FINALS

Unit 3 – Environment Problems, Their Causes, & Sustainability
Living the Exponential Age

Core Case Study
Two ancient kings enjoyed playing chess. The winner claimed a prize from the loser.
After one match, the winning king asked the losing king to pay him by placing one grain of
wheat on the first square of the chessboard, two grains on the second square, four on the
third, and so on, with the number doubling on each square until all 64 squares were filled.
This fictional story illustrates the concept of exponential growth, by which a quantity
increases at a fixed percentage per unit of time, such as 2% per year. Exponential growth is
deceptive. It starts off slowly, but after only a few doublings, it grows to enormous numbers
because each doubling is more than the total of all earlier growth.
Here is another example. Fold a piece of paper in half to double its thickness. If you
could continue doubling the thickness of the paper 42 times, the stack would reach from the
earth to the moon—386,400 kilometers (240,000 miles) away. If you could double it 50 times,
the folded paper would almost reach the sun—149million kilometers (93 million miles) away!
Because of exponential growth in the human population, in 2008 there were 6.7billion
people on the planet. Collectively, these people consume vast amounts of food, water, raw
materials, and energy and in the process produce huge amounts of pollution and wastes.
Unless death rates rise sharply, there will probably be 9.3billion of us by 2050 and perhaps as
many as 10 billion by the end of this century.
The exponential rate of global population growth has declined since 1963. Even so,
each day we add an average of 225,000 more people to the earth’s population. This is roughly
equivalent to adding a new U.S. City of Los Angeles, California, every 2 months, a new France
every 9 months, and a new United States—the world’s third most populous country—about
every 4years.
No one knows how many people the earth can support, and at what level of resource
consumption or affluence, without seriously degrading the ability of the planet to support us
and other forms of life and our economies. But there are some disturbing warning signs.
Biologists estimate that, by the end of this century, our exponentially increasing population
and resource consumption could cause their reversible loss of one-third to one-half of the
world’s known different types of plants and animals.
There is also growing evidence and concern that continued exponential growth in human
activities such as burning fossil fuels (carbon-based fuels such as coal, natural gas, and
gasoline) and clearing forests will change the earth’s climate during this century. This could
ruin some areas for farming, shift water supplies, eliminate many of the earth’s unique forms
of life, and disrupt economies in various parts of the world
Chapter 1
As you go through this chapter, you will be able to:
• Discuss the different environmental issues in Asian countries.

• Enumerate the different environmental dimensions that threaten energy security.
• Compare the different Asian countries in terms of the level on their emission of
greenhouse gases.
Lesson 3
This study explores the intersection of environmental constraints, climate change, and
energy security in Asia and the Pacific. Although environmental sustainability has only
recently emerged as an energy policy issue, the magnitude of energy impacts on
environmental systems suggests strong links to energy security. The unchecked growth in
fossil energy consumption and the ensuing acceleration of global climate change as well as
related air and water pollution act as “threat multipliers” impinging on national security globally.
These environmental dimensions are just a subset of a larger array of environmental concerns
that threaten energy security including land pollution, forestry, and biodiversity loss. The table
below summarizes the four environmental dimensions of energy security in Asia and the
Pacific discussed in this chapter: climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality,
and land-use change
Environmental Dimensions of Energy Security in Asia and the Pacific
Dimension Link to Energy Security Energy Conservation to

the Problem
• Climate change is a “threat

multiplier” in terms of energy
security. A total of 66.5% of global
Climate Change carbon dioxide emissions
• Mass migrations of come from energy supply
refugees seeking asylum and transport.
from ecological disasters
could destabilize regions of
the world threatening energy
as well as national security.
• Deterioration of
environmental conditions
can negatively impact About 80% of global sulfur
human and ecological dioxide emissions, 80% of
health with significant particulate matter
Air Pollution numbers of premature emissions, and 70% of
deaths related to indoor and nitrogen oxide emissions
outdoor air pollution and come from the energy and
significant expenditures lost transport sectors.
in terms of lost productivity
and healthcare.
• Lack of available safe

drinking water can
destabilize the security of a
region. In all, 25% of global water
supply is lost due to
Water Availability and • Because fossil, hydro, and evaporation from reservoirs
Quality nuclear power plants and another 10%–15% of
consume large quantities of global freshwater is used in
freshwater, shrinking thermoelectric power plants.
supplies of water could
threaten the ability to
provide electricity and the
ability of nations to feed
themselves.
• Deforestation can cause At least 15% of land-use

social dislocation, increase change is caused by the
Land Use Change the cost of fuelwood, direct clearing of forests for
destroy biodiversity, and fuelwood and the expansion
conflict with agriculture and of plantations for energy
the preservation of nature crops.
reserves.
Climate Change
Climate change is a substantial energy security concern not only because direct
flooding and natural disasters can damage power plants and transmission lines, disrupt the
delivery of imported energy fuels, and destroy crops for biofuels but also because it has
severe impacts on food security, health, and environmental refugees that can all lower the
income base of Asian countries and add to government debt further complicating
attempts at sound energy policy making. Though climate change is certainly a global
phenomenon, in many ways it is becoming an Asian problem. Figure 1 shows annual tons of
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion divided by the total national population
for selected Asian countries. It indicates that emissions more than doubled from 1990 to 2010
in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
Figure 2 indicates that when changes in land use are included, four of the top 10
emitters of greenhouse gases (GHGs)—the PRC, Indonesia, India, and Japan—are in
Asia.CO2 emissions from the electricity supply sector in the PRC—mainly coal-fired
powerplants—make up almost half of the total emissions generated by the country. In 1987,
only 12% of emissions were due to industrial production, but that figure rose to 21% in
2002and to 33% in 2005. In Taipei, China emissions jumped from 160.5 million metric tons of
CO2 equivalent in 1990 to 271.6 million in 2000, an increase of 5.3%. One international
assessment of the carbon footprints in 12 major metropolitan areas throughout the world in
2010 found that only four cities were below the world average and that many major ones such
as Seoul, Singapore, and Tokyo were already well above it.
Unfortunately, from a climate standpoint, the GHGs already emitted will threaten Asia
with a staggering list of negative consequences. Because of their unique geography and
climatology, low per capita incomes, and changing patterns of urbanization, Indonesia, the
Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam are expected to lose 6.7% of combined gross domestic
product (GDP) by 2100 if temperatures change as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change predicts, which is more than twice the rate of global average losses. Even uniform
changes in climate will not affect Asia equally as Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic (Lao PDR), the Mekong River Delta, the Philippines, central Thailand, and Sumatra
and Java in Indonesia are more at risk than wealthier countries such as Brunei Darussalam
or Singapore.
The PRC and India, for instance, could exhaust between 1% and 12% of their annual
GDPs coping with climate refugees, changing disease vectors, and failing crops. One study
forecasts a 37% reduction in national crop yields by 2050 in the PRC if current climate trends
continue. Some states in India such as Maharashtra are projected to suffer greater drought
that will likely wipe out 30% of food production inducing $7 billion in damages among 15 million
small and marginal farmers. In India as a whole, farmers and fishers will have to migrate from
coastal areas as sea levels rise and as they confront heat waves lowering crop output, and
they will have to manage declining water tables from salt water intrusion.
One wide-ranging survey of climate impacts in Asia and the Pacific from the United
States Agency for International Development predicted the following, among other things:
• accelerated river bank erosion, saltwater intrusion, crop losses, and floods in
Bangladesh that will displace at least 8 million people and destroy up to 5 million
hectares of crops;
• more frequent and intense droughts in Sri Lanka crippling tea yields and reducing
national foreign exchange and lowering incomes for low-wage workers;
• higher sea levels inundating half of the agricultural lands on the Mekong Delta causing
food insecurity throughout Cambodia, the Lao PDR, and Viet Nam;
• increased ocean flooding and storm surges inundating 130,000 hectares of farmland
in the Philippines affecting the livelihoods of 2 million people;
• intensified floods in Thailand placing more than 5 million people at risk and causing
$39 billion to $1.1 trillion in economic damages by 2050.
That study concluded that Asia and the Pacific will have more land threatened, more
people damaged, and more economic damage from rising sea levels than any other part of
the planet. Already, the region accounted for 85% of deaths and 38% of global economic
losses due to natural disasters from 1980 to 2009.
Although these vulnerabilities are great, perhaps the most severe climate change
impacts will befall small developing island states. Small island countries in the Pacific are at
the ever-present mercy of natural disasters, especially cyclones and storm-induced floods that
can damage energy infrastructure and reduce national incomes. Since the 1950s, the quantity
and magnitude of natural disasters throughout the Pacific have increased significantly, and
many countries lie in the path of Pacific cyclones. Table 2 also illustrates that a selection of
Pacific Island countries has had no fewer than 257 disasters from 1950 to 2008 that have
caused $6.8 billion in damages. In the Solomon Islands, the Ministry of Environment,
Conservation and Meteorology has warned that "energy production, utilization, conversion,
and transportation" have been and will continue to be negatively affected by "droughts, floods,
fires, storm surges, and cyclones." In Samoa, the earthquake and tsunami in September 2009
greatly damaged the Electric Power Corporation (EPC) generation and distribution assets in
the southern and eastern coastal areas of Upolu, Manono, and Savii. Damages included
toppled power poles and fittings, cracked transformers, and destroyed hydroelectric dams.
With assets of only $163 million and a net operating profit of $2.1 million per year, the EPC
has little revenue to draw from to address these types of damages. In Fiji, unexpected
shortfalls in water have forced the country’s hydroelectric dams to operate below full capacity
increasing reliance on diesel imports and precipitating increases in electricity tariffs.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is an energy security concern in at least two respects: outdoor air pollution
degrades human health and increases hospital admissions, and indoor air pollution from using
traditional and stoves for cooking and heating causes premature deaths in women and
children. Outdoor air pollution is significantly caused by energy production and use as about
80% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 80% of particulate matter emissions, and 70% of nitrogen
oxide emissions come from the energy and transport sectors.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) notes that air quality has become a serious
problem for hundreds of Asian cities and towns.
Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, and Manila suffer from air pollution
due to increased vehicle use, rapid rates of industrialization and urbanization, a reliance on
coal, and industries operating in close proximity to residential areas. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that 517,700 people in Asia die annually because of outdoor
air pollution, 275,600 in the PRC alone. Of the 18 megacities worldwide with severe levels of
total suspended particulate matter emissions, 10 are in Asia and 5 are in South Asia (Karachi,
Osaka-Kobe, Dhaka, Beijing, Jakarta, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Tokyo).
Air pollution takes a substantial toll on national health-care expenditures and GDP. In
the Philippines, particulate matter pollution has been estimated to cause $432 million in annual
damages worth 0.6% of national GDP. In Thailand, particulate matter pollution causes at least
$825 million in damages worth 1.6% of GDP. In the context of electricity prices, the cost of air
pollution adds as much as $0.0417 per kilowatt to every unit of Thai electricity. In the PRC,
particulate matter pollution causes from $63 to $272 billion in damages or as much as 3.3%
to 7.0% of national GDP. These numbers will undoubtedly rise with the growth in demand for
automobiles in the PRC. In India, “It is now understood that rural outdoor air pollution is a
significant problem with average levels of pollution in the Ganga River Basin, for example,
being substantially above Indian and WHO health-based norms." In Cambodia, the rapid
increases in vehicle operation have led to ambient concentrations of particulate matter that
are "very high" with “likely severe impacts on the health of residents."
Transportation is not the only cause of outdoor air pollution; burning coal for electricity
and industrial uses contributes as well. The best example is the PRC. Coal is the most
abundant and widely used fuel; the PRC already uses more of it than the European Union,
Japan, and the United States (US) combined. Coal meets more than 70% of the country's
energy needs. The PRC is currently the world's biggest producer and consumer of coal
producing 3.8 billion tons in 2011 (compared to 1.1 billion tons in the US) amounting to about
half the world total. Coal combustion provided 65% of the country's electricity in 1985 but that
figure rose to more than 80% in 2006. From 2002 to 2007, demand for electricity grew by
about 12%, and more than 70,000 megawatts (MW) of capacity were brought online to meet
it, a majority of which was coal fired. The PRC currently is constructing the equivalent of two
500 MW coal-fired plants per week-a capacity comparable to the entire power grid in the
United Kingdom (UK) every year. More than half of the coal production is used in the non-
electricity sector. It provides 60% of chemical feedstock and 55% of industrial fuel. Nearly 45%
of the national railway capacity is devoted exclusively to the transport of coal.
Water Quality and Availability

The United Nations (UN) reports that overall, agriculture is the largest user of
freshwater but that the energy sector comes second with hydropower, nuclear power, and
thermal power generation accounting for about 10% to 15% of global water consumption. In
addition, the UN estimates that the volume of water evaporated from reservoirs exceeds the
combined freshwater needs of industry and domestic consumption which represent about 25%
of global water use. As the UN concluded, hydroelectric dams therefore "greatly contribute to
water losses around the world, especially in hot, tropical regions."
The energy sector consumes and contaminates water sources imposing costs on all
water users from households and commercial enterprises to farmers and recreational users
as well as on fish and marine mammals. Thermoelectric power plants—those relying on coal,
oil, natural gas, biomass/waste, or uranium in nuclear reactors-take water from rivers, lakes,
and streams to cool equipment before returning it to its source, and they consume it through
evaporative loss. As Table 3 shows, the average power plant uses about 25 gallons (95 liters)
of water for every kilowatt-hour generated. This means that the power consumed in 1 day in
the average US home requires 775 gallons of water. Given that the world consumed about
17,000 terawatt-hours of electricity in 2007, power plants ostensibly used 425 trillion gallons
(1.61 quadrillion liters) of water that year. The water use of individual power plants is even
more striking. A conventional 500 MW coal plant, for instance, consumes about 7,000 gallons
(26,498 liters) of water per minute or the equivalent of 17 Olympic-sized swimming pools every
day.
Table 3: Water Use (Consumption and Withdrawals) for Selected Power Plants (gallons
per kilowatt-hour)
Deficiencies in water supply and water quality already cause about 4,500 deaths
throughout the world every day or 1.7 million deaths a year, 90% of which are to young
children. More than 1 billion people lack access to clean water, and 2.6 billion do not have
access to improved sanitation facilities. Some rivers, aquifers, lakes, and other water sources
are so polluted that it is more profitable for residents to remove plastic bottles and trash from
them for recycling than it is to fish. The US Central Intelligence Agency believes that more
than 3 billion people will be living in water-stressed regions around the world by 2015 (with a
majority concentrated in North Africa and the PRC). Water tables for major grain producing
areas in northern PRC are dropping at a rate of 5 feet per year, and per capita water availability
in India is expected to drop by 50% to 75% over the next decade.
Complicating this picture is climate change which is slowly but steadily altering
precipitation and water patterns. For instance, if global warming induces the rise in sea levels
that many climatologists and scientists expect, the intrusion of salt water could contaminate
freshwater aquifers possibly reducing potable water supplies by 45%. Warmer temperatures
resulting from global climate change will also increase energy demands in urban areas and
require more intensive air-conditioning loads in turn raising the water needs for power plants.
Hotter weather also increases the evaporation rates for lakes, rivers, and streams and thus
accelerates the depletion of reservoirs and causes more intense and longer-lasting droughts
as well as more wildfires that in turn need vast quantities of water to control.
Land-Use Change
As with climate change, air pollution, and water, the link between energy security and
land-use change is complex. Energy production can affect land in many ways from converting
forests into plantations for energy crops to access roads for dams and oil and gas facilities
that open up areas to deforestation. One incredibly conservative estimate suggests that 15%
of land-use changes are caused by clearing forests for fuelwood and for energy crop
plantations. Figure 3 shows that most Asian countries saw a decline in their forest areas from
1990 to 2010 with significant decreases in Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, and the
Philippines.
Figure 3: Forest Area as a Percent

of Land Area in Selected Areas,
1990 and 2010 (%)
Forests can be a sink for GHG emissions but also a source depending on how they
are managed. It is helpful to view forests through the lens of stocks and flows. The total stock
of carbon in all tropical forests equals about 300 billion tons; through deforestation, about 1.5
billion tons are converted into 6 billion tons of CO2 that is emitted into the atmosphere. In other
words, tropical forests alone contribute about 20% of overall anthropogenic CO2 emissions
per year making them the largest emitter of carbon in the world after the energy sector. This
amount is equivalent to the total emissions of the PRC or the US, and it is more than the
emissions produced by every car, truck, plane, ship, and train on earth.
Forestry is thus unique in its ability to fight climate change, but its benefits are
reversible. A ton of carbon sequestered in a forest is not permanent and is a benefit to the
atmosphere only if it remains stored. If a tree is felled or a forest is cleared, carbon is released
and the temporary benefit reversed. Partly because of this aspect of forestry, tropical
deforestation was excluded from the Kyoto Protocol as an eligible project class.
Acknowledging that forests are decreasing at an alarming rate, the Copenhagen Accord
produced (but not adopted) at the Fifteenth Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change meeting in 2009 does, "...recognize the crucial role of reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation." Yet the rate of deforestation worldwide
averaged 13 million hectares a year between 1990 and 2005 (out of a total forest coverage of
about 4 billion hectares). Indonesia and Brazil accounted for about half the emissions from
deforestation which also explains why they are respectively) the third and fourth largest
emitters of GHGs overall behind the PRC and the US. Table 4 shows that just nine countries,
four of them in Asia, accounted for more than 80% of all GHG emissions from deforestation.
Table 4: Global Leaders in Carbon Dioxide Equivalent Emissions from Deforestation
At least two main energy sources contribute to deforestation: fuelwood collection and
energy plantations for biofuels. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand are the largest producers
of palm oil in the world. The land-use changes taking place there involve converting peat lands,
some of the richest carbon sinks in the world, to palm oil plantations. Some scholars and global
institutions concerned with bioenergy recognize the environmental dilemmas that the large-
scale production of palm oil can present by encroaching on protected areas, affecting water
systems, displacing food production, and harboring unsustainable land-use practices that
cannot only cancel GHG emissions for decades but can also lead to widespread ecological
despoliation.
As a result of the twin pressures of fuelwood collection and biofuel production, in
Southeast Asia as a whole deforestation have been 5 times the global average and 10 times
the average for the rest of Asia. Indonesia alone is being deforested at a rate of 1.4 million
hectares (3.5 million acres) a year with only 53 million hectares (131 million acres) of total
forest area left. Deforestation has helped promote the forest fires and peat land degradation
that have made the country such a large emitter of GHGs. Roughly 98% of the forest cover
on Borneo and Sumatra will be "severely degraded" by 2012 and "completely gone" by 2022.
Illegal logging is difficult to control: 75% of timber is extracted illegally and illegal harvesting
has been documented in 37 out of Indonesia's 41 national parks. Milling capacity exceeds
legal limits by as much as a factor of five.
Environmental Impact of Energy Technology Options

Though admittedly qualitative, this section briefly assesses the environmental impacts
of 13 energy systems on climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality, and land-
use change. Table 5 summarizes them.
Table 5: Impacts of Energy Systems on Climate Change, Air Pollution, Water Availability and
Quality, and Land-Use Change
A. Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency and demand-side management--doing more with less, reducing
energy consumption by substituting fuels and technologies and altering consumer behavior is
clearly the most environmentally benign way to address increases in demand for energy
services. Energy efficiency can include practices as diverse as switching from conventional
coal power plants to combined heat and power units, lowering thermostats, better maintaining
industrial boilers, and walking or cycling instead of driving. These actions not only involve very
little damage to the environment, they can be cost effective as well as long as they are
strategically implemented to avoid the rebound effect. On a global scale, the IEA reviewed
largescale energy efficiency programs and found that they saved electricity at an average cost
of $0.032 per kilowatt-hour, well below the cost of supplying electricity from any source.
B. Nuclear Power
Nuclear power has minimal air pollution impacts as it is a combustion-free source of
energy, but it does have moderate impacts on climate change and severe impacts for water
and land use. In terms of climate change, reprocessing and enriching uranium requires a
substantial amount of electricity that is often generated from fossil fuel-fired power plants.
Uranium milling, mining, and leaching: plant construction: and decommissioning all produce
substantial amounts of GHGs. An assessment of 103 life-cycle studies of GHG-equivalent
emissions for nuclear power plants found that the average CO2 emissions over the typical
lifetime of a plant in 2005 were about 66 grams for every kilowatt-hour or the equivalent of
some 183 million metric tons of CO2. A second, follow-up. peer-reviewed study found that the
best performing reactors had associated life-cycle emissions of 8 to 58 grams of CO2 per
kilowatt-hour but that other reactors emitted more than 110 grams.
In terms of land use, nuclear power's most significant impacts arise from uranium
mining and the storage of nuclear waste. Uranium is mined in three different ways-
underground, open pit, and in-situ leaching-but uranium mining is very wasteful, regardless of
the technique. To produce the 25 tons of uranium needed to operate a typical rector for a year,
500,000 tons of waste rock and 100,000 tons of mill tailings toxic for hundreds of thousands
of years will be created along with an extra 144 tons of solid waste and 1343 cubic meters of
liquid waste.
In terms of water, the nuclear industry has serious consequences both for human
consumption and for the environment. Apart from the water-related impacts of uranium mining,
three other stages of the nuclear fuel cycle-plant construction, plant operation, and nuclear
waste storage-consume, withdraw, and contaminate water supplies. Moreover, a team of
Indian scientists studying heated water discharges from the Madras Atomic Power Station
noted that substantial additions of sodium hypochlorite to seawater decreased viable counts
of bacteria and plankton by 50% around the reactor site. A team of Korean marine biologists
and scientists studied satellite thermal infrared images of the Youngawang Nuclear Power
Plant and found that the thermal pollution plume extended more than 100 kilometers
southward.56 The researchers documented that the power plant directly decreased the
dissolved oxygen content of the water, fragmented ecosystem habitats, reduced fish
populations, and induced eutrophication.
C. Shale Gas
Shale gas refers to natural gas extracted from gas shales, i.e, porous rocks that hold
gas in pockets. Shale gas is captured by hydraulic fracturing or fracking, a process that
shatters rocks by injecting water to release the gas. Shale gas has severe climate change, air,
water, and land-use impacts.
New evidence has surfaced that the life cycle of shale gas is more carbon intensive
than previously thought:57 Prior estimates of the carbon footprint of shale gas did not account
for losses in processing and distribution, but the US Environmental Protection Agency took a
nonpartisan look at the life cycle of natural gas and its carbon equivalent emissions and
doubled its previous estimate when it accounted for methane leaks from loose pipe fittings
and methane vented from gas wells. When included. these losses make gas as little as 25%
cleaner than coal from a carbon standpoint. Billions of cubic feet of natural gas are lost in the
US each year-equivalent to the emissions from 35 million automobiles-seeping from loose
pipe valves or venting from production facilities.
Furthermore, Nature cautions that 0.6% to 3.2% of the methane captured during
hydrofracking can escape directly into the airshed. Other studies have noted that 3.6% to 7.9%
of methane from shale gas production escapes into the atmosphere in venting and leaks which
make methane emissions from shale gas between 30% and 100% greater than conventional
natural gas. These studies have noted, for example, that fugitive methane emissions are
vented during the completion of wells, especially during the drill-out stage of new reserves.
Venting and equipment leaks of methane are common, too, as the typical well has 55 to 150
different connections to equipment including heaters, meters, dehydrators, and compressors
as well as vapor recovery systems that all can fail and leak. Processing to remove
hydrocarbons and impurities such as sulfur is energy and carbon intensive, and shale gas
needs more extensive processing to make it ready for existing pipelines. Shale gas is also
prone to all of the environmental impacts of ordinary oil and natural gas production
D. Conventional Coal
The extraction of coal poses serious problems for communities and ecosystems near
mining sites. Coal mining can remove mountaintops by clearing forests and topsoil before
using explosives to break up rocks, pushing mine spoils into adjacent streams and valleys.
This can cause acid drainage into river systems, destroy ecosystems, blight landscapes, and
diminish water quality. One global assessment of the coal mining industry noted that common,
"direct" impacts include
-fugitive dust from coal handling plants and fly ash storage areas; pollution of local
water streams, rivers, and groundwater from effluent discharges and percolation of
hazardous materials from the stored fly ash; degradation of land used for storing fly
ash and noise pollution during operation in addition to impacts on the health, safety,
and well-being of coal miners; accidents and fatalities resulting from coal transportation
significant disruption to human life, especially in the absence of well-functioning
resettlement policies and impacts on the environment such as degradation and
destruction of land water, forests, habitats, and ecosystems.
Human activities add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. For example, burning
carbon containing fuels releases huge amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere.
Growing crops and raising livestock release large amounts of methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N20). Clearing CO2-absorbing tropical rain forests (Core Case Study) faster than they
can grow back also increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. There is considerable
and growing evidence that these activities are increasing the natural greenhouse effect and
warming the earth's atmosphere. This in turn is changing the earth's climate.
L. Clean Coal
Clean coal has moderate climate impacts but like conventional coal, severe impacts
on air, water, and land use. In terms of climate change power plants with carbon capture and
storage (CCS) can sequester much of their affiliated carbon underground; however, they can
also increase (GHG) emissions and air pollutants per unit of net delivered power and will
increase all ecological, land-use, air pollution, and water-pollution impacts from coal mining
transport, and processing, because the CCS system requires 25% more energy, thus 25%
more coal combustion, than does a system without CCS." Globally, coal mining activities have
taken their toll on local environments and communities. Exploration involves drilling clearing
vegetation, trench blasting, and geophysical surveying that can result in habitat loss,
sedimentation, and deforestation due to road development. Site preparation has been shown
to fragment ecosystems, increase demand for water resources, change predation rates, and
accelerate the chemical contamination of land. Mining operations require supporting
infrastructure such as roads, electricity, processing facilities, and ports. Once closed
abandoned mines pose dangers in the form of physical injury. persistent contaminants in
surface and groundwater, and acid drainage affecting hundreds of thousands of streams
Again, CCS requires more coal to produce each unit of electricity exacerbating all of these
downstream impacts.
F. Oil and Natural Gas

Many stages of the oil and gas fuel chain-exploration, onshore and offshore drilling
refining-pose serious environmental risks. Exploration necessitates heavy equipment and can
be quite invasive as it involves discovering oil and gas deposits in sedimentary rock through
various seismic techniques such as controlled underground explosions, special air guns, and
exploratory drilling. The construction of access roads, drilling platforms, and their associated
infrastructure frequently has environmental impacts beyond the immediate effects of clearing
land as they open up remote regions to loggers and wildlife poachers. About 465 to 2,428
hectares of land (1,000 to 6,000 acres) are deforested for every 1 kilometer of new oil and gas
roads built through forested areas around the world.
The production and extraction of oil and gas—which are themselves toxic as both
contain significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide which is potentially fatal and extremely
corrosive to equipment such as drills and pipelines—is even more hazardous. Drilling for oil
and gas involves bringing large quantities of rock fragments, called "cuttings," to the surface.
These cuttings are coated with drilling fluids called "drilling muds" that operators use to
lubricate drill bits and stabilize pressure in oil and gas wells. The quantity of toxic cuttings and
mud released for each facility is gargantuan ranging between 60,000 and 300,000 gallons per
day. In addition to cuttings and drilling muds, vast quantities of water contaminated with
suspended and dissolved solids are also brought to the surface creating what geologists refer
to as "produced water." Produced water contains lead, zinc, mercury, benzene, and toluene
making it highly toxic often requiring operators to treat it with chemicals that increase its salinity
and make it fatal to many types of plants before releasing it into the environment. The ratio of
waste to extracted oil is staggering: Every gallon of oil brought to the surface yields 8 gallons
of contaminated water, cuttings, and drilling muds.
The next stage, refining, involves boiling, vaporizing, and treating extracted crude oil
and gas with solvents to improve their quality. The average refinery processes 3.8 million
gallons of oil per day, and about 11,000 gallons of its product (0.3% of production) escapes
directly into the local environment where it can contaminate land and pollute water.
Natural gas also has some environmental impacts unique to its fuel cycle. When not
separated from oil deposits, it is often burned off at the well site, flared (combusted into CO2
and water vapor), or vented directly to the atmosphere. In all, 5% of world natural gas
production—150 billion cubic meters of natural gas, more than 2 billion tons of CO2 equivalent
-is lost to flaring and venting each year making the gas industry responsible for roughly 10%
of annual global methane emissions. Methane is a GHG 21 to 23 times more potent than CO2
on a 100-year timeframe, and its half-life is only 12 years meaning its instantaneous impact is
much larger on the climate system. Methane is already the second largest contributor to
anthropogenic GHG emissions after CO2 accounting for 16% of the total on a CO2- equivalent
basis. Researchers at the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers and the Society
of Petroleum Engineers have calculated that the global average emission ratio for gas
production is about 130 to 140 tons of CO2 equivalent for every 1,000 tons of production which
is more than any other electricity fuel except oil and coal.
G. Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity poses severe water impacts but only moderate land-use impacts and
minimal climate change and air pollution impacts. For hydroelectric dams, the most extensively
debated and complex environmental problems relate to habitat and ecosystem destruction,
emissions from reservoirs, water quality, and sedimentation. All these concerns arise because
a dam is a physical barrier interrupting water flows for lakes, rivers, and streams.
Consequently, dams can drastically disrupt the movement of species and change upstream
and downstream habitats. They also result in modified habitats with environments more
conducive to invasive plant, fish, snail, insect, and animal species all of which may overwhelm
local ecosystems. To maintain an adequate supply of energy resources in reserve, most dams
impound water in extensive reservoirs; however, these reservoirs can also emit GHGs from
rotting vegetation.
All forms of hydroelectric generation combust no fuel so they produce little to no air
pollution in comparison with fossil fuel plants. One life-cycle assessment of hydroelectric
facilities focused on the activities related to building dams, dikes, and power stations; decaying
biomass from flooded land (where plant decomposition produces methane and CO2); and the
thermal backup power needed when seasonal changes cause hydroelectric plants to run at
partial capacity. It found that typical emissions of GHGs for hydropower were still 30 to 60
times less than those from fossil-fueled stations of the same size.
H. Wind Energy
Wind energy has moderate land-use impacts and minimal environmental impacts
across the other three dimensions. Perhaps the most visible land-use concern associated with
wind energy relates to the death of birds that collide with wind turbine blades which is termed
"avian mortality.” Onshore and offshore wind turbines present direct and indirect hazards to
birds and to other avian species. Birds can smash into a turbine blade when they are fixated
on perching or hunting and pass through its rotor plane; they can strike its support structure;
they can hit part of its tower; or they can collide with its associated transmission lines. These
risks are exacerbated when turbines are placed on ridges and upwind slopes; close to
migration routes; and in fog, rain storms, and at night. Indirectly, wind farms can physically
alter natural habitats, the quantity and quality of prey, and the availability of nesting sites.
Moreover, large, effective wind farms are sometimes highly land intensive. Large-scale utility
wind turbines usually require 1 acre of land per turbine. When these big machines are built in
densely forested areas or ecosystems rich in flora and fauna, they can fragment large tracts
of habitat.
I. Solar Photovoltaics
This form of solar energy has moderate land-use impacts and minimal environmental
impacts across the other three areas. The land-use impacts center on the use of hazardous
materials such as silicon which must be mined and can contaminate land when systems break
down or are destroyed during hurricanes and tornados. Chemical pollution has also occurred
manufacturing solar cells and modules, and when not integrated into buildings, solar power
plants need comparatively larger amounts of land than conventional energy sources.
J. Solar Thermal
Solar thermal, or concentrated solar power, has many of the same climate and air
benefits of solar photovoltaic systems. However, thermal and concentrated systems consume
much more water and withdraw similar amounts as a natural gas-combined cycle power plant
and also require amounts of land similar to solar photovoltaic power plants.
K. Geothermal
Geothermal facilities have moderate water impacts but minimal environmental impacts
in the other areas. Geothermal plants can emit small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and co2
along with toxic sludge containing sulfur, silica compounds, arsenic, and mercury (depending
on the type of plant), though these can be controlled with pollution control equipment. More
significantly, geothermal systems require water during drilling and fracturing and are illsuited
for deserts or arid regions. Extra land may also be required to dispose of waste salts from
geothermal brines, and contamination of groundwater and freshwater can occur if plants are
poorly designed
L. Biomass
Biomass energy has minimal climate change impacts but moderate environmental
impacts on air pollution, water, and land use. While biomass combustion has the advantage
of not releasing any net CO2 into the atmosphere and thus contributes little to the global
inventory of GHGs), it releases measurable levels of a wide variety of pollutants into air, land,
and water.86 The air pollution issues parallel aesthetic concerns about land use, smell, and
traffic congestion. The combustion of biomass has been noted to release foul odors near some
plants, and biomass fuel can contribute to traffic congestion when large amounts must be
delivered by trucks.
When harvested improperly, generating electricity with agricultural wastes, forest
residues, and energy crops such as sugar, legumes, and vineyard grain can strip local
ecosystems of needed nutrients and minerals.
M. Biofuels
Biofuels raise severe climate, water, and land concerns but only moderately contribute
to air pollution. As noted previously, the widespread use of biofuel crops can contribute to
habitat destruction and deforestation. Biofuel production, like that for oil and gas, also involves
a large amount of water. Furthermore, some GHGs such as nitrogen oxide, methane, and
CO2 are emitted from nitrification and de-nitrification through the use of fertilizers, soil
transformation, poorly drained soils, and motorized equipment; however, life-cycle GHG
emissions are much lower for sugarcane ethanol than for gasoline with ethanol releasing 0.6
kilograms of CO2 per liter compared to 1 kilogram for gasoline. One significant benefit,
however, is air pollution. Although the combustion of ethanol in automobile engines is not
benign-ethanol is a significant source of aldehyde emissions (similar to formaldehyde from
gasoline) and peroxyacetyl nitrate pollution (an irritant to plants)—every kilometer fueled by
ethanol releases less particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, lead, Benzene (a
carcinogen), 1-3 butadiene, sulfur oxide, and carbon monoxide than gasoline.
VII. Conclusions
1. No energy source is free of some type of environmental impact, though energy efficiency
practices properly implemented are the most environmentally friendly. While renewable
energy sources such as wind and solar have clear environmental benefits compared to
conventional sources, they are not free of consequences. Even with the use of renewable
resources, every kilowatt-hour of electricity generated, every barrel of oil produced, every ton
of uranium mined or cubic foot of natural gas manufactured produces a laundry list of
environmental damage that may include radioactive waste and abandoned uranium mines
and mills, acid rain and its damage to fisheries and crops, water degradation and excessive
consumption, particulate pollution, and cumulative environmental damage to ecosystems and
biodiversity through species loss and habitat destruction. In monetary terms, the social and
environmental damage from just one type of energy-worldwide electricity generation-
amounted to roughly $2.6 trillion in 2010. This means that continuing along the business-as-
usual path could result in an increased cost burden to governments as they become saddled
with heavy public health-care and environmental costs and the negative effects on economic
competitiveness through loss of workforce productivity. Put another way, if the increasing
energy demands for the Asian Century scenario are met by the traditional mix of energy supply
with current technologies, then the implications for the environment in terms of GHG
emissions, green growth, global warming, and prices of fossil fuels would not be sustainable.
2. Policy makers must incorporate the cost of some of these negative environmental
consequences of energy production and use into prices. At a bare minimum they should place
a price on carbon and preferably other things like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, particulate
matter, and water. A preponderance of evidence suggests that pricing energy more accurately
will greatly improve the efficiency of the electricity industry, provide customers with proper
price signals, reduce wasteful energy use, and most importantly, improve household incomes
since they no longer have to waste as much time and money dealing with debilitating health
issues caused by pollution.
3. If policy makers desire to truly promote cleaner forms of energy, feed-in tariffs seem the
best method to rapidly accelerate their adoption. One study analyzed renewable portfolio
standards, green power programs, public research and development expenditures, system
benefit charges, investment tax credits, production tax credits, tendering, and feed-in tariffs,
and found that only feed-in tariffs met the criteria for a truly effective policy tool.
In the end, we must accept that current patterns of energy production and use have
widespread and widely known negative impacts on the environment. As President Jimmy
Carter once remarked when addressing the US Congress in 1976, to avoid a cycle of energy
and climate crises: "We must face the prospect of changing our basic ways of living. This
change will either be made on our own initiative in a planned way or forced on us with chaos
and suffering by the inexorable laws of nature." It would be far better to implement carbon
taxes, to incorporate the cost of negative environmental consequences into energy prices, to
pass feed-in tariffs, and to harness the powers of energy efficiency now in a proactive way
rather than a few decades from now when forced to by crises.
CHAPTER 2 – ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN THE PHILIPPINES

As you go through this chapter, you will be able to: Identify the major environmental laws in
the Philippines.
• Discuss the penalties and sanctions of disobeying those environmental laws.
• Enumerate the government sectors that are responsible in implementing those
environmental laws.
Presidential Decree No. 1586 - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

SYSTEM (EIA)
The process of predicting the likely environmental consequences of implementing a project
and designing appropriate preventive mitigating and enhancement measures.
• Environment Compliance Certificate (EEC)

Document issued by the DENR/EMB after a positive review of an ECC
application, certifying that based on the representations of the proponent, the proposed
project or undertaking will not cause significant negative environment impact.
• Certificate of Non-Coverage (CNC)

Document issued by the DENR/EMB after a positive review of an ECC
application, certifying that based on their presentations of the proponent, the proposed
project or undertaking will not cause significant negative environmental impact.
• Environmentally Critical Project (ECP)

Project or program that has high potential for significant negative environmental
impact.
• Environmental Compliance Assistance (ECA)

Area delineated as environmentally sensitive such that significant
environmental impacts are expected if certain types of proposed projects or programs
are located, developed or implemented.
List of ECPs
As declared by proclamation No. 2146 (1981)
• Heavy Industries
Non-ferrous Metal Industries, Iron and Steel Mills, Petroleum and Petro-
chemical industries including Oil and Gas, Smelting Plants
• Resource Extractive Industries

Major Mining and Quarrying Projects, Forestry Projects (logging, major wood
processing projects, introduction of fauna (exotic animals) in public and private forests,
forest occupancy, extraction of mangrove products, grazing, Fishery Projects (dikes
for/and fishpond development projects).
• Infrastructure Projects
Major Dams, Major Power Plants (fossil fueled, nuclear fueled, hydroelectric or
geothermal), Major Reclamation Projects, Major Roads and Bridges.
• As declared by Proclamation No. 803 (1996)

All golf course projects
List of ECA Categories As declared by proclamation No. 2146 (1981)

• All areas declared by law as national parks, water shedre serves, wildlife preserves,
wildlife preserves, sanctuaries.
• Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots
• Areas which constitute the habitat of any endangered or threatened species of the
Philippine wildlife (Flora and Fauna)
• Areas of unique historic, archaeological or scientific interest
• Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural communities or tribes
• Areas frequently visited and/or hard hit by natural calamities (geologic hazards, flood,
typhoons, volcanic activity, etc.)
Areas with critical slopes Areas classified as prime agricultural land Recharged areas of
aquifers Water bodies characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions:
tapped for domestic purposes; within the controlled and/or protected areas declared by
appropriate authorities, which support wildlife and fishery activities Mangrove areas
characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions: with primary pristine and
dense young growth; adjoining mouth of major river systems, near or adjacent to traditional
productive fry or fishing grounds; areas which act as natural buffers against shore erosion,
strong wind sandstorm floods; areas on which people dependent for their livelihood. Coral
reefs characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions: with 50% and above
live coralline cover; spawning and nursery grounds for fish; acts as natural break water of
coastlines. Class 1 and 2 Caves (Memorandum Circular No.2014-004 dated June 6, 2014
Declaring Class 1 and 2 cave as Environmentally Critical Ares(ECAs)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

• Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Document, prepared and submitted by the project proponent and/or EIA
Consultant that serves as an application for an ECC. It is a comprehensive study of
the significant impacts of a project on the environment.
• Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

Document similar to an EIS, but with reduced details and depth of assessment
and discussion
• Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) Checklist

Document similar to IEE, however, it is a question and answer form documents.
DENR MC NO. 2007-08

• No permits, and/or clearances issued by other National Government Agencies and
Local Government Units shall be required in the processing of ECC or CNC
applications.
• The findings and recommendations of the EIA shall be transmitted to relevant
government agencies for them to integrate in their decision making prior the issuance
of clearances, permits and licenses under their mandates.
• The issuance of an ECC or CNC for a project under the EIS System does not exempt
the proponent from securing other government permits and clearances as required by
other laws. The current practice of requiring various permits, clearances and licenses
only constrain the EIA evaluation process and negate the purpose and function of the
EIA.
RA 9275 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004

The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the
country's water bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and commercial
establishments, agriculture and community/household activities). It provides for a
comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a
multisectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.
Salient Features of the Clean Water Act of 2004

The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection,
preservation and revival of a quality of our fresh, brackish and marine waters. To achieve this
end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the
policy of the State to:
• Streamline processes and procedures in the prevention, control and abatement
of pollution of the country's water resources;
• Promote environmental strategies, use of appropriate economic instruments
and of control mechanisms for the protection of water resources;
• Formulate a holistic national program of water quality management that
recognizes that water quality management issue cannot be separated from
concerns about water sources and ecological protection, water supply, public
health and quality of life;
• Formulate an integrated water quality management framework through proper
delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities;
• Promote commercial and industrial processes and products that are
environment friendly and energy-efficient;
• Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizen and industries
through application of incentives market-based instruments and to promote the
role of private industrial enterprises in shaping its regulatory profile within the
acceptable boundaries of public health and environment;
• Provide for a comprehensive management program for water pollution focusing
on pollution prevention;
• Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an
informed and active public in water quality management and monitoring, and
• Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long term
adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity.
• Encourage civil society and other sectors, particularly labor, the academe and
business undertaking environment-related activities in their efforts to organize,
eradicate and motivate the people in addressing pertinent environmental issue
and problems at the local and national levels.
It mandates the various government agencies to do the following in support of the Act:
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - act as overall of the lead
agency; prepare a National Water Quality Status Report; issue rules and regulations in the
implementation of the Act.
Department of Agriculture (DA) - shall develop guidelines for re-use of wastewater for
irrigation purposes or as soil conditioner or fertilizer; together with the PCG shall enforce water
quality standards in marine waters.
Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) - shall enforce standards and regulations in offshore areas
including the discharge of wastewater by ships: together with the DA shall enforce water
quality standards in marine waters
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) - together with the DENR and LGUs
shall prepare a national program on sewerage and septage management.
Department of Health (DOH) - shall provide specific health criteria and data related to the
promulgation, revision and enforcement of drinking water quality standards.
Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) and Local Water Utilities
Authority (LWUA) - shall contribute inputs relative to the responsibilities of concessionaires
and water districts in sewerage, septage and sanitation management.
Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) and the Philippine Information
Agency (PIA) - shall prepare and implement a comprehensive and continuing public
education and information program
Department of Energy (DOE) - with the DENR shall formulate water quality criteria and
standards specifically for geothermal exploration that encounters reinjection constraints, that
provides adequate protection to other users of water bodies downstream of the geothermal
project
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) - with the DENR shall prepare a program
for the evaluation, verification, development and public dissemination of pollution prevention
and cleaner production technologies
Prohibited Acts Under RA 9275

Among others, the Act prohibits the following:
1. Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will impede
natural flow in the water body
2. Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute
groundwater
3. Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid required
permits
4. Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels
5. Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste
6. Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed
under Toxic Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear
7. Wastes Control Act (Republic Act No. 6969)
8. Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit pursuant
to this Act 9. Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management
Area Action Plan
10. Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and records
by the DENR in accordance with this Act
11. Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers whenever
required by the DENR in accordance with this Act
12. Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply
in such a way to alter or impair the water quality
13. Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence,
prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed under RA No. 6969. into water bodies
14. Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating wastewater
treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR.
Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters

The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR
• Upon the recommendation of the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), anyone who
commits prohibited acts such as discharging untreated wastewater into any water body
will be fined for every day of violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not
more than Php 200,000.
• Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment

of not less than two years and not more than four years. This also includes a fine of
not less than Php 50,000 and not more than Php 100,000 per day of violation. Failure
or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury or loss of life or lead to irreversible
water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water shall be punished
with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12 years and
a fine of Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission continues.
• In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php
3,000,000 will be imposed for each day of violation. Criminal charges may also be filed.
RA 8749 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999

Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a
comprehensive air quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and
maintain healthy air for all Filipinos.
Salient Features of the Clean Air Act of 1999

The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development and environmental protection to
achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it
shall be the policy of the State to:
• Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution that shall be implemented by the
government through proper delegation and effective coordination of function and
activities;
• Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizen and industries through the
application of incentives market-based instruments;
• Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a
comprehensive management program on air pollution;
• Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an

informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and
• Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long term adverse
environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include setting up of
a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and
compensation for personal damages
• Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - act as overall of the
lead agency: prepare a National Air Quality Status Report which shall be used as a
basis in formulating the Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework, issue rules
and regulations in the implementation of the Act.
• Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) - in coordination with

the DENR in case of industrial dischargers and the DOTC, in case of motor vehicles,
shall, based on environmental techniques, design, impose on and collect regular
emission fees from all said dischargers as part of the emission permitting system or
vehicle registration renewal system, as the case may be; implement the emission
standards for motor vehicles
• Department of Science and Technology (DOST) - with the DENR, other agencies,
private sector, the academe, non-government organizations and people's
organization, shall establish a National Research Development Program for the
prevention and control of air pollution
• Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), DOST Local Government Units (LGUS)
- together with the DENR shall develop an action plan for the control and management
of air pollution from motor vehicles with the Integrated Air Quality Management
Framework
• DOTC, DTI and DENR - shall establish the procedures for the inspection of motor
vehicles and the testing of their emissions for the purpose of determining the
concentration and/or rate of emission of pollutants discharged by the said sources.
• Department of Energy (DOE) co-chaired with the DENR, in consultation with

the Bureau of Product Standards of DTI, DOST with the fuel and automotive
industries, academe and the consumers - shall set specifications for all types of
fuel and fuel related products, to improve fuel composition for increased efficiency
and reduced emissions.
• Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and astronomical Service Administration

(PAGASA) - shall regularly monitor meteorological factors affecting environmental
conditions including ozone depletion and greenhouse gases
• Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) - with the DENR shall regulate all
projects which will involve the use of atomic and/or nuclear energy, and will entail
release of radioactive substances into the environment, incident to the establishment
or possession of nuclear energy facilities and radioactive materials, handling,
transport, production, storage and use of radioactive materials.
• Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) and the Philippine
Information Agency (PIA) - shall encourage participation of government agencies
and the private sector including NGOs, POs, academe, environmental groups and
other private entities in a multi-sectoral campaign.
Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters

The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR:
• Section 1. Fines and Penalties for Violations of Other Provisions in the Act For
violations of all other provisions provided in the Act and these Implementing Rules and
Regulations, fine of not less than Ten Thousand Pesos (P 10,000.00) but not more
than One Hundred Thousand Pesos (P 100,000.00) or six (6) years imprisonment or
both shall be imposed. If the offender is a juridical person, the president, manager,
directors, trustees, the pollution control officer or officials directly in charge of the
operations shall suffer the penalty herein provided.
• Section 2. Burning of Municipal Waste - Any person who burns municipal waste in
violation of Sections 1 and 3 of Rule XXV shall be punished with two (2) years and one
(1) day to four (4) years imprisonment.
• Section 3. Burning of Hazardous Substances and Wastes Any person who burns
hazardous substances and wastes in violation of Section 1 of Rule XXV shall be
punished with four (4) years and one (1) day to six (6) years imprisonment.
• Section 4. Burning of Bio-Medical Waste. Any person who burns bio-medical waste
in violation of Section 4 of Rule XXV shall be punished with four (4) years and one (1)
to six (6) years imprisonment.
• Section 5. Smoking in Public Places Any person who smokes inside a public building
or an enclosed public place, including public utility vehicles or other means of public
transport or in any enclosed area outside of his private residence, private place of work
or any duly designated smoking area shall be punished with six (6) months and one
(1) day to one (1) year imprisonment or a fine of ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00).
• Section 6. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into

Commerce, Conveyance or other Disposition of Leaded Gasoline. Any person who
manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into commerce, conveys or
otherwise disposes of, in any manner leaded gasoline shall be punished with three (3)
years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine
as provided in Section 1.
• Section 7. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into

Commerce, Conveyance or other Disposition of Engines and/or Engine Components
Requiring Leaded Gasoline.
• Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into
commerce, conveys or otherwise disposes of, in any manner engines and/or
engine components which require the use of leaded gasoline shall be punished
with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable
for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1.
• Section 8. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation,

Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Unleaded Gasoline Fuel which do not
Meet the Fuel
Specifications.
• Any person who manufactures, sells, offers for sale, dispenses, transports or
introduces into commerce unleaded premium gasoline fuel in violation of Section 3 of
Rule XXXI or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be
punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable
for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1

Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Automotive Diesel Fuel which do not
Meet the Fuel.
Specifications.
introduces into commerce automotive diesel fuel in violation of Section 3 of Rule XXXI
or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished
with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the
appropriate fine as provided in Section 1.

Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Industrial Diesel Fuel which do not
Meet the Fuel
Specifications.
introduces into commerce industrial diesel fuel in violation of Section 3 of Rule XXXI
or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished
with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the
appropriate fine as provided in Section 1.
• Section 11. Manufacture, Processing, Trade of Fuel or Fuel Additive Without Prior
Registration of the Fuel or Fuel Additive with the DOE.
• Any person who manufactures, processes, or engages in the trade of any fuel or fuel
additive without having the fuel or fuel additive registered with the DOE shall be
punished with two (2) years and one (1) day to four (4) years of imprisonment and
liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1.
• Section 12. Misfuelling. Misfuelling refers to the act of introducing or causing or

allowing the introduction of leaded gasoline into any motor vehicle equipped with a
gasoline tank filler inlet and labeled "unleaded gasoline only." • Any person who
misfuels shall be punished with one (1) year and one (1) day to three (3) years
imprisonment or a fine of twenty thousand pesos (P 20,000.00)
RA 9003 - ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a comprehensive
air quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air
for all Filipinos.
Salient Features of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

The Act mandates the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste
management program which shall:
• Ensure the protection of public health and environment;
• Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable

resource reduction and encourage resources conservation and recovery;
• Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through
source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling,
reuse, recovery, green charcoal processes, and others, before collection, treatment
and disposal in appropriate and environmentally sound solid waste management
facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;
• Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal
of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices
in ecological waste management excluding incineration;
• Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste
management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional
arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection
separation and recovery;
• Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;
• Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local
government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national
government, other local government units, non-government organizations, and private
sector;
• Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the

application of market-based instruments;
• Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national

and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste management programs;
and
• Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource

conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and nonformal
education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the
citizenry.
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - act as overall of the
Commission to be created; prepare a National Solid Waste Management Status
Report; provide technical and capacity-building assistance to local government units;
issue rules and regulations in the implementation of the Act
Department of Health (DOH) - in coordination with the DENR and other concerned
agencies prepare the National Solid Waste Management Status Report which shall be
the basis for the National Solid Waste Management Framework; and together with the
DENR and DILG shall publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities.
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) - shall formulate and implement a coding
system for packaging materials and products to facilitate waste recycling and reuse
and with DENR establish and manage a solid waste management information
database and publish a study of existing markets for processing and purchasing
recyclable materials and the potential steps necessary to expand these markets.
Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) - together with the DENR
and DOH shall publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities.
Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED),

Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) and Philippine
Information Agency (PIA) with the DENR - shall conduct continuing education and
information campaign on solid waste management.
DepEd and CHED - the national government through the DepEd and in coordination
with concerned agencies, non-government organizations and private institutions, shall
strengthen the integration of environmental concerns in school curricula at all levels
Prohibited Acts of RA 9003
1. Littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places, such as roads,

sidewalks, canals, esteros or parks, and establishment, or causing or permitting
the same;
2. Undertaking activities or operating, collecting or transporting equipment in violation

of sanitation operation and other requirements or permits set forth in established
pursuant;
3. The open burning of solid waste;
4. Causing or permitting the collection of non-segregated or unsorted wastes;
5. Squatting in open dumps and landfills;
6. Open dumping, burying of biodegradable or non-biodegradable materials in flood

prone areas;
7. Unauthorized removal of recyclable material intended for collection by authorized

persons;
8. The mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste in any
vehicle, box, container or receptacle used in solid waste collection or disposal;
9. Establishment or operation of open dumps as enjoined in this Act, or closure of

said dumps in violation of Sec. 37;
10. The manufacture, distribution or use of non-environmentally acceptable packaging

materials;
11. Importation of consumer products packaged in non-environmentally acceptable

materials;
12. Importation of toxic wastes misrepresented as "recyclable" or "with recyclable

content";
13. Transport and dump log in bulk of collected domestic, industrial, commercial, and
institutional wastes in areas other than centers or facilities prescribe under this Act;
14. Site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste management

facilities without an Environmental Compliance Certificate required pursuant to
Presidential Decree No. 1586 and this Act and not conforming with the land use
plan of the LGU:
15. The construction of any establishment within two hundred (200) meters from open
dumps or controlled dumps, or sanitary landfill; and
16. The construction or operation of landfills or any waste disposal facility on any
aquifer, groundwater reservoir, or watershed area and or any portions thereof.
Fines and Penalties

1. Any person who violates Sec. 48 paragraph (1) shall, upon conviction, be punished
with a fine of not less than Three hundred pesos (P300.00) but not more than One
thousand pesos (P1,000.00) or render community service for not less than one (1) day
to not more than fifteen (15) days to an LGU where such prohibited acts are committed,
or both;
2. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (2) and (3), shall, upon conviction be punished
with a fine of not less than Three hundred pesos (P300.00) but not more than one
thousand pesos (P1,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than one (1) day but to not
more than fifteen (15) days, or both;
3. Any person who violates Sec. 48. pars. (4.5). (6) and() shall. upon conviction, be
punished with a fine of not less than one thousand pesos (P1,000.00) but not more
than Three thousand pesos P3,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than fifteen (15)
day but to not more than six (6) months, or both:
4. Any person who violates Sec. 48. pars (8). 19). (10) and (11) for the first time shall
upon conviction, pay a fine of Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000.00) plus and
amount not less than five percent 599) but not more than ten percent (10%) of his net
annual income during the previous year.
5. The additional penalty of imprisonment of a minimum period of one (1) year but not to
exceed three (3) years at the discretion of the court, shall be imposed for second or
subsequent violations of Sec. 48. pars. (9) and (10).
6. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (12) and (13) shall, upon conviction, be
punished with a fine not less than Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00) but not more than
two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than thirty (30)
days but not more than three (3) years, or both:
7. Any person who violates Sec. 48. pars. (14). (15) and (16) shall, upon conviction, be
punished with a fine not less than one hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00) but not
more than one million pesos (P1,000,000.00), or imprisonment not less than one (1)
year but not more than six (6) years, or both.
8. If the offense is committed by a corporation, partnership, or other juridical identity duly

recognized in accordance with the law, the chief executive officer, president, general
manager, managing partner or such other officer-in-charge shall be liable for the
commission of the offense penalized under this Act.
9. If the offender is an alien, he shall after service of the sentence prescribed above, be
deported without further administrative proceedings.
10. The fines herein prescribed shall be increased by at lest ten (10%) percent every three
(3) years to compensate for inflation and to maintain the deterrent functions of such
fines
RA 6969 - TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE

CONTROL ACT OF 1990
The act was carried out to control, supervise and regulate activities on toxic chemicals
and hazardous waste. Under this act, the importation, manufacture, processing, handling,
storage, transportation, sale, distribution, use and disposal of all unregulated chemical
substances and mixtures in the Philippines, as well as the entry even in transit, or storage and
disposal of hazardous and nuclear wastes are regulated.
Objectives of RA 6969
• To keep an inventory of chemicals that are presently being imported, manufactured,
or used, indicating, among others, their existing and possible uses, test data, names
of firms manufacturing or using them, and such other information as may be
considered relevant to the protection of health and the environment;
• To monitor and regulate the importation, manufacture, processing, handling, storage,

transportation, sale, distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and
mixtures that present unreasonable risk or injury to health or to the environment in
accordance with national policies and international commitments;
• To inform and educate the populace regarding the hazards and risks attendant to the
manufacture, handling, storage, transportation, processing, distribution, use and
disposal of toxic chemicals and other substances and mixture, and
• To prevent the entry, even in transit, as well as the keeping or storage and disposal of
hazardous and nuclear wastes into the country for whatever purpose.
Prohibited Acts of RA 6969

The following acts and omissions shall be considered unlawful:
• Knowingly use a chemical substance or mixture which is imported, manufactured,
processed or distributed in violation of this Act or implementing rules and regulations
or orders;
• Failure or refusal to submit reports, notices or other information, access to records, as

required by this Act, or permit inspection of establishment where chemicals are
manufactured, processed, stored or otherwise held;
• Failure or refusal to comply with the pre-manufacture and pre-importation

requirements; and
• Cause, aid or facilitate, directly or indirectly, in the storage, importation, or bringing into
Philippines territory, including its maritime economic zones, even in transit, either by
means of land, air or sea transportation or otherwise keeping in storage any amount
of hazardous and nuclear wastes in any part of the Philippines.
Criminal Offenses and Penalties

• The penalty of imprisonment of six (6) months and one day to six (6) years and one
day and a fine ranging from Six hundred pesos (P600.00) to Four thousand pesos
(P4,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who shall violate section 13 (a) to (c)
of this Act and shall not be covered by the Probation Law. If the offender is a foreigner,
he or she shall be deported and barred from any subsequent entry into the Philippines
after serving his or her sentence;
• In case any violation of this Act is committed by a partnership, corporation, association

or any juridical person, the partner, president, director or manager who shall consent
to or shall knowingly tolerate such violation shall be directly liable and responsible for
the act of the employee and shall be criminally liable as a co-principal;
• In case the offender is a government official or employee, he or she shall, in addition

to the above penalties, be deemed automatically dismissed from office and
permanently disqualified from holding any elective or appointive position.
• The penalty of imprisonment of twelve (12) years and one day to twenty (20) years,
shall be imposed upon any person who shall violate section 13 (d) of this Act. If the
offender is a foreigner, he or she shall be deported and barred from any subsequent
entry into the Philippines after serving his or her sentence;
• In the case of corporations or other associations, the above penalty shall be imposed
upon the managing partner, president or chief executive in addition to an exemplary
damage of at least Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000.00).f it is a foreign firm,
the director and all officers of such foreign firm shall be barred from entry into the
Philippines, in addition to the cancellation of its license to do business in the
Philippines;
• In case the offender is a government official or employee, he or she in addition to the

above penalties be deemed automatically dismissed from office and permanently
disqualified from holding any elective or appointive position.
• Every penalty imposed for the unlawful importation, entry, transport, manufacture,
processing, sale or distribution of chemical substances or mixtures into or within the
Philippines shall carry with it the confiscation and forfeiture in favor of the Government
of the proceeds of the unlawful act and instruments, tools or other improvements
including vehicles, sea vessels, and aircrafts used in or with which the offense was
committed. Chemical substances so confiscated and forfeited by the Government at
its option shall be turned over to the Department of Environment and Natural resources
for safekeeping and proper disposal.
• The person or firm responsible or connected with the bringing or importation into the
country of hazardous or nuclear wastes shall be under obligation to transport or send
back said prohibited wastes;
• Any and all means of transportation, including all facilities and appurtenances that may
have been used in transporting to or in the storage in the Philippines of any significant
amount of hazardous or nuclear wastes shall at the option of the government be
forfeited in its favor.

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Unit 3 – Environment Problems, Their Causes, & Sustainability

Living the Exponential Age

• Discuss the different environmental issues in Asian countries.

Environmental Dimensions of Energy Security in Asia and the Pacific

Dimension Link to Energy Security Energy Conservation to

• Climate change is a “threat

• Lack of available safe

• Deforestation can cause At least 15% of land-use

Water Quality and Availability

Figure 3: Forest Area as a Percent

Table 4: Global Leaders in Carbon Dioxide Equivalent Emissions from Deforestation

Environmental Impact of Energy Technology Options

F. Oil and Natural Gas

CHAPTER 2 – ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Presidential Decree No. 1586 - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

• Environment Compliance Certificate (EEC)

• Certificate of Non-Coverage (CNC)

• Environmentally Critical Project (ECP)

• Environmental Compliance Assistance (ECA)

• Resource Extractive Industries

• As declared by Proclamation No. 803 (1996)

List of ECA Categories As declared by proclamation No. 2146 (1981)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

• Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

• Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) Checklist

DENR MC NO. 2007-08

RA 9275 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004

Salient Features of the Clean Water Act of 2004

Prohibited Acts Under RA 9275

Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters

• Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment

RA 8749 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999

Salient Features of the Clean Air Act of 1999

• Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an

• Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) - in coordination with

• Department of Energy (DOE) co-chaired with the DENR, in consultation with

• Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and astronomical Service Administration

• Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters

• Section 6. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into

• Section 7. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into

• Section 8. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation,

• Section 9. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation,

• Section 10. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation,

• Section 12. Misfuelling. Misfuelling refers to the act of introducing or causing or

RA 9003 - ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

Salient Features of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

• Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable

• Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;

• Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the

• Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national

• Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource

Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED),

Prohibited Acts of RA 9003

1. Littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places, such as roads,

2. Undertaking activities or operating, collecting or transporting equipment in violation

3. The open burning of solid waste;

4. Causing or permitting the collection of non-segregated or unsorted wastes;

5. Squatting in open dumps and landfills;

6. Open dumping, burying of biodegradable or non-biodegradable materials in flood

7. Unauthorized removal of recyclable material intended for collection by authorized

9. Establishment or operation of open dumps as enjoined in this Act, or closure of

10. The manufacture, distribution or use of non-environmentally acceptable packaging

11. Importation of consumer products packaged in non-environmentally acceptable