2. DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF GLASS FRAGMENTS.

Aim – to determine the density and refractive index of glass fragments.

Material required- test tubes, test tube rack, bromoform, bromobenzene, measuring cylinder, beaker,
etc.

Theory and principle-Glass, as a physical clue, is frequently encountered in various crimes, such as
burglary, road accidents, murder, sexual assault, shooting incidents, arson and vandalism. The chips of
broken glass from a window may be lodged in suspects shoes or garments during the act of burglary or
particles of headlight glass found at the scene of hit and run accident may offer clues that confirm the
identity of a suspected vehicle or glass may also be found on the clothing of an alleged assailant, where a
bottle is used as weapon. Further, anytime, when there is a violence, bottles, window pane glass, mirrors,
eyeglasses and other glass objects can be accidentally scattered and fragments of these can also adhere to
the criminals clothing or shoes. Thus, glass forms one of the evidentiary materials in many criminals
investigations. The method of comparison of control and crime exhibits of glass fragments for source
correspondence and study of various types of glass fractures.     

Type of Glass

1) SODA LIME GLASS:- This is the most common type of glass being used for manufacturing window
glass, bottles, containers, light bulbs, bangles etc. The common metal oxides found in this type of glass
are sodium , calcium, Magnesium and aluminum.

2) BOROSILICATE GLASS: This is any glass having a substantial amount of boron(over 5% of B2 O3)
which is resistant to heat, acid corrosion and alkalis. This type of glass, also known as Pyrex glass is used
to manufacture laboratory glassware, thermometers, household cookware and automobile head light.

3) SAFETY GLASS: These glasses are so constructed, treated or combined with other materials, so as to
reduce the likelihood of injury to persons, in comparison with ordinary glass, when they are broken or
otherwise.

Various types of safety glasses include:

(a) Tampered/toughened glass: This glass is made stronger than ordinary window glass by introducing
stress through rapid heating and cooling of the glass surfaces. When tampered glass breaks, it does not
shatter but rather fragments or dices into small squares with little splintering.

(b) Laminated glass: This is prepared by sandwiching layer of plastic materials between two pieces of
ordinary window glass. The laminated glass will crack or break under sufficient impact, but the pieces of
glass tend to adhere to the plastic layer.

(c) Wire glass: It is single sheet of glass with a layer of meshed wire completely embedded inside the
glass, which will be usually thicker. It may or may not be ground and/or polished on both sides.

(d) Coloured glass: These are produced by the addition of metallic oxides to soda lime silica glass.
Chromium oxide produces green colour, cobalt produces blue colour, Iron produces greenish blue, gold,
copper, selenium, colloidal particles produces red colour
Methods of examination

7.4       Density measurements for fragments of glass

     Density comparison by flotation                  

i) For the heavier liquid, methylene iodide or Bromoform can be used. For the lighter liquid,
Xylene, Bromobenzene, Nitrobenzene, Benzene or Kerosene can be used. For this method,
Bromoform (d=2.89) and Bromobenzene (d=1.52) are selected.
ii) The crime and control glass piece samples are to be crushed to comparable sizes with similar
shape. Each piece of glass is briefly sketched and marked for reference to return it to its original
packet after examination.
iii) A cleaned and dried sample of crime glass particle is placed in a small beaker containing
bromoform. The glass will float on the liquid surface. This indicates that the density of the liquid
is greater than that of the glass.
iv) Slowly add the less denser liquid, Bromobenzene, drop wise with stirring, until the particle is
exactly suspended. If the addition of Bromobenzene is in excess, which is indicated by the
sinking of the glass particle, then bromoform is added, until the glass chip remains suspended in
the liquid medium. Care is taken to see that the mixture is stirred with each addition and the air
bubbles, if any, are removed.
v) Add similar size, clean and dry sample of control glass. If both the crime and the control glass
particles remain suspended in the liquid, then, their densities are equal to each other and to that
of the liquid mixture. Particles of different densities will either sink or float, depending on
whether they are more dense or less dense than the liquid medium.

   Procedure:

i) Place seven test tubes in a test tube rack.

ii) Prepare the mixtures of bromobenzene and bromoform in the following ratios, by pipetting out
the respective liquids into the test tubes.

a) Pure bromoform-6ml (density -2.89)

b) 1 ml of bromobenzene 5 ml of bromoform

c) 2 ml of bromobenzene 4 ml of bromoform

d) 3 ml of bromobenzene 3 ml of bromoform

e) 4 ml of bromobenzene 2 ml of bromoform

f) 5 ml of bromobenzene 1 ml of bromoform

g) Pure bromobenzene-6ml (density -1.52)

iv) Carefully add the solutions in the order listed in step (ii) in to the tubes (Bromoform at the
bottom).
vi) With a forceps, carefully select one of the heavier crystals listed in table C-1 and add it to one of
the columns. Repeat this process until at least seven different crystals are added to both the
columns and record them.
vii) Allow the crystals to settle for 10 minutes and measure their initial heights from the bottom of
the tubes.
viii) Carefully add the crime and control glass fragments to their respective columns and allow the
columns to stand overnight.
ix) Determine the density of the glass particles in each column.

Result- The density of glass fragment has been determined.

3. RESTORATION OF ERASED AND OBLITERATED SERIAL NUMBER

Aim - To restore erased and obliterated serial number.

Material required – Chemical Requirements –HCl, HNO 3, Alcohol, Cupric Chloride, Water, H 2O2,
Glacial acetic acid

Theory - Identification of their owner of bicycles, motor cycles, motor vehicles, fire arms,
ornaments, machinery, valuable tools, cameras, watches, plastic items and many other articles has been
made by restoring their erased original serial numbers or other identification features like inscribed
monogram or other inscription.

Principle of restoration of numbers: When a number or trademark is stamped on cold metal, the
crystalline structure of the metal under of the stamp impression is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates
for an appreciable distance into the substance of the metal, but is not visible to the naked eye once the
actual indentations caused by the punch have been removed. However, when suitable chemical reagents
are applied to such erased areas the evidence of the disturbance into the crystalline structure becomes
temporarily visible, for the reagents act more readily on the undisturbed areas of the metal than on the
compressed particles. Thus it is possible by the application of suitable chemical solutions to redevelop the
numbers, which have been filed out, and this enables the investigator to trace the origin of the stolen
articles.

Chemical etching method for restoration

The chemical etching method is the simplest and most effective method for restoring obliterated numbers.
It is simple to apply and it requires no expensive equipment. It works well on any size or type of object.
The techniques involved require considerable skill and great patience. The materials used are potentially
dangerous and should be used with full awareness of health and safety requirements. They should only be
used in areas specially set aside for this purpose. Rubber gloves will protect the hands from corrosive acid
and when using volatile liquids work in the open air away from any seat of naked flame, if laboratory
conditions are not available. In case of motor vehicles remove the engine from the vehicle if necessary for
ease of access to the engine number surface, and for better quality of photographs of the restoration
process.

Preliminary Examination

Examine the metal surface after cleaning oil and dirt away, using acetone. Examine the surface with a
hand magnifier and see whether any erasure has taken place at all. Look for any disturbance in the pattern
at the background. This pattern will be present either in the form of milled marks caused by grinding the
surface before stamping the serial numbers, or cast marks produced during the manufacturing process. If
it is disturbed, suspect erasure. Even if no erasure is noticed, remove the paint over a wide area around the
surface to check whether the portion carrying the chassis number was removed by cutting and substitute
for it by welding or pasting a metal plate with a new number 4 . Remove the pasted plate if any, from the
original surface by using trifluoroethanol, after recording the original appearance. Remove the welded
plate too. Examine the lower surface for any obliterated marks. Note how the mark has been erased and
whether it has been repaired after erasure. See if any digits or parts of digits are visible. Note these down.
Examine the surface by carefully adjusted illumination preferably oblique lighting to see the erased
number. For photography, use a single light for striking the surface bearing the serial number at a low
angle. Take several exposures, the light being moved in each instant to strike the surface from a different
position. Use process film. This method assists to bringing out the faint serial numbers. Identify the type
of metal from which the object is made. This is necessary to choose the appropriate chemical etchants.

Preparation of surface

(i) Clean the surface using preferably benzene or acetone to free it from grease or paint. Solvents
such as gasoline, commercial paint remover or 50/50 mixture of acetone and chloroform may
also be used. To assist the solvent a soft toothbrush should be used to dislodge deposits from
the stamped surface.
(ii) Hand polish the area to a smooth, mirror like finish or a reasonably smooth surface with
emery cloth, or other fine abrasive. Emery paper with coarse grade is used by first removing
all scratches, and other gross marks with fine emery. Do not remove more metal than is
necessary. Leave deep scratches. Examine the surface during polishing, as digits are
sometimes revealed during the process.
(iii) Clean again the area with a solvent, such as acetone or other grease solvent Do not touch the
area with bare fingers because fingerprints can interfere with the reaction.
(iv) Heating- Treat the area with a blow lamp or Bunsen burner. Care should be taken not to over
heat. If the metal is heated to red hot, the temperature is sufficiently high to soften the metal
and, on cooling, the metal becomes homogeneous and can no longer be differentiated. A
useful guide is to heat the metal surface until it is just too hot to touch. The metal should be
allowed to cool before etching begins 1, 2 .
(v) Photograph the entire item, and record details of the obliterated area by close-up
photography. Use 35 mm camera with a macro lens and extension and a fast film, 400, ISO.
Procedure -

Etching procedures on different surfaces

Steel surfaces  (chassis and engine of cars, guns, gas cylinders etc.)

(i) The etching reagents 2 are in two solutions.

Solution 1- (Frye’s reagent) Crystalline cupric chloride 90gms. Concentrated
hydrochloric acid 120ml. Water 100ml.
Solution 2- 15 per cent Nitric acid.
Apply the Solution 1 by swabbing the surface for approximately 2-3 minutes with cotton
wool dipped in the reagent. Look for any digits revealed and record these. Clean the
surface with acetone (not water). Examine again. Apply the Solution 2 by swabbing the
surface for approximately 1 minute with cotton wool dipped in this solution. Look for
any digits revealed and record these. Continue etching alternatively with Frye’s and 15%
nitric acid etching reagents until the complete number is visible. This may take up to 2 or
3 hours. A consistent check should be made on the appearance of the mark since faint
marks appear and then disappear again before the mark is completely etched.
(ii) Alternate Solution
 Solution 1 -Hydrochloric acid 80ml. Water 60 ml. Copper Chloride 12.9 gms. Alcohol 50
ml.
Solution 2 -15 per cent Nitric acid.
The method is similar to the previous one. Apply with a swab a little of the acid copper
chloride solution and continue to apply for 60 seconds. Dry with cotton wool and then
apply the nitric acid for a similar period. This alternate swabbing with solutions (1) and
(2) is continued until the number is developed. Time, 5 minutes to as long as 1 hour. (iii)
Ferric chloride etching reagent can also be successfully used on steel surface.

Copper, Brass, German Silver and other Copper Alloys

These metals react to: Ferric Chloride 19 gms. Hydrochloric acid 6 ml. Water 100 ml.
Apply the reagent as a swab until the number appears. When the reagent is slow to
develop the erased mark, form a wall of plasticine around the erased mark. Use the
solution as a bath. Let the reagent remain on the metal for 24 hours. Some workers have
found that 20 gms. Ammonium persulphate made up to 100cc., with water gives the best
result for brass and copper.

Stainless Steel
Swab either with dilute sulphuric acid or 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid in
alcohol.
Lead (Motor car batteries etc.)

Glacial acetic acid 3 parts Hydrogen peroxide This solution has yielded excellent results.
Time 10-30 minutes. When the erased number ppears, clean the metal in concentrated
nitric acid.

Zinc Alloys

(i) Sodium hydroxide 10 per cent solution in water. Development is slow. So, use
the plasticine bath method. Time 10-16 hours.
(ii) Alternate solution Chromic acid 20gms. Na2 SO4 1.5 gms Water (or) 100 ml.
Nitric acid 25% 6.6.6   

Cast Iron and Cast Steel

1,2 Apply constantly a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid plus potassium dichromate. Action will be
slow. Apply constantly the reagent. It may even be necessary to build a wall of plasticine around the
number and fill the hollow with the reagent. Remove the solution at intervals, examine the surface,
replace fresh solution. Over development results in the obliteration of the restoration.
Aluminium Alloys (Engine surface of the motor bikes, auto-rickshaw engine, vehicle identification
plates etc.)

(i) The best reagent is Villella’s solution. Glycerin 30 ml. Hydrofluoric acid 20ml.
Nitric acid 10 ml. Apply the reagent as a swab until the number appears. Use the
reagent with caution as it attacks the fingers vigorously. Time 5-15 minutes.
 (ii) An alternative and safer formula is Hume Rothery solution and is made up as
follows: Copper chloride 200 gms. Hydrochloric acid 5 ml. Water 1000 ml. As
soon as this solution is applied a copper deposit is formed. Remove this copper
deposit by alternative swabbing with Hume Rothery reagent and distilled water,
until the number appears. Time 5 minutes to 1 Hour.

Result – Restoration of erased and obliterated marks has been performed

1. PHYSICAL MATCHING OF BROKEN PIECES OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS

AIM : To physically match broken pieces of different objects

Theory: This is most conclusive proof of source correspondence, since no two fractures will ever
be identical over any appreciable length. A complimentary lateral fit along the broken edges over a
length of quarter inch (1/4) or more establishes that the two glass garments were continuous before
breakage. By naked eye or under a microscope, we should search carefully the edges of the
samples, which will exactly fit into each other, taking into consideration, the factors contributing to
the matching, such as general appearance, colour, edge thickness, shape of breakage, all the
irregularities and striations near the broken surfaces. Lateral pressure has to be applied, in order to
see that the small irregularities intermesh and hold the pieces together, so that we can feel the sense
of exact fit along the broken edges. This is especially important for matching of smaller fragments.

PROCEDURE:

● Visually examine each item of evidence to determine its class characteristics (e.g., size, color,
pattern, dimension, composition) and compare the items for similarities.
● Orient the pieces and determine if they have broken, cut and/or torn edges that physically fit
together.
● Fabric matching involves examining the general size and shape, weave/knit type, fiber type and
twist, colors and patterns, long versus short threads, unusual stretching or contours, stains,
damaged areas and stitched edges or selvedges
● When matching flexible materials (e.g. ,fabric, tape and some plastics), care must be taken
to account for edge rolling, stretching, and twisting
● Matching of rigid materials involves examining the general size and shape, colors and patterns,
edges and contours, cracks, breaks and other damaged area
● If the edges on the pieces physically fit together, observe all orientations of the physical match
for specific, individual characteristics (e.g. Scratches, striations, inclusions, stains, defects,
hackle marks) that traverse the broken, cut or torn edges .If comparisons at the microscopic
level are necessary, a stereomicroscope, comparison microscope and/or SEM shall be used.
Castings of sample may aid in the comparison
● Photographs shall be taken of all physical matches.
● Additional documentation(e.g.,sketches)may be used to supplement the photographs.
● If sufficient individual characteristics are present, it can be concluded that the items
physically match.

RESULT: