further , the smaller the
turn radius and the larger the nose-wheel angle, the more likelihood
there is of tire migration. In other words, while one may have, for
example, 65 degrees of nose-wheel angle applied, the effective turn
radius is equivalent only to some lesser angle, with possibly as much as
a 5-degree loss. To determine the radii, therefore, one needs to
consult the manuals issued by the aircraft manufacturers for airport
planning purposes; the operators of the individual aeroplane types
should also be consulted to find out to what extent they modify the
manufacturer’ s guidance for any reason. The individual apron situation
would then need to be studied to see whether further modification
would be necessary.

Duplication of guidance
2.21.2.12 When a stand is used by different types of aircraft and alignment of
aircraft is not of great importance, it may be possible to use one set
of markings to serve all types. In such cases the largest turning radius is
used. Any type of aircraft of the group can then manoeuvre with sufficient
clearance if the nose wheel follows the guide lines. However where the
precise alignment of aircraft on the stand is essential, secondary guide
lines may be necessary. Secondary guide lines are also necessary when a
 large aircraft stand must accommodate more than one small aircraft at the
same time (see Figure 2-19). Such stands are commonly known as
superimposed stands. In all these cases, the primary line should be for the
most critical aircraft, i.e. the aircraft requiring the greatest
manoeuvring area.

Figure 2-19 one method of marking superimposed stands

Characteristics of guide lines

2.21.2.13 The guide lines should normally be continuous solid yellow lines at
least 15 cm, but preferably 30 cm, in width. However ,where a
secondary guide line is provided it should be a broken line to
distinguish it from the primary line. Additionally, the type of aircraft
that is to follow each line should be clearly indicated
2.21.2.14 Where it is considered necessary to distinguish between lead-in lines
and lead-out lines, arrow heads indicating the directions to be
followed should be added to the lines. The designation number/letter of
the stand should be incorporated in the lead-in line (see Figure 2-
20). Additionally, a stand identification sign should be provided at the
back of the stand, e.g. on the building or a pole, so as to be clearly
visible from the cockpit of an aeroplane.
NOTES:
1. The number “7” is the aircraft stand number.
2. Solid lines and bars are for aircraft X and dotted lines and bars for aircraft
Y.
3. Alignment bar is for all types of aircraft using the gate position.
Figure 2-20 Examples of reference bars

Reference bars
2.21.2.15 Examples of reference bars and their functions are:
a) turn bar (indicates the point at which to begin a turn);
b) stop line (indicates the point at which to stop); and
c) alignment bar (assists in aligning the aircraft on the desired angle).
Figure 2-20 shows an example of the use of a), b) and c).
2.21.2.16 Characteristics of reference bars. Turn bars or stop lines should be in
the order of 6 m in length and not less than 15 cm in width and of
the same colour as the guide line, i.e. Yellow. They should be located
to the left side of and at right angles to the guide lines abeam the pilot seat
at the point of turn and stop. The turn bars may include an arrow and the
words “FULL TURN” as in Figure 2-15. An alignment bar should
be at least in the order of 15 m in length and 15 cm in width and be
placed so as to be visible from the pilot seat.
2.21.2.17 Grouping of aircraft to reduce the number of turn bars and stop
lines. Where an aircraft stand is meant to be used by several
aeroplane types, it will be necessary to group them to reduce the
number of turn bars and stop lines. There is, however , no agreed or
widely used method for grouping aeroplanes. In the case of self-
manoeuvring stands, one can group aeroplanes that have similar
turning capabilities and geometry; it is even possible to include
smaller aeroplanes that might have dissimilarities provided that, in
following the guide lines, they do not transgress the outline of the
area needed by other types which dictate the stand clearances. For
nose-in stands, one is perhaps less concerned with size and turning
capability than with such factors as exit locations and the type of
aerobridge or passenger gangway available. Where hydrant refueling
is installed, refueling points must also be taken into account. One
therefore needs to study the individual situation at each airport and
tailor any grouping to facilities available, the mixture of aeroplane
types and their numbers, apron layout, etc.
2.21.2.18 Coding system for turn bars and stop lines. Where an aircraft stand is
used by two or three types of aircraft only, it is possible to indicate
by a painted inscription the aircraft type for which each set of
markings is intended. Where an aircraft stand is meant for several
aircraft types, there may be a need to code the turn bars and stop
lines to simplify the markings and to facilitate safe and expeditious
manoeuvring of aircraft. There is, however, no agreed or widely used
coding system. The coding system adopted should be such that pilots
can understand and use it without difficulty.
2.21.2.19 Towing lines. Where aircraft are to be towed, guide lines may be
needed for the operator of the tractor to follow.

Apron safety lines

2.21.2.20 Safety lines will be required on an apron to mark the limits of
parking areas for ground equipment, service roads and passengers’
paths, etc. These lines are narrower and of a different colour to
differentiate them from the guide lines used for aircraft.
2.21.2.21 Wing tip clearance lines. These lines should delineate the safety zone
clear of the path of the critical aircraft wing tip. The line should be
drawn at the appropriate distance mentioned in 2.3.2 outside the
normal path of the wing tip of the critical aircraft. The width of the
line should be at least 10 cm.
2.21.2.22 Equipment limit lines. These lines are used to indicate the limits of
areas which are intended for parking vehicles and aircraft servicing
equipment when they are not in use. Several methods are
 2.21.2.23 currently in use to identify which side of a safety line is safe for
storage of such vehicles and equipment. At some airports, the words
“Equipment Limit” are painted on the side used by ground
equipment and readable from that side. The height of the letters is
about 30 cm. At others, spurs or an additional line (a discontinuous line
of the same colour or a continuous line of a different colour) is
provided on one side of the safety line. The side on which such
spurs or an additional line is located is considered safe for parking
vehicles and equipment.
2.21.2.24 Passenger path lines. These lines are used to keep passengers, when
walking on the apron, clear of hazards. A pair of lines with zebra
hatching between them is commonly used.

2.22 Layout and outline of the Markings

2.22.1 Layout is important for the proper placement of the markings. It is a best
practice for both placing new markings or for straightening existing markings.
Pre-marking the pavement with chalk lines and paint provides the equipment
operator with guide marks as shown in figure 2-21, which is especially
important when striated markings are installed. Layout marks also allow the
inspector to check the layout for correct placement and dimension.

FIGURE 2-21 OUTLINE WITH CHALK LINES ENSURES PROPER

PLACEMENT AND ALIGNMENT

2.22.2 On a new pavement, the markings should begin with establishing centre
line.
2.22.2.1 Fix Centre point on one edge of the pavement.
2.22.2.2 Use theodolite or other suitable instrument to mark centre points at
every 30/50 meter in full length of the pavement
2.22.2.3 Mark edge line points, equidistant from centerline on both sides and
one side as the case may be.
2.22.2.4 Now, the centre line and edge lines can be used as reference for any
markings within the pavement.
 Chapter 3

Selection, surface preparation and Application of Paints

3.1 GENERAL
To ensure that runway and taxiway markings have adequate conspicuity and durability,
care must be exercised in the selection and application of material. Guidance on these
factors is provided in this chapter. Repainting operations must be carefully safeguarded
and coordinated with air traffic operations for the safety of aircraft and of the painting
crews and equipment.

3.2 SELECTION OF PAINTS

3.2.1 Type of paints

Several types of paints have been developed which have been found acceptable for
markings on pavements. Some of these paints are classified as oil base, rubber base,
acrylic or vinyl base, oleoresins base, and water emulsion base.

3.2.2 Recently the bases have been modified in proportions and different types of solvent
combined to improve certain characteristics of these paints for easier application,
better storing and better performance. Since drying time is very important in the
application of pavement markings on some surfaces, these paints may also be
classified by drying time as follows:
a) Standard (conventional) dry — 7 minutes or longer;
b) Fast dry — between 2 and 7 minutes;
c) Quick dry — between 30 and 120 seconds; and
d) Instant dry — less than 30 seconds.

3.2.3 Two types of paints have been developed specifically for aerodrome markings. One
type is an oil (alkyd) base paint, and the other type is a water emulsion base paint.
Both types of paints are required to meet specified physical and performance tests.
Both types of paints are available in white or yellow and may be used alone or to bind
retro-reflective beads. A black oil base paint is also used on some aerodromes with
light-colored pavements as a border around the markings to improve the contrast. A
drying time of 30 minutes or less is usually acceptable before vehicle traffic can be
permitted on the new markings without the paint being picked up from the pavement,
adhering to the tires, or transferring to new locations on the pavement. The
permissible time required for the paint of the indicated thickness to dry through the
full coat may be up to two hours.

3.2.4 Other types of traffic-marking paints may prove to be suitable for aerodrome
markings, but the performance of these paints should be carefully evaluated for the
particular operating conditions before they are used. In some locations, paints with
 special qualities for application or resistance to unusual factors affecting the life of the
markings may be required. Some conditions which may require special types of paints
are very cold areas where the temperatures are often not high enough for painting,
some abnormally wet or humid areas, areas where micro-organisms or plants attack
the regular paint, and other unusual conditions. The lack of availability of aerodrome-
marking paints may make it desirable to use another type of paint, such as highway
traffic-marking paints although the performance and life of the markings may be
reduced.

3.3 Type of Pavement

Both of the aerodrome marking-type paints are usually suitable for application on
pavement surfaces of Portland cement concrete (rigid), bituminous/asphaltic cement
concrete (flexible) and previously painted areas of these surfaces. The water emulsion
base paint may be preferred for paved surfaces which have not fully cured, especially
asphalt, because of its better performance against bleeding. Other types of paint may be
satisfactory for one surface and not another.

3.4 Type of Service

Typically, markings on runways and taxiways do not fail from abrasive wear as do
highway markings. Instead, failure of threshold, touchdown zone, and runway centre line
markings is caused by rubber deposited during the spin-up of the wheels of landing
aircraft. Failure of the other markings, particularly side stripe markings, is usually caused
by the effects of weather and the accumulation of dirt. Hence abrasion resistance is not a
prime consideration in the selection of materials to be used for aerodrome pavement
markings. A more suitable choice of marking materials is a paint which is compatible
with the type of pavement, maintains good conspicuity and can be readily applied at the
proper thickness. A wet-film thickness of 0.4 mm has been found suitable for most
installations.

3.5 Co-efficient of friction

Both standard aerodrome-marking paints provide good coefficients of friction on either
Portland cement concrete or bituminous cement concrete and normally furnish good
braking performance. If better anti-skid properties for the marking areas are required, as
may be the case when reflective markings are to be provided, calcined aluminium oxide
and angular glass in sizes which will pass through sieves of 150 micrometer mesh and
where less than 5 per cent will be retained by sieves with 45 micrometer mesh were found
to be effective. The paint manufacturer’s instructions on the amount of the additive to use
and the mixing procedures should be followed.

3.6 Specification of paints

The performance of paints may vary appreciably with minor changes in composition. To
ensure suitable quality, specification by performance of tests of desired requirements is
preferable to specification by formulation. However, the tests must be carefully chosen to
evaluate the entire qualities essential to provide acceptable markings, must be practical to
conduct and must reliably distinguish between adequate and unsatisfactory performance.
 The basic requirements of the pigment are colour, opaqueness and lasting quality.
Suspending and dispersing agents may be used to prevent excess settling and caking. The
vehicle or base of the paint provides many of the characteristics desired in storage,
mixing, application and adhesion. Anti-skinning and Anti-settling agents may be included
in the vehicle. The solvent or varnish determines the drying time and affects application,
flexibility, adhesion, bleeding, skid resistance and pigment volume concentration. For
some types of paint, minimum or maximum amounts of certain components of the
solvents may need to be specified.

3.7 SELECTION OF RETRO-REFLECTIVE ELEMENT (GLASS BEADS)

3.7.1 Conditions for using reflective markings

Reflective aerodrome markings are used to improve performance of the markings at
night, especially in conditions when the markings may be wet. Because of the
additional costs, some authorities may use reflective markings only for those
aerodromes which can benefit from the improved performance. Aerodromes which
operate only during daylight or are used only by aircraft without landing or taxiing
lights would not need to provide reflectorized markings. Reflective markings may not
be necessary on runways with operating runway Centre line and touchdown zone
lights; however, the reflective markings may be helpful for night-time operations in
clearer visibilities when the Centre line and touchdown zone lights are not energized.
Tests have shown that the reflectivity of markings may be enhanced by factors in
excess of 5 by the inclusion of glass beads.

3.7.2 Specification of glass beads

3.7.2.1 The primary characteristics of retro-reflective beads to be considered in selection for

aerodrome markings are composition, index of refraction, gradation and
imperfections.
Glass beads which are lead-free, uncoated, with a refractive index of 1.9 or greater,
have size gradation between 0.4- and 1.3-mm diameter and have less than 33 percent
imperfections have been found best for aerodrome markings. Glass beads with a
refractive index of 1.5, while not as efficient as beads with a higher refractive index,
are beneficial in increasing the reflectivity of markings, and they are also less prone to
mechanical damage in some circumstances. Therefore, in certain circumstances
markings containing glass beads with a refractive index of 1.5 and markings
containing glass beads with a refractive index of 1.9 or greater may prove equally
efficient after a certain period of usage.

3.7.2.2 Because of the limited abrasion of runway and taxiway markings, the pre-mix of
beads in the paint is not very effective. The method of applying the beads by dropping
them directly onto the fresh, wet paint provides better performance. The beads must
be dropped immediately onto the freshly applied paint, especially for instant dry paint,
to obtain proper adhesion of the beads.
3.8 APPLICATION OF PAINTS
General

Before commencing the work, all materials and equipment for the work, including that
necessary for properly cleaning the existing surfaces, should be approved by the engineer
in charge of the project.

3.9 PAVEMENT SURFACE PREAPARATION

3.9.1 The pavement surface should be cleaned properly before initial painting and before
repainting. The surface to be painted should be dry and free from dirt, grease, oil,
laitance, loose rubber deposits, or other foreign material which would reduce the bond
between the paint and the pavement.

3.9.2 Cold (normal temperature) paints should not be applied when the surface temperature
is less than 5°C. The weather should not be foggy or windy. The hot-spray or heated-
paint method in which the paint is heated to 50°C or more for application may be used
at lower ambient temperatures.

3.10 The following procedures should be used for the treatment of surfaces:
a) New pavement (including resurfaced pavement).
Adequate curing time before painting should be allowed to prevent peeling and
blistering. A 30-day curing period is recommended before oil base paints are applied.

1) Portland cement concrete. The surface should be cleaned of curing material using
sandblasting or high-pressure water. An acid-etching solution may be needed to
counter the leaching of alkali and carbonate salts and to improve adhesion to smooth,
glassy aggregate particles. A linseed oil solution may be used to obtain better
adhesion.

2) Asphaltic concrete. Some combination base paints may be applied 24 hours after
placement of bituminous pavement. A primer coat may be used to reduce bleeding of
these surfaces especially when curing time is reduced. A primer coat of regular
marking paint at approximately 50 per cent of the normal thickness may be applied to
new pavement. The markings are then to be repainted soon after the asphalt has cured.
A special primer coat, especially for use in installations with serious asphalt bleeding
problems and less bleed-resistance paints, is aluminum paint with a wet paint
thickness of approximately 0.5 mm.

b) Old pavement (new markings). Existing markings which are no longer applicable
should be removed using the procedures described in paragraphs 20 to 23 and the
surfaces cleaned.
c) Repainting over existing markings. The tire marks and rubber deposits should be
removed from the existing markings by using trisodium phosphate or other cleaning
solutions and scrubbing and rinsing with low-pressure water. Clean these markings of
any foreign material which may cause poor adhesion to the existing paint.
 Note: Do not use solutions with more than 1 or 2 percent soap or detergents because
extensive rinsing may be required to remove the soap film.

3.11 EQUIPMENT FOR PAINTING

Painting equipment should include as a minimum a mechanical marker, surface-

cleaning apparatus and auxiliary hand-painting equipment. The mechanical marker
should be an atomizing spray-type suitable for the type of paint to be used. It should
produce a uniform film thickness of the specified coverage and provide clear-cut
edges without running, spattering or overspray. It should properly apply the glass
beads if the markings are to be made retro-reflective.

Equipment for applying pavement markings falls into two general categories:
(1) Airless systems and
(2) Pneumatic or air-atomized systems.
Either type can be mounted on trucks; skids that can be loaded and unloaded onto
pickups or flatbed trucks; small tractors or vehicles; and hand push machines. The
airless and air spray categories include features such as hydraulic-powered airless, air-
powered airless, pumper-style air spray, and pressurized-tank air spray.

3.11.1 General Characteristics of Pavement Marking Equipment:

Whether pneumatic or airless, striping equipment has similar characteristics and
challenges.

3.11.2 Heated Systems

The permanently configured striping truck can be equipped with heat exchangers.
Heat
Exchangers warm the material to approximately 100–120 F. (37.78℃-48.89℃)
Heating the paint accelerates the “dry to no track” time to approximately one minute,
preventing other construction traffic from tracking the markings. However, since the
“no track” condition happens faster, the glass beads must be applied simultaneously
with the paint application to ensure the beads will anchor and not bounce off the dry
film. Paint viscosity thins when heated, flowing more uniformly. When the material is
cold, it thickens, resulting in changed line widths and restricted paint flow. Heating
the paint does not alter the requirements of either the air or the surface temperatures.
If the outside temperature is below 50 F (10℃), application of the standard water-
borne or solvent-borne paints is not advisable, regardless of the temperature of the
material. When the heated material contacts cold pavement, the paint quickly cools to
the pavement surface temperature, which if below 50F (10℃) compromises the
durability of the marking.

3.11.3 Housekeeping of the Equipment

Good housekeeping is vital for the efficient operation of striping equipment. Water-
borne paint should not remain in the tanks, pumps, or lines for longer than 3 to 4
hours, especially when they are partially filled and exposed to high heat, because doing so
 may cause the paint to harden, resulting in considerable clean out before the
equipment can be used again. Using in-line filters or strainers is important to keep the
paint free of debris that can clog the paint guns or lines, restricting flow. On an airless
system, the most critical location for a Y-strainer is at the inlet of the high-pressure paint
pump. For an atomized system, the strainer should be placed before the material manifold
leading to the guns.
Different binders should not be mixed together. If a solvent paint is in the system,
water-borne paint should not be added until the tanks and lines are thoroughly
cleaned. Traffic paint manufacturers often recommend a multiple-step procedure
involving a series of compatible flushing liquids to perform this switchover.
A very small amount of all-purpose cleaner in the clean-out (water) tank helps remove
waterborne paint from the tanks and lines, thus preventing a buildup of paint film,
which can restrict the flow of the material through the system.

3.11.4 Airless Equipment

The term “airless” refers to a pumping system that applies paint at approximately
1500–3300 psi without “atomizing air” to disperse the paint particles in a line. An
airless gun has a small tip, as seen in figures 3-1and 3-2. The tips are identified with a
three- digit code, (e.g.,421). The “4” represents half of the maximum line width
expected from the tip, or 8 inches. However, it is advisable to multiply that
number by one and one-half for the recommended line width (6 inches), because
striving for 8-inches results in a thinner paint film on the edges of the line. The second
two digits (“21”) represent the size of the aperture of the tip in thousandths of an
inch. The greater the size of the tip the higher the paint volume and conversely, the
smaller the size the lower the paint volume. In addition to the tip size, the speed of the
machine installing the marking as well as the pump pressure will affect the
volume of material flow and the film thickness of the line. If multiple guns are set up
to paint wider markings, the film thickness where the guns overlap must be uniform
with the rest of the marking.

FIGURE 3-1. AIRLESS FAN WITH TIP FIGURE 3-2. AIRLESS SPRAY TIP.

On truck-mounted units, glass bead guns are arranged to apply the beads onto the wet
paint simultaneously, pictured in figures 3-3 and 3-4.
 FIGURE 3-3. AIRLESS PAINT GUNSAND GLASS BEAD GUNS MOUNTED TO TRUCK ON CARRIAGE.

FIGURE 3-4. AIRLESS PAINT GUNS AND BEAD GUNS APPLYING MATERIAL TO PAVEMENT.

3.11.5 Skid-Mounted Equipment

Some skid-mounted equipment can be moved on and off a truck. This equipment is
capable of applying two colors simultaneously, making it quite attractive to the airport
maintenance crew responsible for outlining yellow taxiway markings with black for
contrast, figure 3-5.

FIGURE 3-5 SKID MOUNTED PAINT RIG APPLIED BLACK FIGURE 3-6. THREE PAINT GUNS AND FOUR BEAD
BACKGROUND FOR TAXIWAY CENTERLINE IN FIGURE 3-6. GUNS APPLIED THE YELLOW PATTERN IN ONE PASS
 The equipment also can be set up with skip mechanisms, allowing the operators to
dial in a marking pattern that will activate the paint and glass bead guns automatically
when the truck begins to move.
This is useful for airports that must maintain non-movement boundary markings with
the 3-foot dash patterns, or the enhanced taxiway centerlines with the 9-foot dashes
and 3-foot spaces seen in figure 3-6.

3.11.6 Permanently Truck-Mounted Equipment

Truck-mounted equipment (seen in figure 3-7) is more expensive for airports to own,
because it is specialized and can only be used for one purpose. However, at busy
airports the equipment is used frequently, and not having to reconnect equipment to
the truck each time is helpful. Pavement-marking contractors usually have truck-
mounted systems, which hold a larger volume of material, making the equipment
more productive. Like the skid-mounted unit, this equipment can apply multiple
colors simultaneously with or without glass beads. Generally, the truck-mounted
equipment has a movable carriage, and the operator can steer around radii on the
taxiways, turning onto other taxiways and runways.

FIGURE 3-7. TRUCK-MOUNTED AIRPORT STRIPING EQUIPMENT.

3.11.7 Pneumatic or Air-Atomized Striping Systems

Pneumatic or air-atomized striping systems use (1) air compressor(s) that pressurize
tanks, pushing the material through supply lines and down to the gun(s), figure 3-8, or
(2) pumper-style units. According to one equipment manufacturer, the pumper unit
can integrate a material-monitoring system, utilizing stroke counters to provide gallon
readings. One advantage of the pumper-style units is the zero-pressure material tanks,
which are not as heavy as pressure pots. Pumper systems use the diaphragm-loading
 pumps, seen in figure 3-9, to pressurize the paint lines leading to the guns on the
carriage. At the gun, atomized air is introduced at the tip, just past the fluid nozzle
where the material enters a chamber. Air breaks up the paint particles, forcing them
through the gun tip in a fan pattern, (seen in figure 3-8).

FIGURE 3-8. FOUR PNEUMATIC (ATOMIZED) PAINT GUNS APPLYING A 3-FOOT WIDE PATTERN.

FIGURE 3-9. PNEUMATIC TRUCK-MOUNTED SYSTEM.

Pneumatic systems are suitable for waterborne and solvent paints. Using the
waterborne paint (TT-P-1952) requires the use of stainless steel tanks and compatible
paint lines to prevent the paint from reacting with the metal tanks, hoses, or other
plumbing. Not as susceptible to clogged paint guns and tips as with airless systems,
the pneumatic system has larger orifices through which the material is sprayed (figure
3-10). The volume of material sprayed through an air-atomized gun can be controlled
by pressure on the paint tank and it can be fine-tuned by increasing or decreasing the
 atomized air. An increase in atomized air will restrict the flow of material; a decrease
in air will increase the flow. When marking with multiple guns in an airless unit, it is
sometimes difficult to get a uniform film thickness across the marking. With an air-
atomized system, fine-tuning the flow of each gun makes this less of an issue.

FIGURE 3-10. ATOMIZED MATERIAL GUN

AIR NOZZLE AND FLUID NOZZLE.

3.11.7 Pressurized Glass Bead System

Pressurized guns deliver the most uniform flow of beads to the marking, are
automatically triggered when the paint guns are activated (a best practice), and
achieve the best distribution and embedment (as seen in figure 3-11). The marking in
the upper portion of figure 3-11 was applied using gravity-drop bead guns. The
marking in the lower portion of the picture was applied using pressurized bead guns.
The pressurized method is more uniform, and is a best practice. Pressurized glass
beads are susceptible to moisture, which accumulates in the bead tank. Water vapor
collects from humidity in the air or from the warm, are very susceptible to moisture
and will clump when damp, making bead flow problematic. A series of water traps
throughout the pressurized air system will help keep the air free of moisture. A
remedy is to put a "pinch" of cornstarch in the tank of beads as they are being loaded.
The cornstarch migrates, covering the beads and helping to prevent them from
adhering when damp.

FIGURE 3-11. PRESSURIZED BEAD APPLICATION IN

FOREGROUND, GRAVITYDROP IN BACKGROUND.
3.11.8 Gravity-Drop Glass Bead System
A gravity-drop glass bead system can be effective on any striping equipment if the
glass bead guns are activated simultaneously with the paint guns, which is a best
practice. However, as seen in figure 3-11, the circular type bead guns in a gravity-
drop system do not always provide the best results. Modifications to improve
distribution include tilting the guns or installing screens to help break up the circular
pattern, as seen in figure 3-12.
Gravity-drop glass beads are applied to the wet marking within seconds of the
material being applied. The glass beads, not under pressure, are not as susceptible to
becoming damp, but they will be prone to wind displacement and turbulence from the
painting operation just in front of it. The metal screen between the paint and bead
guns (seen in figure 3-12) prevents the air turbulence from displacing the beads. The
bead guns are activated by air, allowing the beads to drop onto the line. When the air
stops, the guns close. The bead guns can be adjusted to delay opening or closing, thus
timing them to cover all of the marking.

FIGURE 3-12. METAL SCREEN REDUCES BEAD DISPLACEMENT

BY AIR TURBULENCE FROM PAINT GUNS.

3.11.9 Hand-Applied Method

The hand-applied method of applying glass beads must be used in some cases.
However, hand-throwing glass beads, demonstrated in figure 3-13, should be avoided
as much as possible. (1) They are seldom “thrown” evenly, (2) they are often thrown
after the paint has already “filmed over,” preventing proper embedment, and (3) the
glass beads are broadcast on the surrounding pavement, increasing the clean up that
will be needed, as well as creating a potential risk of someone slipping. The holding
position marking in figure 3-14 is new, yet hand thrown Beads appear uneven. Only
some of the hand-thrown beads remain (as shown in figure 3-15), after just six months
of wear.
Resourceful airport personnel and contractors have developed “low-tech” methods for
applying beads. Using a modified fertilizer spreader, seen in figure 3-16, is difficult to
judge coverage rate; and bead embedment is still an issue. Because it is mounted on
wheels, the applicator must exercise caution when moving this equipment over wet
paint.
 FIGURE 3-13. HAND-THROWN GLASS BEAD APPLICATION IS UNEVEN, POORLY
DISTRIBUTED, AND POORLY EMBEDDED

FIGURE 3-14. NEW HOLDING FIGURE 3-15. SIX-MONTH OLD

POSITION MARKING WHERE HOLDING POSITION MARKING
BEADS WERE HAND-THROWN. WHERE BEADS WERE HANDTHROWN

FIGURE 3-16. FERTILIZER SPREADER WAS

MODIFIED TO APPLY GLASS BEADS.
3.11.10 Hand Machines
Hand machines are used for detail markings, such as surface-painted signs, holding
position markings, and sometimes runway designation numerals. Some airports use
these small machines, (either push-type or self-propelled) to border larger markings
that are then filled in with a larger paint truck, evident in figure 3-17. Figure 3-18 is
the same marking seen in daylight. The difference in application of the border with
hand-thrown beads is evident at night.

FIGURE 3-17. BORDER WAS APPLIED WITH

HAND-MACHINE AND BEADS WERE HAND-THROWN.

FIGURE 3-18. THE SAME MARKING AS IN

FIGURE 3-17 DURING DAYLIGHT.
3.11.11 Airless Hand Machines
Airless hand machines, similar to the truck mounted systems, can be pushed or self-
propelled. When equipped with large pumps, these machines can paint a line up to 12-
inches wide or they can paint two 6-inch lines simultaneously. Lines that are applied
wider than 12 inches in a single pass must be carefully monitored for uniform film
thickness across the entire line. A “sulky” or motorized cart attached to the machine
converts it to a self-propelled unit, seen in figure 3-19. Very maneuverable, a two-gun
airless machine can work quickly. This equipment, traveling at an appropriate speed
and applying materials at the right coverage rate is effective, especially when
equipped with glass bead guns that automatically dispense the beads in the paint, a
best practice.

FIGURE 3-19. AN AIRLESS MACHINE WITH A MOTORIZED

“SULKY” APPLIES MARKING WITH AUTOMATIC GLASS BEAD GUNS.

3.11.12 Pneumatic (Air-Atomized Equipment)

Air-atomized push equipment, which functions like the truck-mounted systems, is
generally equipped with a single material gun. A larger compressor is necessary to
operate two paint guns, making the machine bigger and heavier. It is able to paint
detail work that truck-mounted systems cannot do as effectively. Automatic glass
bead dispensers are integral to the air atomized hand machine, a best practice,
because the air supply needed to activate the bead gun is part of the system.

3.11.13 Hand Machines and Glass Bead Application

Glass bead systems for hand machines generally fall into two categories: gravity fed
or hand thrown. However, at least one equipment manufacturer supplies a pressurized
system requiring a compressor and pressurized bead tank, making the machine heavy.
Gravity-fed systems use either cable or air activation to trigger the beads. Bead
dispensers for airless systems can be included, but the operators often disable these
when the apparatus malfunctions. A bicycle brake cable is normally used to activate
the bead gun at the same time the paint gun goes on. As dirt, paint, dust, oil, and other
substances accumulate on the cable, the trigger begins to slip, failing to activate the
bead gun. A considerable percentage of airport personnel using airless hand machines
disable the bead dispensers, and use watering cans, fertilizer spreaders, or their hands
to throw the beads on the markings, a poor practice.
Figure 3-20 depicts an airless machine with a 12-inch (30.48 Centimeters) bead
dispenser that opens automatically when the paint gun comes on. Notice the hand-
built windscreen (shroud) around the bead dispenser that blocks the wind from
displacing the beads, a best practice.
Pneumatic or air-atomized machines generally have a 5 to 10-gallon (19-40ltrs) paint
tank and an integrated glass bead hopper with a bead dispenser. The beads are
activated by compressed air that triggers the bead gun, shown in figure 3-21, and they
can be delayed to go on and off with the turn of a valve. A gravity-fed system is
usually used for both airless and pneumatic small paint machines; a much larger
compressor would be needed to pressurize a tank. Weight is a main consideration
when equipment is pushed and maneuvered by hand.

FIGURE 3-20. GLASS BEAD DISPENSER HAS BEEN

MODIFIED WITH A CARDBOARD WINDSCREEN

FIGURE 3-21. GLASS BEAD DISPENSER

ON AN ATOMIZED HAND MACHINE
3.12 Procedures for application
3.12.1 After the pavement has cured adequately and the surfaces are suitably treated
and cleaned for the type of paint to be used, outline the markings to be applied.
3.12.2 Before the paint is applied, the layouts of marking areas, the condition of the
surface, the equipment and materials to be used, and application procedures
should be approved by the engineer in charge of the project.

3.12.3 A painting procedure similar to the following should be used:

a) Arrange with air traffic control for safety procedures and communications to
protect aircraft, painting crews and equipment, and wet painted surfaces.
b) Mix the paint in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
c) Apply the paint with the marking machine uniformly at the coverage rate specified
without running, spattering or over spraying. A coverage rate of 2.25 to 2.5 square
metres per litre to provide a wet paint thickness of approximately 0.4 mm has
been found satisfactory.
d) Ensure that the edges of the markings do not vary from a straight line more than
12 mm in 15 mm and that the tolerance for the dimensions is ±5 per cent.
e) If the markings are to be made retro-reflective, apply the glass beads (spheres)
uniformly to the wet paint at the specified rate, with mechanical dispensers, at the
proper time and pressure for good adhesion. Application rates of 0.7 to 1.2 kg per
litre of paint have been found satisfactory.
f) As soon as the paint has dried enough to accommodate pedestrian traffic, inspect
the marked areas for coverage, appearance, uniformity, dimensions and defects.
Also check the unmarked areas for spills, splashes or drippings of paint.
g) If there are uncovered areas, thin spots, discolourations, lack of tolerances or
defects in appearance, touch up those areas for suitable uniformity.
h) Protect the newly painted surfaces until sufficiently dry to accommodate traffic.

3.13 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Striated markings
Striated markings may be used in areas with low temperatures to reduce the effects of
frost heaves, especially for wider markings such as threshold markings, runway
designation markings, touchdown zone marking sand fixed distance markings. Striated
markings consist of alternating painted and unpainted stripes, usually of equal widths
not exceeding 15 cm, over the specified dimensions of the marking. However, striated
markings reduce the conspicuity of the marking when viewed at longer ranges during
an approach to the runway because the brightness of the marking becomes the average
of the painted and unpainted stripes. Hence striated markings should be used only
where necessary.

3.14 OUTLINING MARKING WITH BLACK BORDERS

White runway markings and yellow taxiway markings may not present a large contrast
when applied on light-colored pavements. The conspicuity of the markings may be
improved by painting a black border around the painted markings. Preferably, the
border should be a flat black stripe not less than 15 cm wide of a good type of traffic
 paint. Black borders wider than the minimum will increase the conspicuity of the
markings. The black borders may not require repainting as frequently as the markings.

3.15 Specifications of water-based runway marking paints

S. No Lab test Deep Orange Deep Black

1. Gloss Minimum 3.5 Negligible

2. Opacity Minimum 74% Opaque
3. Resistance to wear after 400 Minimum 3.00 …..
revolutions in accordance with IS-164
revolutions in Minimum 66% …..
a) Gloss value
b) Opacity
4 Density 1.40-1.45 gm/cc 1.40-1.45 gm/cc
5 Drying time Less than 10 Less than 10
Minutes Minutes
6 Residue on 63 microns sieve 0.10% - 0.30 % 0.10% - 0.30%
7 Covering capacity Min. 10.50 Min. 10.50
a) Old surface with one or more sqm/liter sqm/litre
coats to have an even surface
b) New surface with two or more
coats to given an even surface Min 5.00 Min 5.00
sqm/litre sqm/litre

The gloss reflectance and capacity are the reflection value at an angle of incidence of
45° and 90° respectively. These shall be tested in accordance with IS 164-1981. Paint
not meeting the above requirement shall be rejected.

The paint supply be supplied in sealed containers indicating the date of manufacturer.
The date of supply shall not be later than four months from the date of manufacture.
The paint with caked surface shall be rejected.
3.16 Specifications Specification for water thinnable Golden Yellow and White paint
shall be as follows:-
Sl. Lab test Specified Range
No
Golden Yellow White

1. (a) Gloss (before wear)* 4 (Minimum) 5 (Minimum)

(b) Gloss (after wear, 400 3 (Minimum) 4 (Minimum)

resolutions)*

2. (a) Opacity (before wear)* 55 - 65% 75- 85 %

(b) Opacity (after wear, 400 Drop by 10 % Drop by 10 %

revolutions)* (maximum) (maximum)

3. Drying time 10 minutes 10 minutes

(Maximum) (Maximum)

4. Residue on 63 microns sieve 0.3% (maximum) 0.3% maximum)

5. Ares coverage on standard plate 3.60 sqm/liter 3.60 sqm/liter

(new surface) (Old surface) (minimum) (minimum)

9.50 sqm/liter 9.50 sqm/liter

(minimum) (minimum)

6. Consistency** 40 seconds 60 seconds

(minimum) (minimum)

* Average of 10 readings

** Measured as flow time, when tested with standard flow cup at 30° C (+)/(-) 2° C

Note:

Opacity is measured as value of diffused reflectance measured at an angle of 90° and

gloss at angle of incidence of 45° in gloss-reflectance meter, after applying 3 coats of
paint over black surface of standard plate as per Appendix “A” of IS 164-1981, at
minimum consistency i.e. 40/60 seconds for Golden Yellow/White paint respectively.

The area coverage is measured on standard plate as per Appendix “A” of IS-164-
1981, after applying 3 coats, at minimum consistency, i.e. 40/60 seconds for Golden
Yellow/White paint respectively.
 NOTES
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Chapter 4

Inspection of Conspicuity of Airfield Pavement Markings

4.1 General
Airport pavement markings on runways, taxiways, and ramps play an important role
in safely navigating aircraft and vehicles around the airfield, as well as helping to
prevent runway incursions. Airfield Pavement markings, however, deteriorate in
terms of their conspicuity and must be replaced over time. Presently, the functionality
of the markings is determined by visual inspections of segments of these markings,
but the validity of these inspections is often subjective
4.2 All markings on paved areas should be inspected at least semi-annually. Local
conditions will determine when to inspect. In general, a spring and fall inspection will
suffice to detect deterioration due to the winter and summer weather extremes.
However, it is recommended to conduct such inspections every quarter.
4.3 Before commencing any airfield inspection, permission must be obtained from air
traffic control. On entering the runway, a positive entry calls, e.g. "checker entering
for inspection" must be made: on leaving the runway, air traffic control must be
advised when the inspection vehicle is clear of the runway strip. Most inspections are
carried out on an ON/OFF basis (i.e., where the inspection vehicle may be required to
enter or leave the runway at short notice). The above calls must be made on each
occasion that the inspection vehicle enters the runway. It is essential to maintain a
listening watch on' the appropriate RT channel during any runway inspection. If,
during an ON/OFF inspection, air traffic control requests the inspection team to clear
the runway. The vehicle must move outside the runway strip before advising air
traffic control that they are clear. They must then remain outside the runway strip
while awaiting the re-entry instructions.
4.4 The Inspection officer should know the appropriate markings required at the airport.
During the marking inspection, the inspector should:
1. Check markings for correct color-coding, peeling, blistering, chipping, fading, and
obscurity due to rubber buildup (usually at landing and taking off points, turning
at rapid exits).
2. Check to see if all runway/taxiway/apron hold position markings are clearly
visible.
3. During and after construction projects, check new markings for compliance with
ICAO marking standards.
4. If the markings have glass beads, check markings during periods of darkness to
determine if the reflectivity of glass beads is adequate at night.

4.5 MANUAL METHOD. The pavement markings were evaluated in three ways:

1. By checking the retro-reflectivity with a retro-reflectometer (beads).

2. By checking the chromaticity with a color-guide device (paint).
3. By visually inspecting the uniformity of coverage of the entire paint marking using
a transparent grid (paint).
4.5.1 Retro-Reflectivity Check. Conduct the evaluation with a retro-reflectometer by
aiming the device at a pavement marking, which has beads, and taking a reading. This
step should be skipped in the event that the pavement marking does not have beads.
Six readings should be taken across the markings, three in each direction to assure
uniformity of the line. The readings should be at the beginning, middle, and end of the
paint marking, then reverse direction and take them again at the beginning, middle,
and end of the pavement marking. For pavement markings 36 Meter or longer, six
readings should be taken every 30 meter for pavement markings 36 Meter or less, six
readings should be taken. The six readings should then be averaged to get the retro-
reflective reading. Follow the steps below to take the readings of the pavement
markings.

1. If this is the first time the retro-reflectometer is being used, refer to the user manual
for the setup of the device.
2. Check the calibration of the retro-reflectometer.
3. Take the first reading at the beginning of the pavement marking and record the
reading.
4. Take the second reading at the middle of the pavement marking and record the
reading.
5. Take the third reading at the end of the pavement marking and record the reading.
6. Turn the retro-reflectometer around to take readings in the opposite direction.
7. Take the fourth reading at the beginning of the pavement marking and record the
reading.
8. Take the fifth reading at the middle of the pavement marking and record the
reading.
9. Take the sixth reading at the end of the pavement marking and record the reading.
10. Add up all the data points and divide by six and record the average.

4.5.2 Coverage Check. The inspection will ensure uniformity of coverage of the entire
line, such as paint cracking, peeling, and whether or not the marking has adequate
coverage. One-square-inch sections of transparent material inscribed within a grid of
100 equal squares shall be used as a tool for quantitative measure of specified
percentage of coverage. The grid concept was taken from the Air Force who used it
for measuring rubber coverage on pavement. For a 6-inch line, it is suggested that a
grid of 5 x 20 inches be used, and for a 12-inch line, a grid of 10 x 10 inches. Count
the squares that have no paint, e.g., 3 out of 100 squares equal 3% of the paint gone or
97% coverage, see figures 4-1 and 4-2.
 FIGURE 4-1. A 5- x 20-inch GRID FOR A 6-inch LINE

FIGURE 4-2. A 10- x 10-inch GRID FOR A 12-inch LINE

Follow the steps below to take the readings of the pavement markings.
1. Using either the 10- x 10-inch grid or the 5- x 20-inch grid, place the grid on the
line to be evaluated.
 2. Count the squares that have no paint.
3. The number of squares without paint will be the percentage of paint gone. In other
words, if there are 30 out of 100 squares that have no paint, then 30% of the paint is
gone.
With these three evaluations, a determination of whether or not the paint marking
passes or fails can be made. If the readings for any one of the three tests (the
chromaticity, retro-reflectivity, or percentage of coverage) fail, it is an automatic
failure of the pavement marking.

4.5.3 Automated Method—Van-Mounted Retro-Reflective Check. The automated

inspection system increases the speed and sample size. The automated inspection
system has the following objectives:

1. Evaluate the complete, or entire, painted marking configuration (i.e., inspection of

the full length of runway centerline markings).
2. Accomplish the evaluation within a limited time frame (i.e., minimal runway
downtime availability).
3. Take contrast with adjacent surfaces (i.e., concrete, asphalt, or black paint) into
account.
4. Discriminate between reflective beaded surfaces and nonreflective, nonbeaded
surfaces.
 NOTES
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Chapter 5

Initiate NOTAM Action

5.1 NOTAM (Notice to Airmen)

A notice distributed by means of telecommunication containing information concerning
the establish condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or
hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight
operations.

5.2 NOTAM Types

a) NOTAMN: if it concerns a NOTAM containing new information.

b) NOTAMR: if it concerns a NOTAM replacing a previous NOTAM, followed by

the series, and number/ and year of the NOTAM replaced.

c) NOTAMC: if it concerns a NOTAM cancelling a previous NOTAM, followed by

the series, and number/and year of the cancelled NOTAM
Example:
A0123/11 NOTAMN
A0124/11 NOTAMR A0123/11
A0125/11 NOTMAC A0124/11

5.3 NOTAM Series

Each NOTAM is allocated a series identified by a letter and a four-digit number,
followed by a stroke and a two-digit number for the year so that addressees may
check continuity. The number must be consecutive and based on the calendar year.
Each series start on 1 January with number 0001. If more than one series of NOTAM
is issued, each series must be separately identified by a letter. Use letters A to Z, with
the exception of S and T, to identify a NOTAM series. Renumbering of existing
NOTAM (i.e. containing identical information, but with a new number) is not
allowed, nor are NOTAM to be renumbered at the beginning of each year.
 1) Series A: likely to last for more than 2 hours, in respect of locations of direct
importance to international aircraft operations.
2) Series B: likely to last more than 30 minutes but less than 2 hours in respect of
locations of direct importance to international aircraft operations.
3) Series C: in respect of locations used by domestic flights only.
4) Series D: in respect of locations of military controlled airfields utilized by civil
flights.
5) Series G: contains significant aeronautical information of lasting character
affecting aircraft operations.
Note: Each NOTAM shall be as brief as possible and so compiled that its meaning is
clear without the need to refer to another document. When errors occur in a NOTAM,
a NOTAM with a new number to replace the erroneous NOTAM shall be issued.

5.4 NOTAM Format

The NOTAM Format aims at standardizing the presentation of the different types of
information promulgated by NOTAM in order to facilitate understanding of the
message by the addressee. In developing this format, the need for transcription of the
information in the form of AFS messages has been taken into account. The Format
therefore includes the special symbols that are mandatory for the Tele-printer operator
to use in composing the message (i.e. carriage return, line change, space, opening
parentheses before message identification and closing parentheses).
The NOTAM Format essentially consists of two parts:
a) the part of interest to the communication service handling the AFS message, i.e. the
part containing the priority indicator, addresses, date and time of filing and the
originator’s indicator;
b) The part containing the NOTAM information.

5.5 NOTAM Sample

A1006/16 FM 1602200830 TO 1602211030 EST
RWY 10/28 NOT AVBL FOR LDG, TKOF AND TAXI DUE MAINT BTN 0830-
1030 DAILY. CROSSING RWY BET TAXI F AND G ALLOWED WITH PRIOR
NOTICE OF 10 MIN. IN CASE OF REQUIREMENT RWY 10/28 WILL BE MADE
AVBL IN 15 MIN

5.6 Steps to initiate NOTAM Action to application of paints on ground surface for
new or maintaining existing airfield pavement markings.
1. Identify the area/ facility to be closed for aircraft operations.
2. List Equipment, manpower and tools:
a. List all equipment required for preparation of ground surface and application
of paint for airfield pavement markings. The important factor to be considered
is the height of the equipment if part runway can be made available for
landing/ take-off or taxiing.
 b. List the vehicles and manpower (including temporary workers and labour)
required to enter runway for preparation of ground surface and application of
paint for airfield pavement markings.
3. Estimate closure time of runway, consider the following :
a. Time required for equipment to reach the work site from holding point
b. Time required for manpower to reach the work site from holding point
c. Time required to complete preparatory activities viz. startup and aligning of
equipment, tools and manpower.
d. Time required to complete targeted task.
e. Time required to wind up the activities
f. Time required to withdraw the equipment, tools and manpower
g. Time required to clear the runway of all FODs and contaminants
h. Add extra time for unforeseen situations viz. equipment malfunctioning or
breakdown.
A flow chart for understanding the sequence of activities in planning NOTAM
duration is shown in figure 5-1 and a sample time estimation chart is shown in
figure 5-2.

Figure 5-1 flow chart for understanding the sequence of activities in planning NOTAM
duration
 Figure 5-2 Time Estimation Chart

5.7 Once the above three steps are completed, a NOTAM requisition form is to be
submitted to the ATC for issue of NOTAM.
Sample NOTAM requisition form for renewal of airfield pavement markings is shown
below.
Name of Airport: NRC International Airport

1 Purpose of NOTAM Renewal of airfield pavement markings on Runway 10-28

2 Date(s) 20th Feb 2017 and 21st Feb 2017

3 Time 1400-1600 hrs (all days)

4. Area to be closed for aircraft operations Entire Runway (no landing/ take-off)

5 Area available for taxiing/ crossing of No taxiing allowed. Crossing of runway may be allowed
runway between Taxiway F and G with prior notice of 10 minutes

6. Details of equipment’s and vehicles
that will occupy runway
7. Details of men who will occupy the
runway and their mode of entry/ exit
1. Pavement marking removal equipment (Truck mounted
device), Height 4.2 m
2. Pavement marking equipment (Truck Mounted) height
3.2m
3. SELF-PROPELLED RIDE-ON STRIPER
4. One engineering and one operations department
vehicle
5-8 cleaners, will be transported in engineering department
vehicle

8. Towing arrangement in case of One tow vehicle will be holding near Main Fire Station
equipment/ vehicle breakdown
9. Time required to clear runway in case 15(Fifteen) minutes
of emergency

10 Mobile number and RT address of Engineering: R K Pandey, Mobile 9999999999; Charlie

supervisors Siera

Operations: Duty Officer, Mobile: 7777777777; Oscar

Siera

11 Name and signature of Airside Rubber

Removal Engineer

12 Name and signature of Airside

Operation Manager with
Recommendations / Comments
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Chapter 6

Renewal of Airfield Pavement Markings

6.1 General
Markings which are faded or discoloured by soil should be repainted. When rubber
deposits have been removed from the pavement all defaced markings should be
restored as soon as possible. The tire marks and rubber deposits should be removed
from the existing markings by using tri sodium phosphate or other cleaning solutions
and scrubbing and rinsing with low-pressure water. Clean these markings of any
foreign material which may cause poor adhesion to the existing paint. Existing
markings which are no longer applicable should be removed and the surfaces cleaned.
Note. — Do not use solutions with more than 1 or 2 percent soap or detergents
because extensive rinsing may be required to remove the soap film.

6.2 Removal of Painted Markings

When marking patterns are changed, physical areas or operating procedures are
modified, or the thickness of the layers of paint becomes excessive, existing markings
may need to be removed. Obscuration of existing markings by painting is not advised
except as a temporary measure because the surface layer of paint will wear away or
erode and the lower layers will become visible and may be confusing.

6.2.1 Mechanical removal

Sandblasting is effective and does little damage to the pavement surface. The sand
deposited on the pavement should be removed as the work progresses to prevent
accumulation. High-pressure water or hydro blasting can be used successfully on
some markings. Grinding is not recommended because of damage to the pavement
surface and probable reduction of friction for braking.

6.2.2 Chemical removal

When chemicals are used for paint removal, a large and continuous source of water is
usually needed to reduce potential damage to pavement surfaces and to dilute the
chemicals washed into drains or channels.

6.2.3 Removal by burning

Burning is often used to remove paints; however, methods involving burners using air
and butane, propane, or mixtures of liquid petroleum gases have slow burning rates,
and the extended periods of exposure to the heat may damage the pavement surface.
The overheating melts the asphaltic concrete and causes surface spalling of Portland
cement concrete. Recently, burners using propane and pure oxygen which produce
much hotter flames have been developed. An excess of oxygen rapidly oxidizes the
paint and transfers less heat to the underlying pavement surface. With these burners,
several layers of paint may be oxidized rapidly with minimal or no damage to the
pavement surface. Layers of paint of approximately 0.5 mm can be removed at a
single pass. Greater thicknesses of paint may require additional passes with the flame.
 After the paint is oxidized, the residue should be removed from the pavement surface
by wire brushing, hydrobrooming or light sandblasting.

6.3 Surface preparation for renewal of Airfield Pavement Markings

6.3.1 Surface preparation is the cleaning and removal of anything that would reduce the
bond between a newly applied material and the surface. All current guide
specifications convey the intent to adequately prepare the surface, but the process is
generally overlooked.
6.3.2 Airfield surfaces should be cleaned before being repainted. Given the unusual
conditions to which they are subjected, airfield markings can quickly become a
maintenance problem when they are repeatedly painted over without adequate
cleaning.
6.3.3 Many Airfield Markings appear well bonded. However, when cleaned by water
blasting with only 6,000–8000 psi as seen in figures 6-1 and 6-2, old paint that was
oxidized and brittle yielded, having lost its “glue” and elasticity from UV
deterioration. Water blasting as a method of surface preparation is a best practice.
Applying more paint without cleaning the marking only adds to paint build-up, which
results in the conditions shown in figures 6-3 through 6-5. Figure 6-3 demonstrates
that repeated painting on concrete without preparing the surface results in
delaminating of the paint layers. The marking will require paint removal before
repainting. When asphalt is repainted without cleaning the surface, the multiple layers
of paint can crack, causing premature deterioration of the asphalt, seen in figures 6-4
and 6-5. New coatings are designed to bond well to the pavement. However, if they
are applied on top of old layers, and if the old layers are weak, the fresh coating will
cause the old layers to crack and pull apart. The asphalt will crack as well, because the
paint bonds better to the asphalt than the asphalt does to itself, evident in figure 6-5.
Water penetrates into the pavement and erodes the asphalt. The freeze-thaw cycle
worsens the problem, and soon the asphalt surface qualifies as a pre-existing,
damaged condition
 Figure 6.1 before Cleaning Loose and Poorly Bonded Paint

Figure 6.2 after Cleaning Loose and Poorly Bonded Paint by Water blasting

Figure6-3. Repeated Painting on Concrete Leads To FOD.

 Figure 6-4 Repeated Painting on Asphalt Results in Paint buildup and cracking
of paint and pavement

Figure 6-5 Magnified photo of Figure 6-4 shows cracked Asphalt where water
invades

6.3.4 The benefits of preparing the surface before painting it are obvious, but it takes time
and money. Busy airports give applicators limited time, mostly overnight, to maintain
the markings. It is not unusual for them to reapply all of the markings three or more
times per year. Some of the reasons for not performing proper surface preparation
include the following:

1. A lack of equipment.
2. Difficulty in coordinating surface preparation operations and marking schedules.
3. The amount of time required to prepare the surface.
 4. Interruption to airport operations.

Figure 6-6 shows a marking with a single coat of paint that is 30-months old, and the
coating is cracked. It would benefit from cleaning prior to repainting. The life of the
pavement under thick paint is much shorter than the life of an unpainted surface next
to it (figure 6-7). When the markings are not cleaned before the application of more
paint, the accumulating layers turn into chunks of paint, beads, and asphalt, which
break apart and become FOD. The voids (missing pieces of the centerline marking)
were chunks of paint, glass beads, and asphalt that dislodged and were loose on the
runway. The old saying goes: “If you always do what you always did, you’ll always
get what you always got.” Changing practices to include surface preparation will
provide longer-lasting markings, reduce build up of markings, and reduce the
potential for FOD. Consistently performing surface preparation is a best practice.
Whatever can be done in the time allotted should be done well.

Figure 6-6 This Marking Is 30 Figure 6-7 Many Layers Of

Months Old and Cracked Paint on Asphalt

6.3.5 Contaminants to Be Removed

The term “contaminants” is used to describe surface conditions that should be
corrected before applying marking materials to the pavement. Whether on a brand-
new surface or over existing markings, the surface must be prepared appropriately to
ensure a good bond of the new markings to the pavement.

6.3.6 Curing Compound

A curing compound is sprayed on new concrete to produce a moisture-resistant
membrane. The membrane generally wears off the concrete during the course of one
year, depending upon traffic. If markings are to be applied, the best practice is to
remove the membrane first. If paint is applied on top of the curing compound, it will
flake off as the membrane sloughs off, as seen in figure 6-8. Most specifications state
that all new concrete pavements shall be free of any curing compound before
markings are applied. Pavement marking contractors are normally hired by a general
contractor to apply markings on newly constructed pavement. Although the marking
contractor’s work should include the removal of the curing compound on new
Concrete pavement, this is sometimes done poorly or not at all. If this happens, the
markings eventually flake off.
 Figure 6-8. Example of Poor Removal of Curing Compound.

6.3.7 Rubber Deposits

Rubber builds up on the touchdown zone of a runway surface. As aircraft touch down
the stationary tires drag from zero to the speed of the landing aircraft almost instantly.
This causes high heat and melting of some of the rubber from the tires. The hot rubber
is spread onto the pavement and gradually fills the micro texture, and eventually
macro texture, of the pavement, seen in figure 6-9. When the rubber cools, it hardens.
When the pavement texture is covered with the rubber deposits, as seen in figure 6-9,
the buildup should be removed, figure 6-10. Busy airports accumulate rubber deposits
quickly, obscuring the centerline marking within days of being painted. At some
airports, removal of rubber deposits may be scheduled to be performed monthly, but
the centerline markings are repainted every one to two weeks in some cases. This is
not a best practice, but it is a practical one, since the visibility of the runway
centerline is important. Ideally, rubber deposits are cleaned before applying markings.

Figure 6-9. Before Rubber Removal. Figure 6-10. After Rubber Removal.

6.3.8 Loose and Flaking Marking Material

Loose, flaking and poorly bonded material from previous marking applications is the
most common condition dictating surface preparation. UV deterioration, jet blast, and
freeze/thaw cycles affect markings and pavements, but the markings react differently
compared to the pavement. Figure 6-11 resulted when paint was applied non-
uniformly, heavier in the middle of the line, lighter on the edges. The thick paint in
the middle cracked. If the stressed and damaged material is not removed through
 preparation of the surface, repeated coatings cause asphalt pavement to deteriorate
prematurely. Most markings (coatings) absorb moisture and expand/contract
differently than the pavement, contributing to the cracking seen in figure 6-12

Figure 6-11. Paint Asphalt when applied too thickly

.

Figure 6-12. Paint bonds better to cracks asphalt does to itself

6.3.9 Algae
Algae grow in warm, humid environments, particularly on surfaces that have light
traffic. Airport pavements out of the traffic path are susceptible to algae growth.
Algae invade everything in their path, covering airfield markings and the pavement.
When the markings become “gray” or “black” with the contaminant, they become
obscured, as observed in figure 6-13. Although the markings may appear faded or
gone, they are merely covered with algae. If new markings are applied over the algae-
covered surface, the bond will be poor, and the algae that become sandwiched
between the layers of paint will thrive when moist.
 Figure 6-13. Markings are obscured by algae.

There are two methods that can be used to distinguish microbial (fungal and algal)
growth from dirt on airport markings:
1. Wearing gloves and eye protection, spray household bleach on a portion of the
area, where the airport markings have become darkened. If this discoloration turns
lighter after the bleach has been applied, there is microbial growth. If the
discoloration does not change color, it is dirt.
2. Spraying water on a darkened surface may eventually result in blooming effects
such as a greenish tinge. If this occurs, algae are present. Figures 6-14 and 6-15 were
taken 18 months apart. The markings were washed off with water from the airport’s
fire truck prior to being painted by the contractor. As an expedient and cost-conscious
measure, rinsing the algae-coated markings was better than doing nothing, but within
a short time, algae covered the markings again, perpetuating the cycle.
 Figure 6-14. Water from the Figure 6-15. The same sideline
airport's fire truck, with 150 and threshold marking
psi rinsed the side line eighteen months later

On another project, the algae-covered surface was prepared with high-pressure water
blasting equipment before repainting. The “before and after” pictures in figures 6-16
and 6-17 demonstrate the value of thorough preparation. Not only was the algae
washed off, so was all loose and poorly bonded paint: a best practice. On the same
airport project, eighteen months after repainting most of the runway with an algae
resistant

Figure 6-16. Before water Figure 6-17. After water

blasting: algae obscure blasting, but before painting.
marking
 formulation, the “treated" threshold markings seen in figure 6-19 were free of algae,
whereas the untreated markings shown in figure 6-18 supported new algae growth.
Figure 6-20 shows the same threshold markings 30 months after they were painted.

Figure 6-18. Paint used was Figure 6-19. Paint

standard TT-P-1952E formulated to resist algae.
.

Figure 6-20. Same markings as in figures 6-18 and 6-19, after thirty months.

6.3.10 Rust Discoloration

Iron present in aggregate and in underground soils and water stains white airfield
markings, affecting compliance with the color standards maintained by all governing
agencies. The iron contaminants on the pavement surface are transported by rainwater
across the runway. The standard water-borne paint is porous, and it absorbs the rust
contaminant, but generally where it first comes in contact with the paint. In other
words, the leading edge of the painted marking is affected the worst, as seen in figure
6-21. Figure 6-22 shows depressions where water flows or stands, and the rust
discoloration appears heavy there as well. Where the pavement is grooved, rust stain
is noticeable in the grooves, but not as much on the surface. Where the grooves end
before the sideline, the rust discoloration becomes more obvious again. The “whiter”
sideline next to the aiming point marking seen in figure 6-23 is further evidence that
 this stain is caused from rainwater runoff, the leading edge of the marking is stained
the most.

Figure 6-21. Stained leading edge of marking from iron contaminants.

Figure 6-22. Stained leading edge and low area along joint where water flows.
 Figure 6-23. Grooved surface makes stain less noticeable.

In some instances, the rust discoloration enters the markings from the bottom up, and
the entire marking is discolored, as seen in figure 6-24. Figures 6-25 and 6-26
illustrate a more obvious example of contaminated ground water affecting the surface
marking by seeping up through a crack in the pavement. Figure 6-26 was taken two
years after figure 6-25, demonstrating the advantage of using a modified formulation
of TT-P-1952 to resist the rust staining. When remarking rust-discolored markings,
cleaning them to remove as much of the rust deposits as possible is a best practice.
Figure 6-27 is an example of a stained marking that was not cleaned before it was
repainted. Within a few months, the stain bled through and the marking became
discolored again. A commercial rust remover was tested on severely rust discolored
markings. As seen in figures 6-28 and 6-29, the chemical agent that removed the rust
also damaged the glass beads, making them ineffective during darkness.

Figure 6-24. White centerline looks yellow.

 Figure 6-25. Evidence of rust contamination from substrate.

Figure 6-26. The same sideline in figure 6-27 two years later.

Figure 6-27. Repainting without cleaning the stain results in bleed-through.

 Figure 6-28. Rust Figure 6-29. Rust
remover whitens remover damaged
stained marking where glass beads, making
“TLINE” was printed. them ineffective.
great quote from the
document or use this
6.3.11 Oil, Jet Blast Residue, and Similar Substances
space to emphasize a key
Oily substances coat the pavement and the markings; and they
point. To place prevent a new coat of
this text
paint from bonding. Whenever these substances are encountered,
box anywhere on the removing them
before applying new markings is a best practice. Figures
page, just drag it.]6-30 show areas before
cleaning; figure 6-31 is after cleaning; and figure 6-32 is the same area and markings
three- and one-half years later. The equipment that was used to clean the surface is a
pressure washer attached to a floor machine (see figure 6-31). The floor machine
houses a rotor bar equipped with spray nozzles. When water charges the system, the
force of the water spins the bar in a circular pattern so that the floor machine cleans a
swath of pavement as it is pushed along the surface. A small amount of detergent
added to the water helps break down the oils both on the surface and in depressions in
the pavement. A vacuum attachment recovers the oily wastewater for proper disposal.
Jet blast residue is another contaminant that accumulates at thresholds and in areas
where aircraft test their engines. Figure 6-33 shows the difference between pavement
with jet blast residue and pavement where the residue has been cleaned by water
blasting. It is a best practice to clean off jet blast residue before applying more
material to the marking.

Figure 6-30. The oily stain will prevent new coating from bonding.
 Figure 6-31. The Figure 6-32. The same
process used to remove area three and one-half
oil stain. years later.

Figure 6-33. Taxiway shoulder marking was contaminated with oily jet blast.

6.3.12 Dirt and Loose Rocks

Loose materials are more obvious and are generally cleaned before markings are
applied. A paint-removal process leaves dust that must be blown off, and then
vacuumed before the new markings can be painted. The surface to be marked should
be free of anything that would prevent the marking material from bonding to the
surface.

6.3.13 Equipment
Different types of equipment can be used to prepare surfaces prior to applying
markings. The method of cleaning should be selected based on the conditions. In all
cases, the experience and skill of the equipment operator can affect how well the
surface preparation is performed.

6.3.13.1 Waterblasters
Several kinds of waterblasting equipment are appropriate for surface preparation.
Which one to select will depend on the amount and extent of cleaning needed and the
time that is allotted to do the work. Table below is a matrix of the various types of
 waterblasting equipment. Waterblasting equipment is differentiated by the pressure
attained and the volume of water used in the operation. All waterblasters, from
pressure washers to ultra-high machines, use pressurized water to do the work. The
following sections provide a brief description of each type of waterblaster with
general capabilities, but all types represent a best practice for preparing surfaces
when followed by sweeping or vacuuming.

6.3.13.1.1 Pressure Washers

A pressure washer is a type of water blaster by definition. Good for small areas
they attain pressures up to 3,500 psi. Pressure-washing systems can use floor
machines (seen in figure 4-34), can add detergents to the water tank, or can be
used with a hand wand. By taking enough time, pressure washers can remove
most contaminants, except for rubber deposits and curing compound.

6.3.13.1.2 Low-Pressure Waterblasters

Low-pressure water blasters can reach pressures up to 10,000 psi and they are
sometimes available at equipment-rental establishments. Good for surface
preparation, this system can be truck mounted, using a straight bar with a series of
tips (seen in figure 6-34) or used with a hand wand or weighted floor machine,
similar to the one seen in figure 6-31.

Figure 6-34. Low-pressure water blaster.

6.3.13.1.3 High-Pressure Water blasters
High-pressure water blasters reach pressures up to 20,000 psi, and they are good
for surface preparation of curing compound, rubber removal, and can remove
paint from sound pavement surfaces. This system uses a high volume of water, up
to 25 gpm, (94ltr/min) delivering water with hydraulic force to penetrate, lift, and
clean contaminants from the surface.

6.3.13.1.4 Ultra High-Pressure Water blasters

Ultra high-pressure water blasters attain pressures up to 50,000 psi,
(344737.864kPa) and they work well for removing contaminants on any surface.
When used for surface preparation, ultra-high-pressure units can operate at half
capacity (or 25,000 psi) 172368.932kPa and they move faster than they would
during a paint removal operation. These systems often include an integrated
vacuum system to collect the water and debris during the cleaning process.

6.3.13.2 Shotblasters
Shotblasters propel steel shot, walnut shells, or other abrasive material onto the
surface to remove paint and prepare surfaces. Grooved pavements (cut into runways
to prevent hydroplaning) can present some issues for shotblasters since the shot
escapes the vacuum system and some will remain on the surface where it will rust. An
integrated vacuum system must be functioning properly to recover the shot to reduce
the likelihood of it becoming FOD. If the surface is uneven, a magnetized bar should
be used to sweep the prepared surface, picking up most of the remaining shot.

6.3.13.3 Grinders
Grinders can be used for surface preparation. They are equipped with rotating drums
that spin vertically, horizontally, or both ways. Each drum is fitted with a series of
steel tips, tungsten carbide steel tips, leather tabs with steel tips, or other abrasive
material that, when lowered to the ground, cuts into the coating. They scarify a
pavement marking, and if this is done lightly, it can be used for surface preparation to
remove loose and poorly bonded material. The surface must be flat for the grinders to
strike all of the marking that will be prepared. Thorough clean up after grinding is
advisable, such as rinsing the affected pavement with water or blowing with
compressed air to remove any residue. The use of grinders to remove algae is not
effective, because the paint would be removed in the process. The same is true of rust
discoloration. However, for removing loose and poorly bonded paint, a light pass with
a grinder can be effective.

6.3.13.4 Sandblasters
Sandblasters have been used for many years to prepare surfaces and remove existing
coatings. This method, although potentially messy because of broadcasting sand
around the work area, is effective and useful. Sandblasting equipment is available for
rent from most locales, and it comes equipped with the personal protective equipment
that is necessary for safe operation, since the silica in the sand is a health hazard for
the workers. There are substitutes for sand, such as “black beauty” or other blasting
media, which does not contain silica.
6.3.14 Brooms, Vacuum Equipment/Air Compressors
Brooms and vacuum sweepers are used to remove loose debris, dirt, and other
material from surfaces. A best practice is to use them after other methods of surface
preparation to remove the residue from those operations. Air compressors or leaf
blowers (figure 6-35) also can be used to remove the loose particulate from areas that
have been cleaned before they are marked.

Figure 6-35. Leaf blower cleans loose residue after surface preparation.

6.3.15 Loose and Poorly Bonded Materials

A pull test, seen in figure 6-36, is a means of checking for loose materials, such as dirt
or debris, generated by a surface preparation or paint-removal process. Using a piece
of duct tape that is pressed onto the surface, pull up to expose any remaining grit or
debris that should be cleaned, swept, or blown off before applying markings. A
scraper can also be used to spot check areas that have been prepared to see if any
areas larger than a 1-inchsquare of old marking material can be pulled up (see figure
6-37). Pressurized water is required to remove the loose and poorly bonded paint and
the algae as well. It is a best practice to remove all visible algae otherwise algae will
return within months and begin to obscure the markings again. When the surface is
cleaned completely and remarked with a paint formulated to resist algae, evidence has
shown no sign of algae after thirty months, therefore adding longevity to the marking;
this is a best practice.

Figure 6-36. Pull test.

 Figure 6-37. Loose paint found after surface preparation. Paint removal is required.

6.3.16 When is “good enough” adequate?

What may appear to be “adequate” surface preparation during the process may be
“inadequate” once the new marking is applied. Visual inspections, the “grid” method,
a scraper, or other device are the only methods currently employed for quality control.
There are no tools, nor ASTM methods for determining the amount of surface
preparation required before applying new markings, neither are there specific types of
water blasters or pressures needed to prepare a pavement surface. Although it remains
somewhat subjective, experienced and/or trained inspectors and equipment operators
can make determinations about what to use to prepare surfaces.

6.3.17 Application of Paint

Follow the procedure as per Chapter 3
 Chapter 7

Clear runway surface

7.1 General
Some of the surface preparation & repainting methods may result in to creation of
debris in the form of rubber residue or loose aggregates or other solid particles
like mortar pieces / broken joints etc. The latest equipment available in the market
viz. waterblast and shotblast systems have built in suction mechanism that
removes the loose particles simultaneously with the process of rubber removal,
however, the chemical and mechanical methods require removal of such debris
separately. Inappropriate use or fault in waterblast and shotblast systems may also
leave loose debris or metal pieces on the runway surface.

The specifications of Annex 14, Volume I, call for the surface of aprons, taxiways
and runways to be kept clear of any loose stones or other objects that might cause
damage to aeroplanes or engines or impair the operation of aeroplane systems.
Turbine engines are extremely susceptible to damage as a result of foreign object
ingestion. Other components of aeroplanes are vulnerable, and some operators
experience aeroplane skin damage and incidents of nicked propellers as a result of
loose stones or other debris becoming dislodged by slipstream, jet blast or tire
action.

Although damage to aeroplanes is usually associated with engine ingestion,

substantial damage to tires is also a significant aspect of the overall problem. Cuts
or bursts resulting from contact with sharp objects, untreated joints, or
deteriorating pavement edges are responsible for reduced tire life and account for
a large proportion of aeroplane tires being scrapped prematurely. Of particular
concern are tire failures during the take-off run and the resulting risk of
consequential failure of neighbouring tires from overloading, thereby causing an
aborted take-off.

Debris constitutes a potential hazard to the safety of operations and has in the past
been directly responsible for aeroplanes abandoning take-offs or executing
emergency landings. Apart from the safety aspect, the unscheduled replacement of
damaged parts may involve significant economic penalties.

The introduction of new aeroplane types with their engines installed closer to the
ground has aggravated the problem. The cleanliness of the entire airport surface
should, therefore, be a matter of ongoing concern, requiring attention by airport
authorities.

7.2 Equipment for The Removal of Debris

Different methods for providing clean airport pavement have been developed by
airport authorities throughout the world. Removal of debris is generally
accomplished by utilization of mechanical units, such as power brooms and
vacuums or compressed air sweepers, which are operated on the pavements to be
cleaned.
a. Magnetic beam trailer. This unit is a two wheeled trailer designed for towing
on runways to magnetically pick up loose metallic objects from the surface.
Permanent magnets are mounted across a bar to which brush segments are attached.
The bar is lowered to a sweeping position and the magnet attracts the metallic objects,
gathering them from the pavement surface. However, it would appear that powered
sweeping brooms are more effective for removing these objects from the surface.

b. Mechanical sweepers should have characteristics such that the maximum

possible amount of debris is removed in each pass of the unit at the required operating
speed: for fine sand, thinly spread on the surface of a pavement, pick-up of the order
of 98 per cent in one pass has been achieved at speeds in excess of 16 km/h; for small,
ferrous, metallic debris, magnetic trailers can achieve up to 100 per cent pick-up in
one pass at the required operating speed. If mechanical debris removal units are to be
operated on active sections of the movement area, it is most desirable that they have a
high operating speed capability so that they present minimal interference to aeroplane
operations. Some modern, truck-mounted sweeping units are capable of sweeping at
speeds up to 40 km/h. It is generally a characteristic of mechanical units, however that
their pick-up efficiency decreases significantly with increases in operating speed.
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 NOTES

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Appendix-1 Job-Aid

Job-Aid 1: Estimate NOTAM duration

PLANNING NOTAM DURATION

Time in minutes
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time required for equipment to reach
the work site from holding point
Time required for manpower to reach
the work site from holding point
Time required to complete preparatory
activities viz. startup and aligning of
equipment, tools and manpower.
Time required to complete targeted
task.

Time required to wind up the activities

Time required to withdraw the

equipment, tools and manpower
Time required to clear the runway of
all FODs and contaminants
Add extra time for unforeseen
situations viz. equipment
malfunctioning or breakdown.
 Appendix-2 Job-Aid

Job-Aid 2: NOTAM REQUISITION FORM

Name of Airport:
1 Purpose of NOTAM
2 Date(s)
3 Time
4. Area to be closed for aircraft
operations
5 Area available for taxiing/
crossing of runway
6. Details of equipments and
vehicles that will occupy
runway
7. Details of men who will occupy
the runway and their mode of
entry/ exit
8. Towing arrangement in case of
equipment/ vehicle breakdown
9. Time required to clear runway
in case of emergency
10 Mobile number and RT address
of supervisors

Signature
(Name)
Airfield Pavement Marking Engineer

Recommendations/Comments:

Signature
(Name)
Airside Operation Manager
ATC In-Charge
 Appendix-3

MANDATORY INSTRUCTION MARKINGS AND

INFORMATION MARKINGS

Note 1: See Chapter 2, Sections 2.17 and 2.18, for specifications on the application, location and characteristics
of mandatory instruction markings and information markings.
Note 2: This appendix details the form and proportions of the letters, numbers and symbols of mandatory
instruction markings and information markings on a 20 cm grid.
 Appendix-4

Taxiway curves

1. Recommendation: Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and small as

possible. The radii of the curves should be compatible with the manoeuvring
capability and normal taxiing speeds of the aeroplanes for which the taxiway is
intended. The design of the curve should be such that, when the cockpit of the
aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance
between the outer main wheels of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should
not be less than those specified in 2.

Note 1: An example of widening taxiways to achieve the wheel clearance specified is

illustrated in Figure APP 4-1.

Note 2: The location of taxiway centre line markings is specified in 2.9.6.

Note 3: Compound curves may reduce or eliminate the need for extra taxiway width.

Figure APP 4-1. Taxiway Curve

2. Recommendation: The design of a taxiway should be such that, when the cockpit of
the aeroplane for which the taxiway is intended remains over the taxiway centre line
markings, the clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the aeroplane and
the edge of the taxiway should be not less than that given by the following tabulation:
 Code letter Clearance

A 1.5 m

B 2.25 m

C 3 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes

with a wheel base less than 18 m;

4.5 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes

with a wheel base equal to or greater than 18 m.

D 4.5 m

E 4.5 m

F 4.5 m

Note 1: Wheel base means the distance from the nose gear to the geometric centre of
the main gear.

Note 2: Where the code letter is F and the traffic density is high, a wheel-to-edge
clearance greater than 4.5 m may be provided to permit higher taxiing speeds.

3. Recommendation: Where severe weather conditions and resultant lowering of surface

friction characteristics prevail, a larger wheel-to-edge clearance of 6 m should be
provided where the code letter is E or F.
 Appendix-5

Clearance distances on aircraft stands

1. Recommendation: An aircraft stand should provide the following minimum

clearances between an aircraft using the stand and any adjacent building, aircraft
on another stand and other objects:

Code letter Clearance

A 3m

B 3m

C 4.5 m

D 7.5 m

E 7.5 m

F 7.5 m

When special circumstances so warrant, these clearances may be reduced at a nose-in

aircraft stand, where the code letter is D, E or F:

a) Between the terminal, including any fixed passenger bridge, and the nose of an
aircraft; and

b) Over any portion of the stand provided with azimuth guidance by a visual docking
guidance system.

Note: On aprons, consideration also has to be given to the provision of service roads
and to manoeuvring and storage area for ground equipment (see the Aerodrome
Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 2, for guidance on storage of ground equipment).