Semiconductor Devices (ECP302)

Extrinsic Semiconductors

B.Tech 3rd Sem

Electronics and Computer Sciences

Dr. Sheilza Jain

Electronics Engg. Department
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductors are of little use (it may only be used as a heat or light-
sensitive resistance). Practically all the semiconductor devices are made of a
semiconductor material to which certain specified types of impurities have been
added. The process of deliberately adding impurities to a semiconductor material is
called doping. This is done after the semiconductor material has been refined to a high
degree of purity. (Doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor]

N-Type Semiconductors ( phosphorus- 15, Arsenic-33, Bismuth-51)

Let us consider what happens if a small amount of pentavalent impurity, for example,
phosphorus is added to a sample of intrinsic silicon. The size of the impurity atoms is
roughly the same as that of silicon. An impurity atom replaces a silicon atom in its
crystalline structure. If the amount of impurity is very small (say, one part in one
million), we can safely assume that each impurity atom is surrounded, all around, by
silicon atoms. This is shown in Fig. , which represents a part of the crystal.

P—Atomic number -- 15, ---- 2, 8, 5 (3 shells)

Let us now focus our attention on an impurity atom in the crystalline structure. Unlike
a silicon atom, the phosphorus atom has five valence electrons. Four of these form
covalent bonds with four neighbouring silicon atoms. The fifth electron has no chance
of forming a covalent bond. It is this electron that is important to us. Since it is not
associated with any covalent bond and is quite far from the nucleus, it is very loosely
bound. It requires very little energy to free itself from the attractive force of its
nucleus (this energy is only 0.01 eV in the case of germanium and 0.05 eV in the case
of silicon). This energy is so small that at room temperature practically all such
electrons become free. In other words, at room temperature each impurity atom
donates one electron to the conduction band. That is the reason why this type of
impurity is called donor type. These donated electrons are called excess electrons,
since they are in excess to the electrons which are thermally generated (by breaking
covalent bonds).] · All the electrons which have been donated by the impurity atoms
can take part in the conduction of electric current. Besides, there will also be some
electron-hole pairs generated because of the breaking of covalent bonds. The number
of thermally generated electron-hole pairs will be very small compared to the number
of free electrons due to the impurity atoms. Further, as the number of electrons is
very large, the chance of their recombination with holes also increases. Consequently,
the net concentration of holes is much less than its intrinsic value. Thus, the number
of free electrons becomes far greater than the number of holes. That is why we say
that an N-type semiconductor has electrons (negatively charged) as majority earners,
and holes as minority carrier.

Now, let us see what happens to the core of the impurity atom, when the fifth
electron leaves it. The core represents the atom without the valence electrons. Since
there are five valence electrons in the impurity atom, a charge of +5 is shown in its
core. When the fifth electron leaves the impurity atom, it then has + 1 excess charge.
It then becomes a positively charged immobile ion. It is immobile because it is held
tightly in the crystal by the four covalent bonds.

Representation of N-type semiconductor

In the designation "N-type semiconductor'', the letter N stands for negative charges
(electrons), because the electrons are the major charge carriers. But it does not mean
that a sample of N-type semiconductor is negatively charged. It is important to note
that whether a semiconductor is intrinsic or doped with impurity, it remains
electrically neutral. Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs due to thermal
energy. The negative charge of free electrons thus generated is exactly balanced by
the positive charge of the holes. In an N-type semiconductor, there are additional free
electrons created because of the addition of donor atoms. The negative charge of
these electrons is again balanced by the positive charge of the immobile ions. (The
total number of holes and immobile ions is exactly same as the total number of free
electrons created. In an N-type semiconductor, there are a large number of free
electrons, a few holes, and a sufficiently large number of immobile positive ions.

Thermally Impurity total Charge

generated
electron 10 15 25 -ve charge
Hole 10 10 +ve charge Electrically
Immobile 15 15 +ve charge Neutral
ions (+vely
charged)

Here, we shall be representing an electron by a black circle, a hole by a white circle

and an immobile positive donor ion by an encircled plus sign. Thus, we can represent
an N-type semiconductor as shown in Fig.

P-Type Semiconductor
For making an N-type semiconductor, we add a pentavalent impurity to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Instead, if we add a trivalent impurity (such as boron, aluminium,
gallium and indium) to the intrinsic semiconductor, the result is a P-type
semiconductor. As an example, let us consider a sample of intrinsic (pure) silicon to
which a very small amount of Aluminium is added. Since the impurity ratio is of the
order of one part in one million, each impurity atom is surrounded by silicon atoms.
The boron/Al atom in the crystal has only three valence electrons. These electrons
form covalent bonds with the three neighbouring silicon atoms. The fourth
neighbouring silicon atom is unable to form a covalent bond with the boron/Al atom
because the boron/Al atom does not have the fourth electron in its valence orbit.

There is a deficiency of an electron around the boron/Al atom. The single electron in
the incomplete bond has a great tendency to snatch an electron from the
neighbouring atom. This tendency is so great that an electron in an adjacent covalent
bond, having very small additional energy, can jump to occupy the vacant position.
This electron then completes the covalent bond around boron/Al atom. The additional
energy required for this is of the order of 0.01 eV for Ge.. At room temperature, the
thermal energy is sufficient of provide this energy so as to fill the incomplete bonds
around all the boron atoms. When an electron from the adjacent covalent bond jumps
to fill the vacancy in the incomplete bond around the boron atom, two things happen.
First, a vacancy is created in the adjacent bond from where the electron had jumped.
This vacancy has a positive charge associated with it, hence it is a hole (see Fig. 3.l3b).
Second, due to the filling of the incomplete bond around boron, it now becomes a
negative ion. It is immobile, since it is held tightly in the crystal structure by covalent
bonds. The boron atom becomes negative ion by accepting one electron from the
crystal. That is why this type of impurity is called acceptor type. Besides the excess
holes created due to the addition of acceptor-type impurity, there are some holes
(and also equal number of free electrons) generated by breaking covalent bonds.
Summarising; a P-type material has holes (positively charged carriers) in majority, and
free electrons in minority. In addition, there are also negative immobile ions.
 Thermally P-Type total Charge
generated impurity
electron 10 10 -ve charge
Hole 10 15 25 +ve charge Electrically
-ve 15 15 -ve charge Neutral
Immobile
ions

Representation of P-type semiconductor Following the same convention as explained

earlier, we can represent a sample of P-type semiconductor by a diagram The white
circles represent holes, black circles the electrons, and encircled minus signs the
immobile negative ions. The majority charge carriers in a P-type semiconductor are
holes which are positively charged.

Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic Semiconductors

N== electrons +thermally generated +impurities
Holes
We have seen that addition of a small amount of donor or acceptor impurity produces
a large number of charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor. In fact, this number is
so large that the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is many times that of an
intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature. Let us see what happens if we raise the
temperature of an N-type semiconductor. Since all the donors have already donated
their free electrons (at room temperature), the additional thermal energy only serves
to increase the thermally generated carriers. As a result, the concentration of minority
carriers increases. Eventually, a temperature is reached when the number of covalent
bonds that are broken is very large, so that the number of holes is approximately the
same as the number of electrons. The extrinsic semiconductor now behaves
essentially like an intrinsic semiconductor (of course, with higher conductivity). This
critical temperature is 85 °C for germanium and 200 °C for silicon.

Comparison between P type and N type semiconductor

Parameter P-Type N-Type

Impurity doped Trivalent impurity Pentavalent impurity

Also known as Acceptor atom because of Donor atom due to the

presence of additional existence of additional electron.
hole.

Doped group Group III elements. For eg Group V elements. for eg -

- boron, gallium, indium, arsenic, antimony, bismuth,
aluminium etc. phosphorus etc.

Majority carriers Holes Electrons

Parameter P-Type N-Type

Minority carriers Electrons Holes

Immobile ions _ve immobile ions +ve

immobile ions

Conductivity Due to presence of holes. Due to presence of electrons.

Presence of Fermi level appears closer Fermi level is present nearer to

fermi level to the valence than the the conduction band than the
conduction band. valence band.

Concentration of Low Very high as compared to p

electrons type semiconductor

Concentration of High Comparatively less than p type

holes semiconductor.

Energy Diagram of N-type Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of this semiconductor is shown below. The free electrons
are existing in the conduction band due to adding the Pentavalent material. In the
covalent bonds of the crystal, these electrons did not fit. But, a small number of
electrons can be available within the conduction band to form electron-hole pairs.
The key points in the semiconductor are adding pentavalent material can cause the
number of free electrons.

Energy Diagram
At room temperature, the thermal energy is passing on to the semiconductor, and
then an electron-hole pair can be generated. Consequently, a small number of free
electrons can be available. These electrons will leave after holes within the valence
band. Here ‘n’ is the negative material when the no. of free electrons provided
through the Pentavalent material is larger than the no. of holes.

Conduction through N-type Semiconductor

The conduction of this semiconductor can be caused by the electrons. When the
electrons leave a hole, then space will be attracted by other electrons. Therefore the
hole is considered as +vely charged. So this semiconductor includes two kinds of
carriers like +vely charged holes & negatively charged electrons. The electrons are
called majority carriers whereas the holes are called minority carriers because
electrons are higher in number as compare with holes.

Once a covalent bonds smash & the electrons move away from a hole, then some
other electron breaks away from its bond and gets attracted towards this hole.
Therefore the holes & electrons will travel in reverse directions. The electrons will be
attracted toward the +ve terminal of the battery whereas the holes are attracted to
the -ve terminal of the battery.

FAQs
1). What is an n-type semiconductor?
A material that is designed by adding impurities to a semiconductor like silicon
otherwise germanium is known as an n-type semiconductor.

2). What are the majority and minority charge carriers in this semiconductor?
The majority charge carriers are electrons and holes are minority charge carriers

3). What are extrinsic semiconductors?

They are p-type and n-type

4). What are semiconductor and their examples?

A material that has a property of conductor & insulator is known as a
semiconductor. The examples are selenium, silicon & germanium.

5). What is the function of semiconductor?

It is used to manufacture electronic components like transistors, diodes, and ICs
Thus, this is all about an overview of n-type semiconductor. These are used to design
different kinds of electronic devices like transistors, diodes & ICs (integrated circuits) due
to their reliability, compactness, low cost, and power efficiency. Here is a question
for you, what is a p-type semiconductor?

Energy Diagram of P-type Semiconductor

The p-Type Semiconductor energy band diagram is shown below. The no. of holes
within the covalent bond can be formed in the crystal by adding the trivalent
impurity. A less amount of electrons will also be accessible within the conduction
band.

Energy Band Diagram

They are generated once thermal energy at room temperature is imparted toward
the Ge crystal to form the pairs of electron-hole pairs. However, the charge carriers
are higher than the electrons within the conduction band due to the majority of holes
compared with electrons. So this material is known as a p-type semiconductor
where the ‘p’ denotes the +Ve material.

Conduction through P-type Semiconductor

In this semiconductor, the num. of holes can be formed through the trivalent
impurity. The potential difference is given to the semiconductor is shown below.

The majority charge carriers are available within the valence band are directed in
the direction of the -Ve terminal. When the flow of current through the crystal is
done by the holes, then this kind of conductivity is called p-type or positive
conductivity. In this type of conductivity, the outer electrons can flow from one
covalent to others.

The conductivity of p-type is almost less to the n-type semiconductor. The existing
electrons within the conduction band of the n-type semiconductor are more variable
when compare to holes in the valence band of a p-type semiconductor. The hole’s
mobility is less when they are more bound toward the nucleus. The electron-hole
formation can be done even at room temperature. These electrons will be available
in small quantities and carry less amount of current within these semiconductors.

FAQs
1). What is the example of a p-type semiconductor?
Gallium or boron is an example of a p-type semiconductor

2). What are the majority charge carriers in p-type?

Holes are the majority charge carriers

3). How doping of p-type can be formed?

This semiconductor can be formed through doping process of pure Si using trivalent
impurities like gallium, boron, etc

4). What is intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductor?

The semiconductor which is in pure form is known as intrinsic and when the
impurities are added to semiconductor intentionally to make conductive is known as
extrinsic.

5). What are the types of extrinsic semiconductors?

They are p-type and n-type

Thus, this is all about an overview of a p-type semiconductor which includes its doping,
formation, energy diagram, and conduction. These semiconductors are used to
manufacture various electronic components like diodes, lasers like heterojunction
and homojunction, solar cells, BJTs, MOSFETs, and LEDs. The combination of p-
type and n-type semiconductors is known as a diode and it is used as a rectifier.
Here is a question for you, name the list of p-type semiconductors?
Comparison Chart