2022 Iitb Ae 410 641 2

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 DCM and Euler Angle 1 / 36
Coordinate Transformation
Coordinate Frame
Position of a rigid body: position vector OR OE of origin

Orientation of rigid body: 3 × 3 rotation matrix
For simplification, we assume OE = OR
Transformation Matrix
Rotation matrix approach utilizes 9 parameters, which obey the orthogonality

and unit length constraints, to describe the orientation of the rigid body.
A rigid body possesses 3 rotational DOF, 3 independent parameters are
sufficient to characterize completely and unambiguously its orientation.
Three-parameter representations are popular in engineering because they
minimize the dimensionality of the rigid-body control problem
Transformation of coordinate axes is an important necessity in resolving
angular positions and rates from one coordinate system to another.
Transformation matrix: Mapping of the components of a vector, resolved in
one frame, into the same resolved into the another frame.
⇒ Direction cosine matrix (DCM)
⇒ Euler Angles
⇒ Quaternions
Direction Cosines of a Vector
Angle between two vectors r 1 and r 2 Direction cosines:

" # α = cos a, β = cos b, γ = cos c
−1 r T2 r 1
θ = cos
cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 c = 1 Proof?
p p
r T1 r 1 r T2 r 2
Direction Cosines of a Vector
Example
Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector v = −8i + 3j + 2k.
Assume a, b, c be the angles formed by vector w.r.t. x, y, z axes, respectively,

and direction cosines are α, β, γ.
We can write
vT i −8
α = cos a = =√ =⇒ a = 156◦
kvk 77
Similarly,
vT j 3
β = cos b = =√ =⇒ b = 70◦
kvk 77
vT k 2
γ = cos c = =√ =⇒ c = 77◦
kvk 77
Direction Cosine Matrix
Direction cosine matrix (DCM) transforms a vector in R3 from one frame to

another frame.
DCM for transformation between frames a and b
 
C11 C12 C13
C ba =  C21 C22 C23 
C31 C32 C33
Specifically, if (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) are the representations of a vector in

frames a and b, respectively, then
    
x C11 C12 C13 X
 y  =  C21 C22 C23   Y  ⇒ Rb = C ba Ra
z C31 C32 C33 Z
| {z } | {z }| {z }
Rb Rotation Matrix Ra
Matrix DCM projects the vector Ra into a reference frame b.

For orthogonal systems, (C ba )−1 = (C ba )T = C ab
Components in Two Coordinate Frames
Geometric Interpretation of Direction Cosine Matrix
Assume vector R coordinatized in reference frames a and b as Ra and Rb ,

respectively.
Ra =(RT 1ax )1ax + (RT 1ay )1ay + (RT 1az )1az

Rb =(RT 1bx )1bx + (RT 1by )1by + (RT 1bz )1bz
where, RT 1ai ∀ i = x, y, z denotes scalar component of R projected along

the ith a-frame coordinate direction.
Unit vectors 1ai and 1bj are related, for i, j = x, y, z, as
T T T
1bi =(1bi 1ax )1ax + (1bi 1ay )1ay + (1bi 1az )1az
The ith component of Rb can be expressed as

T T T
RT 1bi =RT [(1bi 1ax )1ax + (1bi 1ay )1ay + (1bi 1az )1az ]
T T T
=(1bi 1ax )RT 1ax + (1bi 1ay )RT 1ay + (1bi 1az )RT 1az
Geometric Interpretation of Direction Cosine Matrix
The vector Rb can be expressed as

 T b   bT a T T

1x 1x 1bx 1ay 1bx 1az RT 1ax

R 1x
 T T T
Rb =  RT 1by  =  1by 1ax 1by 1ay T
1by 1az   R 1ay 

RT 1bz RT 1az
T T T
1bz 1ax 1bz 1ay 1bz 1az
 T T T

1bx 1ax 1bx 1ay 1bx 1az
 T T T
= 1by 1ax 1by 1ay 1by 1az Ra

T T T
1bz 1ax 1bz 1ay 1bz 1az
=C ba Ra = [Cij ]Ra
[Cij ] represents the cosine of the angle between the unit vectors 1bi and 1aj .
Example 1
Consider two coordinate frames with their unit vectors as (i, j, k), and (i0 , j 0 , k0 ),
respectively. If i0 = j, j 0 = −i, and k0 = k then what would be the DCM matrix?
DCM matrix  
0 1 0
 −1 0 0 
0 0 1
Example 2
respectively. If i0 = i, j 0 = −k, and k0 = j then what would be the DCM matrix?
DCM matrix  
1 0 0
 0 0 −1 
0 1 0
Example 3
respectively. If the old coordinate frame is rotated with angle θ anti-clockwise
w.r.t. z-axis to get a new frame, then what would be the DCM matrix?
Unit vectors of new frame
i0 = cos θi + sin θj
j 0 = − sin θi + cos θj
k0 =k
DCM matrix  
cos θ sin θ 0
 − sin θ cos θ 0 
0 0 1
Example 4
Find out the missing coefficients of DCM.
 
0.8999 −0.4323 0.0578
T =  c21 0.8665 −0.2496 
c31 c32 0.9666
We can use orthogonal property of DCM.
0.9666c32 − 0.8665 × 0.2496 − 0.4323 × 0.0578 = 0
c31 c32 + 0.8665c21 − 0.8999 × 0.4323 = 0

0.9666c31 − 0.2496c21 + 0.0578 × 0.8999 = 0
On solving, we get c21 = 0.4323, c31 = 0.0578, c32 = 0.2496

Check for correctness
Propagation of Direction Cosine Matrix
Consider the two frames as the a and b frames.

At time t, the frames a and b are related through the DCM C ab (t).
At time t + ∆t, frame b rotates to a new orientation such that the direction
cosine matrix is given by C ab (t + ∆t).
Rate of change of C ab (t) is given by
a ∆C ab C ab (t + ∆t) − C ab (t)
Ċ b (t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
From geometrical considerations,
C ab (t + ∆t) = C ab (t)(I + ∆θ b )
where, I + ∆θ b is the small angle DCM relating b frame at time t to the

rotated b frame at time t + ∆t.
Direction Cosines
∆θ b is given by
 
0 −∆θY ∆θP
∆θ b =  ∆θY 0 −∆θR  , ∆θk = sin ∆θk ∀ k = R, Y, P
−∆θP ∆θR 0
Note that because the rotation angles are small in the limit as ∆t → 0, small
angle approximations are valid and the order of rotation is immaterial.
Rate of change of C ib (t) is now written as
a ∆θ b
Ċ b (t) = C ab (t) lim
∆t→0 ∆t
In the limit ∆t → 0, ∆θ b /∆t is the skew-symmetric form of angular velocity

of the frame b relative to a frame.
 
0 −ωY ωP
a
Ċ b (t) = C ab (t)Ωbab = C ab (t)  ωY 0 −ωR 
−ωP ωR 0
DCM differential equation is a linear matrix differential equation, forced by

the angular velocity vector in its skew-symmetric matrix form.
Nine scalar, linear, coupled differential equations
This equation can be integrated with the initial conditions, which represent
the initial orientation of the a-frame with respect to the b-frame.
Differential equation component-wise
Ċ i,j = C i,j+1 ωj+2 − C i,j+2 ωj+1 , i, j = 1, 2, 3
where, second subscript is modulo 3, and ω1 = ωR , ω2 = ωP , ω3 = ωY

A first order approximation for transformation matrix, using Taylor series
h i
C tk +∆T = I + Ωbab (tk )∆T C tk
Propagation of Direction Cosine Matrix: Alternate derivation
Consider the transformation of unit vectors from the b-frame to the i-frame
using DCM
      
îi C11 C12 C13 îb îb
 ĵi  =  C21 C22 C23   ĵb  = Cbi  ĵb 
k̂i C31 C32 C33 k̂b k̂b
Consider the first equation
îi = C11 îb + C12 ĵb + C13 k̂b
On differentiation, we get
˙
î˙ i = Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + C11 î˙ b + C12 ĵ˙ b + C13 k̂b
We know that
˙
î˙ b = ωb × îb , ĵ˙ b = ωb × ĵb , k̂b = ωb × k̂b
Now, one may write
î˙ i =Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + C11 ωb × îb + C12 ωb × ĵb + C13 ωb × k̂b
=Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × (C11 îb + C12 ĵb + C13 k̂b )
=Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × îi
As îi is a vector of unit magnitude and fixed direction in inertial frame,

î˙ i = 0, which implies
Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × îi = 0
Similarly
Ċ21 îb + Ċ22 ĵb + Ċ23 k̂b + ωb × ĵi = 0
Ċ31 îb + Ċ32 ĵb + Ċ33 k̂b + ωb × k̂i = 0
Vector product

îb ĵb k̂b

ωb × îi = p q r

C11 C12 C13
=îb (C13 q − C12 r) + ĵb (C11 r − C13 p) + k̂b (C12 p − C11 q)
Thus, Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × îi = 0 leads to
îb (Ċ11 + C13 q − C12 r) + ĵb (Ċ12 + C11 r − C13 p) + k̂b (Ċ13 + C12 p − C11 q) = 0
Now we have
Ċ11 = C12 r − C13 q, Ċ12 = C13 p − C11 r, Ċ13 = C11 q − C12 p
Similarly

In compact form,
    
Ċ11 Ċ12 Ċ13 C11 C12 C13 0 −r q
 Ċ21 Ċ22 Ċ23  =  C21 C22 C23   r 0 −p 
Ċ31 Ċ32 Ċ33 C31 C32 C33 −q p 0
Ċbi = Cbi Ωbib
where  
0 −r q
Ωbib =  r 0 −p 
−q p 0
On taking transpose and using the fact that (Ωbib )0 = −Ωbib , we get
Ċib = − Ωbib Cib
This equation is of the form of Ẋ = AX, A = −Ωbib .

Characteristic equation: ∆(λI − A) = 0, where ∆ denotes the determinant
of matrix.
λ(λ2 + p2 + q 2 + r2 ) = 0
p
Eigenvalues: λ = 0, ±j p2 + q 2 + r2 = ±j|ωb |
Neutrally stable system
Care needs to be taken during updating these coefficients to avoid
accumulation of rounding off error, and prevent the system from blow out.
Vector Rotation in Frame of Reference
R0
RY0
RY R
θ
β
O RX0 RX
X
Rotation of Frame of Reference
The position of a point R in XY coordinate frame is given by

RX R cos β
=
RY R sin β
Let us assume γ = θ + β.
Position of a point R0 in XY coordinate frame is given by
0
RX R cos γ R cos θ cos β − R sin θ sin β
= =
RY0 R sin γ R sin θ cos β + R cos θ sin β

cos θ − sin θ RX
=
sin θ cos θ RY
| {z }
Rotation matrix
Y0 Y
RY R
X0
δ
RY 0 RX 0
θ
RX
X
Let us assume α = θ + δ.
The position of a point R in XY frame is given by

RX R cos α
=
RY R sin α
Position of a point R in X 0 Y 0 frame is given by

RX 0 R cos δ
=
RY 0 R sin δ
As δ = α − θ, we can also write

RX 0 R cos(α − θ) R cos α cos θ + R sin α sin θ
= =
RY 0 R sin(α − θ) R sin α cos θ − R cos α sin θ

RX cos θ + RY sin θ cos θ sin θ RX
= =
RY cos θ − RX sin θ − sin θ cos θ RY
| {z }
Rotation matrix
Euler Angle Rotations
Euler angles
⇒ Method to specify the angular orientation of one coordinate frame w.r.t.
another frame
⇒ A series of three ordered right-handed rotations
⇒ Correspond to the conventional roll pitch yaw angles
Euler angles are not uniquely defined since there is an infinite set of choices.
No standardized definitions of the Euler angles.
For a particular choice of Euler angles, the rotation order selected and/or
defined should be consistent.
Interchange in order of rotation ⇒ different Euler angle representation.
Rotations are made about the Z, Y , X axes through an angle ψ, θ, φ angles.
These rotations are made in the positive (anticlockwise sense) when looking
down the axis of rotation toward the origin.
Euler Angle Rotations (ZY 0 Z 00 )
Euler angles: Three ordered elemental rotations

Extrinsic rotations: Rotations about the axes xyz of the original coordinate
system, which is assumed to remain motionless.
Intrinsic rotations: Rotations about the axes of rotating coordinate system
XY Z, which changes its orientation after each elemental rotation.
Another classification
⇒ Proper Euler angles
⇒ Tait-Bryan angles
Proper Euler angles: (zxz, zyz, xyx, xzx, yzy, yxy)
Tait-Bryan angles: (zyx, zxy, xyz, xzy, yzx, yxz)
What is the major difference between Proper Euler and Tait-Bryan angles?
Tait-Bryan angles represent rotations about three distinct axes, while proper
Euler angles use the same axis for both the first and third elemental rotations.
Rotation about Z axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle ψ
 0    
X cos ψ sin ψ 0 X
 Y 0  =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0   Y 
Z0 0 0 1 Z
 
X
=A  Y 
Z
where
 
cos ψ sin ψ 0
A =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0 
0 0 1
Rotation about Y axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle θ
 00    0 
X cos θ 0 − sin θ X
00
 Y  = 0 1 0  Y 0 
Z0
00
Z sin θ 0 cos θ
 0 
X
=B  Y 0 
Z0
where
 
cos θ 0 − sin θ
B = 0 1 0 
sin θ 0 cos θ
Rotation about X axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle φ
     00 
x 1 0 0 X
 y  =  0 cos φ sin φ   Y 00 
00
z 0 − sin φ cos φ Z
 00 
X
00
=D  Y 
00
Z
where
 
1 0 0
D = 0 cos φ sin φ 
0 − sin φ cos φ
If the consecutive rotations are performed in the order ψ, θ, φ i.e., (yaw,

pitch, and roll) on reference frame XY Z, then we obtain the other reference
frame xyz.
Rotation matrix for representing these three rotations
   00   0   
x X X X
00 0
 y  =D  Y  = DB  Y  = DBA  Y 
00 0
z Z Z Z
Equivalently,
   
x X
 y  = DBA  Y 
| {z }
z C Z
Equivalent rotation matrix C = DBA can be written as

   
1 0 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ cos ψ sin ψ 0
C =  0 cos φ sin φ   0 1 0   − sin ψ cos ψ 0 
0 − sin φ cos φ sin θ 0 cos θ 0 0 1
 
cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ
=  cos ψ sin θ sin φ − sin ψ cos φ sin ψ sin θ sin φ + cos ψ cos φ cos θ sin φ 
cos ψ sin θ cos φ + sin ψ sin φ sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ cos θ cos φ
This rotation matrix is called Euler angle transformation matrix.

Range of Euler angles:
π π
−π ≤ ψ ≤ π, − ≤θ ≤ , −π ≤φ≤π
2 2
Is there any issue with |θ| > π/2?
Computations of Euler Angles
Equivalent rotation matrices

 
cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ
C =  cos ψ sin θ sin φ − sin ψ cos φ sin ψ sin θ sin φ + cos ψ cos φ cos θ sin φ 
cos ψ sin θ cos φ + sin ψ sin φ sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ cos θ cos φ
 
C11 C12 C13
=  C21 C22 C23 
C31 C32 C33
How to obtain Euler angles from given DCM matrix?
θ = sin−1 (−C13 )
!
−1 C23
φ = sin p
2
1 − C13
!
−1 C12
ψ = sin p
2
1 − C13
Are there some issues with these expressions?

Computations of Euler Angles
Recall the ranges of these Euler angles

How to determine the quadrant in which these angles lie?
As pitch angle θ lies in −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2,
(
[0, π/2] C13 ≤ 0
θ∈
[−π/2, 0] C13 ≥ 0
What about bank angle φ?

As C33 = cos φ cos θ, and cos θ > 0, sign of C33 is same as that of cos φ.
Also, C23 = sin φ cos θ, and cos θ > 0, sign of C23 is same as that of sin φ.

First quadrant


C33 > 0 & C23 > 0
Second quadrant C < 0 & C > 0
33 23
φ∈
Third quadrant
 C 33 < 0 & C 23 < 0

Fourth quadrant C33 > 0 & C23 < 0

Obtain the quadrants of ψ using C11 and C12 in a similar way.

Reference
1 George M. Siouris, Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis,
Academic Press, Inc. 1993.
2 Bandhu N. Pamadi, Performance, Stability, and Control of Airplanes, AIAA
Education Series, 1998.
Thank you for your attention !!!

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Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Position of a rigid body: position vector OR OE of origin

Rotation matrix approach utilizes 9 parameters, which obey the orthogonality

Angle between two vectors r 1 and r 2 Direction cosines:

Assume a, b, c be the angles formed by vector w.r.t. x, y, z axes, respectively,

Direction cosine matrix (DCM) transforms a vector in R3 from one frame to

Specifically, if (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) are the representations of a vector in

Matrix DCM projects the vector Ra into a reference frame b.

Assume vector R coordinatized in reference frames a and b as Ra and Rb ,

Ra =(RT 1ax )1ax + (RT 1ay )1ay + (RT 1az )1az

where, RT 1ai ∀ i = x, y, z denotes scalar component of R projected along

The ith component of Rb can be expressed as

The vector Rb can be expressed as

Unit vectors of new frame

We can use orthogonal property of DCM.

0.9666c32 − 0.8665 × 0.2496 − 0.4323 × 0.0578 = 0

c31 c32 + 0.8665c21 − 0.8999 × 0.4323 = 0

On solving, we get c21 = 0.4323, c31 = 0.0578, c32 = 0.2496

Consider the two frames as the a and b frames.

where, I + ∆θ b is the small angle DCM relating b frame at time t to the

In the limit ∆t → 0, ∆θ b /∆t is the skew-symmetric form of angular velocity

DCM differential equation is a linear matrix differential equation, forced by

Ċ i,j = C i,j+1 ωj+2 − C i,j+2 ωj+1 , i, j = 1, 2, 3

where, second subscript is modulo 3, and ω1 = ωR , ω2 = ωP , ω3 = ωY

îi = C11 îb + C12 ĵb + C13 k̂b

Now, one may write

As îi is a vector of unit magnitude and fixed direction in inertial frame,

Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × îi = 0

=îb (C13 q − C12 r) + ĵb (C11 r − C13 p) + k̂b (C12 p − C11 q)

Thus, Ċ11 îb + Ċ12 ĵb + Ċ13 k̂b + ωb × îi = 0 leads to

Ċ11 = C12 r − C13 q, Ċ12 = C13 p − C11 r, Ċ13 = C11 q − C12 p

Ċ21 = C22 r − C23 q, Ċ22 = C23 p − C21 r, Ċ23 = C21 q − C22 p

Ċ31 = C32 r − C33 q, Ċ32 = C33 p − C31 r, Ċ33 = C31 q − C32 p

Ċib = − Ωbib Cib

This equation is of the form of Ẋ = AX, A = −Ωbib .

The position of a point R in XY coordinate frame is given by

As δ = α − θ, we can also write

Euler angles: Three ordered elemental rotations

Rotation about Z axis in anticlockwise

Rotation about Y axis in anticlockwise

Rotation about X axis in anticlockwise

If the consecutive rotations are performed in the order ψ, θ, φ i.e., (yaw,

Equivalent rotation matrix C = DBA can be written as

This rotation matrix is called Euler angle transformation matrix.

Is there any issue with |θ| > π/2?

Equivalent rotation matrices

Are there some issues with these expressions?

Recall the ranges of these Euler angles

What about bank angle φ?

Obtain the quadrants of ψ using C11 and C12 in a similar way.

Thank you for your attention !!!

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