Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India

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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator

Rotation of Coordinate Frame using Quaternion

θ θ
For any unit quaternion [Q] = q0 + q = cos + q̂ sin and for any vector v ∈ R3
2 ? 2
the action of the operator LQ? (v) = [Q]? v[Q]? = [Q]? v[Q] is a rotation of the
coordinate frame about the axis q̂ through an angle θ while v is not rotated.

Rotation of v under the operator LQ can also be interpreted from the

perspective of an observer attached to the vector v.
What he sees happening is that the coordinate frame rotates through the
angle −θ about the same axis defined by the quaternion.
LQ? rotates the vector v with respect to the coordinate frame through an
angle −θ about q.
LQ (v) = [Q]v[Q]? may be interpreted as a point or vector rotation with
respect to the (fixed) coordinate frame.
LQ? (v) = [Q]? v[Q] may be interpreted as a coordinate frame rotation with
respect to the (fixed) space of points.
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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator: Different Forms

Quaternion operator
LQ (v) =[Q]v[Q]? = (q02 − kqk2 )v + 2(q.v)q + 2q0 (q × v)
     
2 θ 2 θ θ θ θ θ
= cos − sin v + 2 q̂ sin .v q̂ sin + 2 cos q̂ sin × v
2 2 2 2 2 2
= cos θv + (1 − cos θ) (q̂.v) q̂ + sin θ (q̂ × v)

Quaternion operator in matrix form,

LQ (v) =(q02 − kqk2 )v + 2(q.v)q + 2q0 (q × v)
= q02 − kqk2 )I3×3 + 2qq T + 2q0 (q× v
 
| {z }
Rotation Matrix

where the matrix representing cross product is given by

 
0 −q3 q2
q× =  q3 0 −q1 
−q2 q1 0
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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator: Problem

Rotation of Vector using Quaternion

Consider a rotation about an axis defined by (1, 1, 1) through an angle of 2π/3.
Obtain the quaternion to perform this rotation. Compute the effect of rotation on
the basis vector i = (1, 0, 0).

1
Define unit vector q̂ = √ (1, 1, 1).
3
Quaternion
θ θ
[Q] = cos + q̂ sin
2 2
1 1 1 1
= + i+ j+ k
2 2 2 2

Actual vector v = i = (1, 0, 0).

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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator: Problem

By using quaternion operator on v = (1, 0, 0), we get

[w] = cos θv + (1 − cos θ) (q̂.v) q̂ + sin θ (q̂ × v)

√
       
1   1 1 1
1 1 1 1 3 1    
=−  0 + 1+ √ √  1 + √ 1 × 0
2 2 3 3 2 3
0 1 1 0
       
−1/2 1/2 0 0
=  0  +  1/2  +  1/2  =  1 
0 1/2 −1/2 0
=j

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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator Sequences

How can we obtain equivalent quaternion for a sequence of rotations?

Let [P ] and [Q] be two unit quaternions.

LP (u) = v, LQ (v) = w

We can rewrite

w =LQ (v)
=[Q]v[Q]?
=[Q][P ]u[P ]? [Q]?
=[QP ]u[QP ]?
=LQP (u)

LQP is a unit quaternion rotation operator, with the axis and angle of the
composite rotation given by the product [QP ].

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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator Sequences

Consider quaternion operators LP ? (u) = [P ]? u[P ] and LQ? (v) = [Q]? v[Q].
These operators define rotations of the coordinate system defined by
corresponding quaternions.

w =LQ? (v) = [Q]? v[Q]

=[Q]? [P ]? u[P ][Q] = [P Q]? u[P Q]
=L(P Q)? (u)

Quaternion product ([P ][Q])? defines operator which represents a sequence

of operators LP ? followed by LQ? .
L(P Q)? is also a unit quaternion rotation operator, with the axis and angle of
the composite rotation given by the product [P Q].

Example
Consider a rotation of the coordinate frame about the z-axis through an angle α,
followed by a rotation about the new y-axis through an angle β. By using the
quaternion method, find out the axis and angle of the composite rotation.
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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator Sequences: Example

The first rotation is about z-axis with an angle α.

α α
[P ] = cos + sin k
2 2
Second rotation is about y-axis with an angle α.
β β
[Q] = cos + sin j
2 2
As we rotate coordinate frames, the rotation operators are LP ? , followed by
LQ? , applied sequentially.
Quaternion describing the composite rotation
 
 α α  β β
[P Q] = cos + sin k cos + sin j
2 2 2 2
α β α β α β α β
= cos cos + cos sin j + sin cos k + sin sin k × j
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
α β α β α β α β
= cos cos − sin sin i + cos sin j + sin cos k
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
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Quaternions
Quaternion Rotation Operator Sequences: Example

Axis of composite rotation

α β
 
− sin sin

 2 2 

 
 α β 
v= cos sin 

 2 2 
 
 α β 
sin cos
2 2
Angle of rotation
θ α β
cos = cos cos
2 2 2
θ
sin =kvk
2
Rotational operator L[P Q]?
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Quaternions
Quaternion Operations

For unit quaternion, p0 = [Q]? p[Q].

If p = Xi + Y j + Zk and p0 = X 0 i + Y 0 j + Z 0 k then
p0 =(q0 − q1 i − q2 j − q3 k)p(q0 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k)
=i[X(q02 + q12 − q22 − q32 ) + Y (2q3 q0 + 2q1 q2 ) + Z(2q1 q3 − 2q0 q2 )]
+ j[X(2q1 q2 − 2q3 q0 ) + Y (q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 ) + Z(2q1 q0 + 2q3 q2 )]
+ k[X(2q0 q2 + 2q1 q3 ) + Y (2q2 q3 − 2q0 q1 ) + Z(q02 − q12 − q22 + q32 )]

In matrix form, we have

X0
  2
q0 + q12 − q22 − q32
  
2(q3 q0 + q1 q2 ) 2(q1 q3 − q0 q2 ) X
 Y 0  =  2(q1 q2 − q3 q0 ) q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 2(q1 q0 + q3 q2 )   Y 
Z0 2(q0 q2 + q1 q3 ) 2(q2 q3 − q0 q1 ) q0 − q12 − q22 + q32
2
Z

  2  0 
q0 + q12 − q22 − q32

X 2(q1 q2 − q3 q0 ) 2(q0 q2 + q1 q3 ) X
 Y  =  2(q3 q0 + q1 q2 ) q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 2(q2 q3 − q0 q1 )   Y 0 
Z 2(q1 q3 − q0 q2 ) 2(q1 q0 + q3 q2 ) q02 − q12 − q22 + q32 Z0

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Transformation Matrices
Quaternion Operations

Quaternion transformation matrix

q02 + q12 − q22 − q32
 
2(q3 q0 + q1 q2 ) 2(q1 q3 − q0 q2 )
[QT ] =  2(q1 q2 − q3 q0 ) q02− q12 + q22 − q32 2(q1 q0 + q3 q2 ) 
2(q0 q2 + q1 q3 ) 2(q2 q3 − q0 q1 ) q02 − q12 − q22 + q32

Direction cosine matrix

 
C11 C12 C13
[DC] =  C21 C22 C23 
C31 C32 C33

Euler angle transformation matrix

 
cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ
[ET ] =  sin φ sin θ cos ψ − cos φ sin ψ sin φ sin θ sin ψ + cos φ cos ψ sin φ cos θ 
cos φ sin θ cos ψ + sin φ sin ψ cos φ sin θ sin ψ − sin φ cos ψ cos φ cos θ

Compare these three matrices and get relations among these transformations.
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Quaternions
Quaternion Update Equations: Vector Rotation

Rotation Rate of Quaternion

Let [Q(t)] be a unit quaternion function, and ω(t) the angular velocity. The
derivative of [Q(t)] is
1
[Q̇(t)] = ω[Q(t)]
2

At t + ∆t, the rotation is described by [Q](t + ∆t).

This is after some extra rotation during ∆t performed on the frame that has
already undergone a rotation described by [Q(t)].
ω
This extra rotation is about the instantaneous axis ω̂ = through the
kωk
angle ∆θ = kωk∆t. It can be described by a quaternion.

∆θ ∆θ kωk∆t kωk∆t
∆[Q(t)] = cos + ω̂ sin = cos + ω̂ sin
2 2 2 2

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Quaternions
Quaternion Update Equations: Vector Rotation

The rotation at t + ∆t is thus described by the quaternion sequence [Q(t)],

∆[Q(t)], implying [Q(t + ∆t)] = [∆Q(t)][Q(t)]
To derive [Q̇(t)], let us obtain the difference
 
kωk∆t kωk∆t
[Q(t + ∆t)] − [Q(t)] = cos + ω̂ sin [Q(t)] − [Q(t)]
2 2
kωk∆t kωk∆t
= − 2 sin2 [Q(t)] + ω̂ sin [Q(t)]
4 2

On taking the limit ∆t → 0, we have

[Q(t + ∆t)] − [Q(t)] sin(kωk∆t/2)
[Q̇(t)] = lim = lim ω̂ [Q(t)]
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
ω̂kωk
= [Q(t)]
2
1
= ω[Q(t)]
2
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Quaternions
Quaternion Update Equations

The differential equations for quaternion elements

1
q̇0 = − q T ω
2
1 1
q̇ = [q0 ω + ω × q] = [q0 ω − q × ω]
2 2
where, ω = ωx i + ωy j + ωz k is the relative angular velocity vector between
two coordinate frames and q = q1 i + q2 j + q3 k.
If the angular velocities are denoted in terms of the rotated frame, then
1
[Q̇(t)] = [Q(t)]ω 0 , ω 0 = [Q]? ω[Q]
2

Note that ω = 2[Q̇(t)][Q(t)]?

Computation of angular rate with known quaternion and its rate

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Quaternions
Quaternion-Rotation Matrix Relation

d[Q] 1
The differential equations in compact form = B[Q]
dt 2
 
0 −ωx −ωy −ωz
T
 
 ωx 0 ωz −ωy  = 0 −ω
[B] = 
 ωy −ωz 0 ωx  ω −Ω
ωz ωy −ωx 0

In scalar form, the above equations can be written as

1
q̇0 = − [q1 ωx + q2 ωy + q3 ωz ]
2
1
q̇1 = [q0 ωx + q2 ωz − q3 ωy ]
2
1
q̇2 = [q0 ωy − q1 ωz + q3 ωx ]
2
1
q̇3 = [q0 ωz + q1 ωy − q2 ωx ]
2

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Transformation Matrices
Transformations: Observations

 Euler angle
Only 3 differential equations
No redundancy
Direct initialization from initial Euler angles
Nonlinear differential equations
Singularities
Gimbal lock problem
Transformation matrix needs to be computed
Order of rotation important
 Direction cosine matrix (DCM)
Linear differential equations
No singularity
Direct computation of DCM
Euler angles, required for initial calculation, are not directly available
Computational burden

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Transformation Matrices
Transformations: Observations

 Quaternions
Only 4 linear coupled differential equations
No singularity thus avoids gimbal lock problem
Minimum redundancy to avoid singularity
Computationally simpler
If the coordinate systems do not coincides at t = 0 then Euler angle required
for initial calculation
Transformation matrix needs to be computed
Euler angles are not directly available

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Coordinate Frames
Frame of References

Why do you need coordinate frames?

Y

X
To determine motion of a vehicle, it becomes necessary to relate the solution
to the motion of Earth.
⇒ Define inertial reference frame w.r.t. the Earth
⇒ Obtain motion of both vehicle and Earth w.r.t. the inertial frame
Initial orientation of reference coordinate frame, position, and velocity are
required to obtain future orientation, position and velocity.

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Coordinate Frames
Reference Frame

Choice of coordinate frame

⇒ Mission requirements
⇒ Ease of implementations
⇒ Computer storage and speed
⇒ Complexity of navigation equation
Fundamental coordinate frames
1 True inertial
2 Earth-centered inertial (ECI)
3 Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF)
4 Navigation
5 Body
6 Wander azimuth
All these are orthogonal and right-handed Cartesian frame.
How these coordinate frames are different?
⇒ Location of the origin
⇒ Relative orientation of the axes
⇒ Relative motion between the frames

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Coordinate Frames
True Inertial Frame of Reference

How do you define inertial frame?

⇒ The reference frame in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid.
⇒ True inertial frame consists of a set of mutually perpendicular axes that
neither accelerate nor rotate with respect to inertial space.
⇒ Fixed relative to the stars
Newton’s laws are also valid in Galilean frames.
Galilean frames: Those that do not rotate with respect to one another and
which are uniformly translating in space.
True inertial frame is Galilean frames with absolute zero motion.
Existence of true inertial frame?
⇒ Formulation of theories of relativity
⇒ Newtonian mechanics is a special case
True inertial frame is not a practical reference frame.
It is used only for visualization of other reference frames.

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Coordinate Frames
Frame of References

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-centered Inertial Frame of Reference

How do you define Earth-centered inertial (ECI) frame?

⇒ Origin at the Earth’s center of mass
⇒ Nonrotating relative to the inertial space
Is this frame accelerating?
It accelerates with respect to inertial space since it moves with the Earth.
⇒ Due to the Earth’s rotation and movement about the sun, the inertial frame
appears to be rotating for an Earth-fixed observer.
At the start of navigation mode, x − y axes of this frame lie in Earth’s
equatorial plane with x axis typically defined toward a star and z axis is
aligned with Earth’s spin axis.
For this reason, it is called Earth-centered inertial (ECI) frame.
This frame does not rotate with the Earth.
Are they really inertial axes?
Theoretically, the axes that are fixed to Earth are not inertial axes.

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-centered Inertial Frame of Reference

It is due to the various modes of motion which the Earth exhibits relative to
the “fixed space”.
Most important noninertial influences
⇒ Daily rotation of the earth about its polar axis
⇒ Monthly rotation of the earth-moon system about its center of mass
⇒ Precession of the earth’s polar axis about a line fixed in space
⇒ Motion of the sun with respect to the galaxy
⇒ Irregularities in the polar precession
What about the validity of Newton’s law in this frame?
Approximately correct
For vehicles navigating in the vicinity of the earth, computations of specific
force are performed in this frame.

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-centered Earth-fixed Frame of Reference

How do you define Earth-centered Earth-fixed frame?

⇒ Origin at the Earth’s center of mass
⇒ Rotating with Earth
⇒ Coincides with the inertial frame once every 24 hrs.
It is also called as Earth frame or Geocenetric frame.
Rotation of the Earth w.r.t. the ECI frame is about the same axis and in the
same sense as the longitude.
The ze axis is directed north along the polar axis while the xe , ye axes are in
the equatorial plane.
The xe axis is directed through the Greenwich Meridian (0◦ latitude, 0◦
longitude) and the ye axis is directed through 90◦ East longitude.

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Coordinate Frames
Navigation Frame of Reference

Navigation frame (geographic frame or vehicle carried vertical frame)

⇒ Origin at the location of INS
⇒ A local-level frame with its x − y axes in a plane tangent to the reference
ellipsoid and z axis perpendicular to that ellipsoid.
⇒ Typically, x axis will point north, y axis east, and z axis down (or up)
depending on selection of coordinate convention by the designer.
Largest class of inertial navigation systems is the local-level type.
Stable platform is constrained with two axes in the horizontal plane.
Many lNSs have been built using the local-level mechanization, mainly due to
the error compensation simplifications of maintaining constant platform
alignment to the gravity vector.
Use of this conventional geographic set of axes leads to both hardware and
computational difficulties in operation at the polar regions.

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Coordinate Frames
Body Frame of Reference

Definition of body frame

⇒ Origin at the vehicle’s center of mass
⇒ Mutually orthogonal axes along the body of vehicle
What about the choice of axes?
In aircraft applications, the convention is to choose the x axis pointing along
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis (roll axis).
y axis out to the right wing (pitch axis), and z axis pointing down (yaw axis).
Convenient for developing equations of motion of a vehicle
Vehicle equations of motion are normally written in this frame.
Typically used in the strapdown systems.

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Coordinate Frames
Wander Azimuth Frame of Reference

Wander Azimuth frame: Special case of navigation frame

Called as Computational frame
⇒ Origin at the vehicle’s center of mass (the system’s location)
⇒ Coincident with the origin of the navigation frame
Horizontal axes of this local-level geodetic wander-azimuth frame lie in a
plane tangent to the local vertical.
Defined w.r.t. the Earth frame by three successive Eulerian angle rotations
(longitude λ, latitude φ, and wander angle α).
Latitude is defined to be positive in the northern hemisphere.
Wander angle is defined to be positive west of true north and measured in
geodetic horizon plane.
What if the wander angle is made zero?
This frame gets aligned with the navigational (or geographic) frame.

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Coordinate Frames
Wander Azimuth Frame of Reference

What would happen if geodetic latitude, longitude, and wander angle are
zero, that is, λ = 0, φ = 0, α = 0?
Axes will be aligned with aligned with that of the Earth-fixed frame.
Geodetic coordinates: Earth-fixed parameters defined in terms of Earth
reference ellipsoid.
Geodetic longitude: positive east of the Greenwich Meridian (λ = 0),
measured in reference equatorial plane.
Geodetic latitude: positive north measured from the reference equatorial
plane to ellipsoidal surface passing through the point of interest.
Altitude h above reference ellipsoid measured along the normal passing
through the point of interest.
In a conventional NED mechanization, the vertical axis is precessed at a rate
which keeps the two level axes pointing north and east at all times.
However, this leads to a problem if one of the Earth’s poles is traversed, in
which case the required vertical precessional rate becomes infinitely large.

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Coordinate Frames
Additional Frame of Reference

Additional frames of reference

⇒ Platform
⇒ Accelerometer
⇒ Gyroscope
Platform frame: Right-handed, orthogonal coordinate frame defined by the
input axes of inertial sensors (typically gyroscope)
Origin at the system location (INS), with its orientation in space being fixed
This reference coordinate frame is a function of the configuration and
mechanization of the particular inertial navigator under design
If platform frame → body frame, strapdown system, whereas if platform
frame → inertial frame, space-stable system.
Accelerometer and gyroscope frames: Nonorthogonal frames defined by the
input or sensitive axes of the instruments mounted on the inertial platform

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Coordinate Frames
Transformation Sequence

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Coordinate Frames
Earth Sidereal Rotation Rate

Earth rotation rate vector in NEU system

Ωie = Ωie cos φj + Ωie sin φk

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) to Earth-Fixed Transformation

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) to Earth-Fixed Transformation

Both coordinate frames have their respective origin at the center of Earth.
ECI frame has xi axis pointing toward the true equinox of date at time t0 , zi
axis along the Earth’s rotational axis, and yi axis completes the right-handed
orthogonal system.
ECEF coordinate frame is related to the ECI frame by a single positive
rotation about the zi axis of Ωie ∆t, called as sidereal hour angle.
Ωie is Earth’s sidereal rotation rate, given by
360
Ωie =
23 + (56/60) + (4.09/3600)
=15.04106874 deg/h
=4.178074648 × 10−3 deg/s = 7.292115 × 10−5 rad/s

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Coordinate Frames
Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) to Earth-Fixed Transformation

Ωie w.r.t. ECEF frame is given by

 
0
Ωie =  0 
7.292115 × 10−35 rad/s

Transformation matrix between ECI and ECEF frames

    
xe cos Ωie ∆t sin Ωie ∆t 0 xi
 ye  =  − sin Ωie ∆t cos Ωie ∆t 0   yi 
ze 0 0 1 zi

Define Λ = Ωie ∆t − 2nπ where n is chosen such that 0 ≤ Λ ≤ 2π.

    
xi cos Λ − sin Λ 0 xe
 yi  =  sin Λ cos Λ 0   ye 
zi 0 0 1 ze

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Coordinate Frames
Text/References

Reference
1 G. M. Siouris, Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis, Academic
Press, Inc. 1993.

Thank you for your attention !!!

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