DOI: 10.

2118/205004-PA Date: 26-August-21 Stage: Page: 542 Total Pages: 10

Experimental Investigation of
Aloe-Vera-Based CuO Nanofluid as
a Novel Additive in Improving the
Rheological and Filtration Properties of
Water-Based Drilling Fluid
Hameed Hussain Ahmed Mansoor*, AMET University; Srinivasa Reddy Devarapu*, UPES; Robello Samuel,
Halliburton; Tushar Sharma, RGIPT; and Swaminathan Ponmani**, AMET University

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Summary
Drilling technology in petroleum engineering is associated with problems such as high fluid loss, poor hole cleaning, and pipe sticking.
Improvement of rheological and filtration properties of water-based drilling fluids (WDFs) plays a major role in resolving these drilling
problems. The application of nanotechnology to WDF in the recent past has attracted much attention in addressing these drilling opera-
tions problems. In the present work, we investigate the application of natural aloe vera and CuO nanofluids combined as an additive in
WDF to address the drilling problems. The nanofluids of three different concentrations of CuO nanoparticle (0.2, 0.4 , and 0.6 wt%)
with aloe vera as a base fluid are prepared for this study by adopting a two-step method. The prepared nanofluids are characterized by
their particle size and morphological characteristics. Conventional WDF (DF.0) is synthesized, and the prepared aloe-vera-based CuO
nanofluid is added to the WDF to prepare nanofluid-enhanced water-based drilling fluid (NFWDF) of different concentrations of nano-
particles, namely, 0.2 , 0.4, and 0.6 wt%. The prepared drilling fluid mixture is then characterized for its rheological and filtrate loss
properties at various temperatures. Thermal stability and aging studies are performed for both WDF and NFWDF. The experimental
results are then modeled using rheological models. The results reveal that aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids improve the thermal stability
and rheological properties of drilling fluid and significantly decrease the American Petroleum Institute (API) filtrate. Viscosity for
WDF shows an approximately 61.7% decrease in heating up to 90 C. Further, the hot roll aging test causes a 63% decrease in the vis-
cosity of WDF at 90 C. However, the addition of aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids is found to aid in recovering the viscosities to a great
extent. The fluid loss values before hot rolling are observed to be 6.6 mL after 30 minutes, whereas fluid loss values for the NFWDFs
are found to be 5.9, 5.4, and 4.6 mL, respectively. The fluid loss value after hot rolling for the WDF is found to be 10.8 mL after
30 minutes, whereas fluid loss values for the NFWDFs are found to be 9.2, 8.5, and 7.7 mL, respectively. The rheological performance
data of NFWDF project a better fit with the Herschel-Bulkley model and suggest improvement in rheological and filtration properties.
There has been limited research work available in understanding the impact of aloe-vera-gel-based nanofluids in improving the perfor-
mance of WDFs through the improvement of its rheological and filtration properties. This study aims to exploit the property of native
aloe vera and CuO nanofluids combined together to enhance the rheological and filtration properties of WDF by conducting the tests
both before and after hot rolling conditions. This study acts as an important precursor for developing novel additives for WDF to
improve its rheological and filtration properties. This study is also expected to benefit the industry and solve the major challenges in
deep-well drilling operations and high-pressure and high-temperature (HPHT) drilling operations.

Introduction
Fossil fuel resources play a vital role in our daily life and have applications in all walks of human life. The demand for oil and gas has
been increasing in recent years due to various factors like demographic growth, industrial development, and high living standards. To
meet the energy demands of the world, more oil wells are discovered and explored to increase the recovery of oil and gas. However,
many of the new oil fields discovered pose several drilling-associated problems, such as pipe sticking, fluid loss, and scale formation,
which ultimately rely on the effective design of drilling fluids (Khabat et al. 2018). Different types of drilling muds, such as water-, oil-,
and pneumatic-based drilling fluids, are used along with additives such as clay, polymers, and cellulose compounds. WDFs are generally
used because of their ecofriendly characteristics (Rahmatollah et al. 2017). Many researchers have investigated various techniques to
enhance water-based mud performance by reducing fluid loss and improving rheological properties.
Nanotechnology refers to the preparation of materials on a nanometer scale, their characterization, and application. There are numer-
ous nanotechnology-based products synthesized (Aabid and Srinivasa 2017) and applied in the fields of coating, healthcare, defense,
and manufacturing. The application of nanotechnology has penetrated the oil and gas sector in all phases, from exploration to produc-
tion. Nanosensors in the range of 1 to 100 nm are used in the exploration phase to capture subsurface imaging with high resolution for
advanced reservoir characterization techniques (El-Diasty and Salem 2013; Dejtaradon et al. 2019). Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit desired
physical properties, namely high thermal and electrical conductivities, enhanced filtration, and rheological characteristics that make
them attractive in designing and engineering NP-based suspensions. Nanotechnology has remarkable applications in cementing and
drilling operations, corrosion control, well logging operations, and release of methane from gas hydrates (Muili and Subhash 2017).
Researchers have carried out extensive work on the impact of the application of NPs on the functional behavior of WDFs. Babak et al.
(2004) reported the role of multiwalled carbon nanotubes in the improvement of thermal conductivity, rheological, and filtration proper-
ties of standard water-based drilling mud. Amarfio and Abdulkadir (2015) investigated the effect of aluminum oxide NPs on the

*Equal contribution
**Corresponding author; email: ponumane@gmail.com
Copyright V
C 2021 Society of Petroleum Engineers

Original SPE manuscript received for review 26 June 2020. Revised manuscript received for review 6 October 2020. Paper (SPE 205004) peer approved 16 November 2020.

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rheological properties of water-based drilling mud. The study revealed that Al2O3 was able to maintain the shear stress at different
levels of shear rate over an increase in temperature. Richard et al. (2017) investigated the rheological characteristics and the maximum
shear stress limit of the silica-NP-enhanced water-based drilling mud. Mehran et al. (2015) reported that the addition of TiO2/
polyacrylamide nanocomposite imparted shear-thinning behavior to enhance rheological and fluid loss characteristics. Incorporation of
clay/SiO2, iron oxide (Fe2O3) NPs, and zinc oxide NPs-acrylamide composites have been reported to considerably enhance the thermal,
rheological stability, and filtration loss characteristics of WDF at higher temperatures with increased concentration of NPs (Jung et al.
2011; Mahmoud et al. 2016; Goshtasp et al. 2018; Aftab et al. 2016). However, the addition of functionalized-COOH carbon NPs to
the standard WDFs enhanced the thermal conductivity to an average of 6% (Chai et al. 2014). Further, the addition of CuO NPs indi-
cated improvement in the thermal conductivity up to 29% and reduced the temperature gradient by more than two times (Rahmatollah
et al. 2017).
Nanofluids have also been identified as having better thermophysical and rheological properties than conventional base fluids
(Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi 2015; Suganthi and Rajan 2017; Ponmani et al. 2019). Nanofluids are prepared by diffusing the NPs in
base fluids, most commonly water. Ponmani et al. (2014) performed a comparative study between CuO and ZnO NPs (< 50 nm)-based
xanthan gum nanofluids, which showed enhancement of the electrical and thermal conductivity characteristics by 25 and 50%,
respectively. Achieving a stable suspension of NPs in the base fluid is a prerequisite for obtaining better stability of nanofluids (Das
et al. 2003). Numerous methods have been reported in the literature to prepare stable nanofluids (Hwang et al. 2008; Chung et al. 2009;
Fedele et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2012; Wei et al. 2012).

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Due to the rheological improvement, nanofluids application is presumed to be cost effective and technically feasible, because of the
low concentrations required in preparing smart fluids, and could help to resolve major challenges in deep-well drilling operations and
HPHT drilling operations. Different nanofluids applications have been proposed based on laboratory experiments; however, to the best of
our knowledge, few trials of nanofluids applications in industry have been reported. Alsaba et al. (2020) reported the summary of the field
trials of NPs and nanofluids that showed promising applications of nanotechnology in the petroleum industry. Referring to the findings
herein, aluminum oxide nanosilica, carbon-based fluorescent NP, and others have been used to resolve drilling and enhanced-oil-recovery
(EOR)-related problems in the oil and gas industries located in Columbia, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia. Boul and Ajayan (2020) conducted a
study at the Saudi Aramco research center regarding the application of nanomaterials in the various areas of petroleum industries, such as
sensing cement, production technologies, EOR technologies, nanosensors, downhole power and automation, and so on.
Aloe vera is a stemless plant with leaves of high water-retaining capacity that assist the plant in surviving complex environments
(Akinyele and Odiyi 2007; Hamman 2008; Ali et al. 2012; Jiang et al. 2013). The flowers of the plant contain volatile compounds and
ascorbic acid. In contrast, the rind contains lignin, polysaccharides, hemicellulose, pectin, and cellulose (Boudreau and Beland 2006;
Ali et al. 2012), which find their application in the pharmaceutical field to treat respiratory disorders and diabetes, inflammation,
wounds and burns, and intestinal issues and also to boost immune power and aid digestion (Langmead et al. 2004). The presence of
polymeric fibrous chains makes the aloe vera gel exhibit an elastic shear thinning (viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate) and
gelation behavior, which supports its use as an efficient additive for drilling fluids (Ukpaka 2012). Such rheological behavior is due to
the redisposition of the fragile network of polymeric fibers and its structural decomposition (Lad and Murthy 2013). Aloe vera also con-
tains amino acids, salicylic acids, and proteins, which can be used to remove scale deposits and aid mudcake or stuck pipe removal
(Mohammed 2017). Aloe vera contains water-holding tissue that can be used to trap water to lower its saturation in the reservoir. There
has been limited research available in understanding the impact of aloe-vera-gel-based nanofluids in improving the performance of
WDFs through the improvement of rheological and filtration properties of WDF. In this background, an attempt has been made to
synthesize novel aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids, where aloe vera is used as a base fluid for the preparation of CuO nanofluids through
a two-step method thereby exploiting the property of native aloe vera and CuO nanofluids, combined to enhance the rheological and fil-
tration properties of WDF by conducting the tests both before and after hot rolling conditions. In this study, we aim to promote the
application of agro-based products that are biodegradable and environmentally friendly to enhance the rheological and filtration proper-
ties of WDF.

Materials and Methods

Chemicals. The CuO NPs (spherical shape with a diameter of < 40 nm and purity of >99%) are used to formulate the aloe-vera-based
nanofluids. A mixture of water and aloe vera (extracted from the homegrown plant) is used as a continuous phase for the formulation of
nanofluids. For preparing water-based drilling mud, deionized water, bentonite, barite, pormaldehyde (37 to 41 vol% purity), potassium
chloride (99.5 wt% purity), potassium hydroxide (85 wt% purity), polyanionic cellulose, and sodium carbonite (Na2CO3) are used.

Methodology. Method of Preparing Aloe-Vera-Based CuO Nanofluids. A two-step method is adopted in the preparation of aloe-
vera-based CuO nanofluids. CuO NPs of different concentrations (0.2 , 0.4 , and 0.6 wt%) are initially dispersed into the base fluid, aloe
vera gel (A.0 as in Table 1), with proper mixing. To achieve proper dispersion, an ultrasonic mixer operated at an input power of
450 W and frequency of 25 kHz is used. Sonication is carried out for 1 hour with water in the ultrasonicator bath, which is replaced
with fresh water every half hour to evade thermal energy losses. The nanofluids (A.1 to A.3) of three different concentrations of CuO
NP (0.2 , 0.4, and 0.6 wt%) with aloe vera as the base fluid are prepared for this work.

NP Concentration of Base Nomenclature

(<40 nm) NP (wt %) Fluid (A.0)* used
CuO 0.2 Aloe vera A.1
CuO 0.4 Aloe vera A.2
CuO 0.6 Aloe vera A.3

*A.0 is the base fluid without NP.

Table 1—Prepared nanofluids for the present study.

Characterization of Aloe-Vera-Based CuO Nanofluids. Structure, morphology, and arrangement of NPs are examined using a
scanning electron microscope (SEM; Xue and Sethi 2012). The particle size of different concentrations of CuO NPs in base fluid (A.1

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to A.3) is measured using dynamic light scattering (DLS) (quasi-elastic light scattering) by a noninvasive technique (Naveen et al.
2017). DLS measures the Brownian diffusivity of particles. DLS measurement is performed by using an NP size analyzer. The particle
size distribution is measured from 1 mm to 6 mm with 61% precision at the temperature of 25 C and 90 scattering angle. The thermo-
gravimetric analysis (TGA) of the prepared aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids also enables evaluation of the thermal stability and thus
the decomposition temperature of the synthesized nanofluids. Therefore, TGA is carried out in the TGA analyzer by heating the samples
in the air from 100 to 600 C, at a constant heating rate of 20 C/min with a precision of 0.1% (0.1% bias of mass loss is –0.1% of resi-
due). However, the samples are predried to 110 C in an oven. The airflow rate is 100 cm3/min throughout the entire course of the
experiment. The variation in weight of the sample, such as loss of water of hydration, loss of solvent and plasticizers in polymers, and
finally, the decomposition of the material, are noted as a function of time and/or temperature (Wang et al. 1998; Ding et al. 2001). Low
sample masses on the order of 5 mg are used to prevent the diffusion restrictions. The study is repeated twice to endorse the reliability
of the process in which the same result is obtained.
Method of Preparing Conventional Drilling Fluid. The WDF is prepared based on the guidance of API RP 13I (2016), given in
Table 2 (DF.0). Water is used as a base fluid. Xanthan gum biopolymer and bentonite are used as viscosity and filtration controlling
agents. However, xanthan gum is used for low solid muds. Polyanionic cellulose is used as a fluid loss controller. KOH is added as an
inhibitive mud. Na2CO3 is added to avoid the acidic nature of mud and to retain the pH in the range of 9 to 9.5. Barite is added as a
weighing agent. Finally, to avoid degradation of the natural polymer due to bacterial action, biocide (formaldehyde) is added.

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Component Nomenclature of NFWDF DF.0 DF.1 DF.2 DF.3
Water 350 mL 350 mL 350 mL 350 mL
Bentonite 5.0 g 5.0 g 5.0 g 5.0 g
Barite 12.0 g 12.0 g 12.0 g 12.0 g
Xanthum gum biopolymer 0.4 g 0.4 g 0.4 g 0.4 g
Biocide 0.1 mL 0.1 mL 0.1 mL 0.1 mL
KOH 0.1 g 0.1 g 0.1 g 0.1 g
Na2CO3 12.0 g 12.0 g 12.0 g 12.0 g
Polyanionic cellulose-L 0.25 g 0.25 g 0.25 g 0.25 g
A.1 — 1 vol% — —
A.2 — — 1 vol% —
A.3 — — — 1 vol%

Table 2—Enhanced NFWDF formulations prepared for the present study.

Method of Preparing NFWDF. One volume percentage of prepared nanofluids (A.1 to A.3) is added to the conventional WDF
(DF.0) to prepare the NFWDF. The particulars and nomenclatures for NFWDF (DF.1 to DF.3) prepared with various combinations of
nanofluids (A.1 to A.3) are given in Table 2.
Rheological and Filtration Measurements of Drilling Fluid. Rheological measurements on drilling fluid samples are performed in
shear mode (viscosity and yield stress) by using a modular compact rheometer. The viscosity and yield stress measurements of fluid
samples are carried out with the shear rate adjusted between 0.1 and 3,000 s1. Rheological measurements are performed for different
temperatures (30, 50, 70, and 90 C) with a precision of temperature control (60.01 C; William et al. 2014; Sharma et al. 2015;
Cheraghian et al. 2018). A filtration test for the prepared drilling fluids is performed using the filter press (US standard sieve No. 200;
API RP 13B-1 2003). A stainless steel assembly with an opening at the bottom is filled with the fluid sample and Whatman quantitative
filter paper (G 50 grade, 9-mm diameter, estimated pore size of 2.7 mm) is placed at the bottom to filter the filtrate. The test is performed
by applying 100 psi pressure at the top according to API RP 13I, and the filtrate is collected at the bottom of the cell in the discharge
jar. The test is carried out for 30 minutes with filtrate volume noted as a function of time, and filter-cake thickness is measured using
Vernier calipers with a precision of 60.01 mm. All the performance predictions are carried out at various temperatures by taking the
drilling mud sample in an aging cell and placing it in a hot roller by adjusting and maintaining the temperatures for 16 hours according
to API RP 13I (Perween et al. 2019). The flow chart shown in Fig. 1 depicts the entire workflow of this study.

Characterization studies
(SEM, TGA, DLS)

Aloe-vera-based
CuO nanofluids

Rheological studies

Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid-

Direct mix
enhanced WDF

Filtration studies

WDF

Fig. 1—Workflow of this study.

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Results and Discussion

Characterization Studies. Morphological Characterization of Nanofluids. The SEM results of the prepared aloe-vera-based
CuO nanofluids show that the CuO NPs are well dispersed in aloe-vera-based fluid. Fig. 2a [CuO (0.2 wt%) nanofluid with aloe-vera-
based fluid] shows that the surface of the aloe vera is spiral in shape and dotted white marks reveal that CuO NPs appear on the surface
and inside the aloe-vera-gel-based fluid. Fig. 2b [CuO (0.4 wt%) nanofluid with aloe-vera-based fluid] shows that the CuO NPs dis-
persed in aloe-vera-based fluid are very randomly dispersed compared to CuO (0.2 wt%). Fig. 2c represents the CuO (0.6 wt%) nano-
fluid with aloe-vera-based fluid. Here the nanofluid exhibits randomly increased dispersion of CuO compared to the lower
concentration of NPs.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2—SEM image for (a) 0.2 wt% CuO 1 aloe vera as base fluid, (b) 0.4 wt% CuO 1 aloe vera as base fluid, and (c) 0.6 wt%
CuO 1 aloe vera as base fluid.

DLS Particle Size Measurement of Nanofluids. Fig. 3 shows that, for the aloe-vera-based nanofluids (A.1 to A.3) from the day of
preparation to 24 hours, the particle size distribution is observed to range from 13 to 396 nm for A.1, 18 to 825 nm for A.2, and 43 nm to
1110 nm for A.3, respectively. The distribution of weight percentage shows that particle diameter for 0.6 wt% of CuO nanofluid is
greater than that of 0.2 and 0.4 wt% of CuO. The nanodispersion pH value of the additive is 11, and the surface charge of the additives
is negative and varied between –12.6 6 0.4 and –15.7 6 1.6 mV. After adding an additive to the WDF, due to the presence of various
components, mainly sodium carbonate, pH value of the NFWDF is found to be between 9 and 9.5.

14
A.1 (CuO 0.2 wt%)
12 A.2 (CuO 0.4 wt%)
A.3 (CuO 0.6 wt%)
10
Intensity (number)

0
100 1,000 10,000
Size (diameter, nm)

Fig. 3—NP size distribution in prepared nanofluids with aloe vera as base fluid at different times: (a) 0.2 wt% CuO 1 aloe vera base
fluid, (b) 0.4 wt% CuO 1 aloe vera base fluid, and (c) 0.6 wt% CuO 1 aloe vera base fluid.

TGA of Nanofluids. The TGA projects the maximum mass loss between 270 and 420 C. The most substantial peak observed at
333.46 C (Fig. 4) has been attributed to the decomposition of magnesium hydroxide to magnesium oxide (Diez et al. 2020). In this
study, the TGA is carried out on a fixed amount of the oven-dried CuO to analyze its thermal decomposition behavior. Figs. 4a, 4b, and
4c show the TGA curves of the as-prepared aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids of different concentrations. These curves show a maximum
interval of mass loss between 248 and 482 C for 0.2 wt% of CuO with aloe-vera-based fluid, 248.76 and 450 C for 0.4 wt% of nano-
fluid, and 220.7 and 431.4 C for 0.6 wt% nanofluid. From this, it is found that 0.4 wt% of CuO NP with aloe-vera-based nanofluid can
withstand temperatures up to 248 C without degrading and with 99% purity.

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100 100 100

29.10°C
30.02°C
99.81%
96.25%
80 80 55.57°C
80
52.31°C 61.39°C
66.50% 67.13%
64.17%
Weight (%)

Weight (%)

Weight (%)
60 60 60

40 40 40
Residue:
73.28°C 15.87% Residue:
15.90% (1.493 mg) 9.014% Residue:
20 20 20 0.4069%
(1.185 mg)
(0.07125 mg)
78.78°C 85.16°C
9.057% 0.5763%
0 0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4—TGA curve for (a) 0.2 wt% CuO with aloe-vera-based nanofluids, (b) 0.4 wt% CuO with aloe-vera-based nanofluids, and
(c) 0.6 wt% CuO with aloe-vera-based nanofluids.

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Effect of Aloe-Vera-Based CuO Nanofuid on Rheological Properties of NFWDF. Figs. 5a and 5b present the shear stress rela-
tionship with shear rate and effect of temperature for the prepared NFWDF samples (DF.1 to DF.3) with different concentrations of
NPs, and hence the nanofluids, and at different temperatures of 30, 50, 70, and 90 C before and after the hot roll aging process at 90 C
for 16 hours maintaining the pressure at 0.1 MPa. It can be observed from Fig. 5a that the rheological properties are found to improve
with the increase in nanofluid concentration for conventional WDFs. However, these properties vary inversely with temperature, but the
intensity of reduction is not perceived sufficient to cause significant variation in mud rheology at high temperatures. It is noteworthy
that the hot roll aging of drilling mud for 16 hours at 90 C and subsequent cooling to 30 C is adopted to investigate the thermal effects
on drilling mud rheology. The influence of temperature and pressure is in contrast (Ponmani et al. 2014). Due to thermal expansion
(constituents in the drilling fluid), an outward decrease in the viscosity of the drilling fluid of approximately 61.7% with an increase in
temperature up to 90 C is observed, establishing the shear thinning behavior.

12
12 Before hot rolling
10 Before hot rolling 10
DF.0 10 After hot rolling After hot rolling
DF.0
10 DF.1 DF.0
Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

DF.1
DF.2 8 DF.1 8 DF.0
DF.2 DF.1
DF.3 DF.4 8 DF.2
8 DF.3 DF.2
30°C DF.3
6 50°C 30°C 6
6 50°C
6
4 4 4
4

2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 10 1,000 2,000 3,000 10 1,000 2,000 3,000
Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s)
10 10 10
Before hot rolling 10
DF.0 After hot rolling After hot rolling
8 DF.0 8 8
DF.1
Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

Shear Stress (Pa)

DF.1 DF.0
DF.2 8 DF.0
DF.2 DF.1
DF.3 DF.1
DF.3 DF.2
6 6 6 DF.2
70°C DF.3
6 DF.3
90°C
70°C 90°C
4 4 4 4

2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 10 1,000 2,000 3,000 10 1,000 2,000 3,000
Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s)
(a) (b)

Fig. 5—Shear rate–shear stress relationship for DF.0, DF.1, DF.2, and DF.3 (a) before hot rolling at 908C and (b) after hot rolling at 908C.

The addition of nanofluid in the standard WDF is observed to result in more stable shear-thinning viscous characteristics at high
temperatures. The viscosity is observed to decrease with the addition of aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid of lower CuO NP concentration
(DF.1) and observed to improve with an increase in the NPs concentration (DF.2 and DF.3). It can be further observed from Fig. 6a,
presenting the impact of nanofluid concentration on rheological characteristics of the WDF, that addition of the aloe-vera-based CuO
nanofluids to WDF aids in recovering the viscosities decreased by increased temperatures (14% for DF.2 and 19% for DF.3) by main-
taining the viscosities, thereby improving the rheological properties. Maintaining the viscosity at low shear rates is more significant
than doing so at high shear rates because the latter is often accompanied by high velocity that aids in cuttings removal. However, at low
shear rates, the cuttings lifting competence is always vetted on the rheological properties of the drilling fluid. This range of low shear
rates is more prominent in the upper annular region.
Based on the shear stress vs. shear rate results, it can be asserted that the distinctive effect of adding aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids
is to disorganize the bonds between the other components of the drilling fluid at low concentrations, resulting in a major reduction in
shear stress. However, at higher NP concentrations, a greater quantity of solid particles dominates, and the disrupting impact of the NPs
is decreased. The aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids show a more significant decrease in shear stress. This is due to the larger surface area
of CuO (average particle size of 40 nm and specific surface area of 80 m2/g), which affects the ability to disperse and disrupt the bonds
within the drilling fluid. In order to have ease of pumping while the drill bit penetrates, drilling fluids are required to have low stress,
but their strength must be strong enough to suspend the rock cuttings when the process is stopped.
According to the findings on the rheological property, it can be noted that the surface area of the NPs was a dominating factor in the
results of the rheological properties at both low and high temperatures. For particles with a larger surface area, like CuO NPs, the
volume or amount of particles added to the drilling fluid is less and less of an agglomeration issue. On the other hand, due to their

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smaller size, the smaller-surface-area NPs have the capacity to decrease the interactions between larger molecules. Perween et al.
(2019) reported from their research on ZnTiO3 NPs that CuO NPs yield more improved rheological properties than the ZnO NPs
because of their greater surface area. It is also reported in the study that the rheological trend results from higher-surface-area material
(ENP ZnTiO3 – 24.47 m2/g) compared to lower-surface-area material (SNP ZnTiO3 – 1.04 m2/g). It is also noted that there is a tradeoff
(i.e., an increasing trend might increase the capacity of the drilling fluid to hold more rock cuttings).

100 100 100 100

DF.0 DF.1 DF.0 DF.1
Before hot rolling Before hot rolling After hot rolling After hot rolling

Viscosity (mPa.s)

Viscosity (mPa.s)
Viscosity (mPa.s)

Viscosity (mPa.s)
30°C 30°C 30°C 30°C
50°C 50°C 50°C 50°C
70°C 70°C 70°C 70°C
10 90°C 10 90°C 10 90°C 10 90°C

1 1 1 1
10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000
Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s)

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100 100 100 100
DF.2 DF.3 DF.2 DF.3
Before hot rolling Before hot rolling After hot rolling After hot rolling
Viscosity (mPa.s)

Viscosity (mPa.s)

Viscosity (mPa.s)

Viscosity (mPa.s)
30°C 30°C 30°C 30°C
50°C 50°C 50°C 50°C
70°C 70°C 70°C 70°C
90°C 90°C 90°C 90°C
10 10 10 10

1 1 1 1
10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000
Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s) Shear Rate (1/s)
(a) (b)

Fig. 6—Herschel-Bulkley model prediction for the effect of temperature on viscosity of DF.0, DF.1, DF.2, and DF.3 (a) before hot roll-
ing at 908C and (b) after hot rolling at 908C.

Furthermore, from Fig. 6b, hot roll aging at 90 C of WDF (DF.0) causes a 42% reduction in viscosity at 30 C and 63% reduction at

90 C. However, this decrease in viscosity due to the effect of aging is reduced by the addition of aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids (16%
for DF.2 and 25% for DF.3).
The CuO NP has higher thermal conductivity. This implies that fluid retains heat for a shorter period of time, leading to higher ther-
mal stability of the drilling fluid. Ponmani et al. (2014) reported that the thermal conductivity of CuO NPs is greater than that of ZnO
NPs. For instance, in various other previous studies, Rahmatollah et al. (2017) also revealed that CuO NPs have higher thermal conduc-
tivity than other NPs. This drilling fluid property determines how easily heat can be transferred within the column of fluid.
Thus, in addition to the improvement in viscous characteristics, the NPs in the aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid are critically observed
to impart thermal stability, thereby signifying the dominance of NP concentration in enhancing rheological characteristics overpressure
and temperature conditions. This is an important outcome useful in designing the drilling fluid with improved rheological properties
because it is easier to control the NP concentration than it is to control the pressure and thermal conditions.
Rheological Models. Effective design and optimization of the drilling fluids for dynamic and complex conditions essentially require
knowledge of the types of flows and rheological models that aid in evaluating the pressure drop, equivalent circulating density, and
hole cleaning capacity. The drilling fluids exhibit three major flow patterns derived from shear stress vs. shear rate relation: plug flow,
laminar flow, and turbulent flow. Meager shear rate results in plug flow in which the drilling fluid will behave like gel and with a similar
velocity profile of the drilling fluid at the center of the annulus and the walls of the borehole. The drilling muds tend to have a laminar
flow at a low flow velocity with a predictable flow pattern. Hence, the conventional fluid flow model equations are commonly used.
Fluids flowing in a turbulent flow section are subject to the random variations in both the direction and velocity of fluid flow. It is quite
challenging to find the appropriate equations to define the fluid flow models for the turbulent flow regions because they have a discorded
flow pattern. The classical drilling fluid models reported are the Bingham plastic model, power law model, and Herschel-Bulkley model
(Bourgoyne et al. 1986; API RP 13D 2006). The experimental data from rheology analysis (Figs. 6a and 6b) for WDF (DF.0) and
NFWDF (DF.1 to DF.3) are fitted to the conventional models reported for drilling at different temperatures (30, 50, 70, and 90 C). The
rheological models considered in the present study are as given below.
Power law model,

s ¼ kcn ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð1Þ

where k is the consistency index (Pasn), n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless), and c is the shear rate (s1).
Bingham plastic model,

s ¼ so þ lp c; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð2Þ

where so is the yield stress (Pa), and lp is the plastic viscosity (cp).
Herschel-Bulkley model,

s ¼ so þ kcn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ð3Þ

where so is the yield stress (Pa), k is the consistency index (Pasn), n is the fluid flow behavior index (dimensionless), and c is the shear
rate (s1).

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Table 3 presents the history match analysis data of the experimental data with the drilling-fluid rheological models. It can be
observed that the Herschel-Bulkley model better predicts the experimental data. Conventional drilling muds are non-Newtonian, which
is dependent on the shear rate. The power law model is observed to underestimate the viscosity of the NFWDF at low shears because it
predicts no shear rate at zero shear stress. However, this is not the true nature of drilling fluid because the drilling fluid projects signifi-
cant residual shear strength at zero shear rates. Nevertheless, the Bingham plastic model is the predominantly adopted rheological
model for the determination of rheology of non-Newtonian fluid, which considers that shear stress is a linear function of shear rate,
which is known as plastic viscosity. The zero shear rate point is addressed as a threshold stress or yield point. Though the Bingham plas-
tic model can produce satisfactory results in optimal designing of drilling fluid, it is known to be limited in estimating the hydraulic
properties precisely. The Herschel-Bulkley model, a fusion of the Bingham plastic and power law models and commonly known as
improvization of the power law model, is observed to have a better fit with the experimental data.

Power Law Bingham Plastic Herschel-Bulkley

 2 2
Mud T ( C) k n R so n R so k n R2

30 0.1195 0.5379 0.9898 0.8861 0.021 0.9898 0.88661 0.02735 0.0115 0.9938
50 0.0876 0.5585 0.9952 0.6673 0.015 0.9858 0.66073 0.03564 0.01139 0.9372

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D.0
70 0.0556 0.5998 0.9957 0.4394 0.018 0.9894 0.43949 0.031923 0.09517 0.9362
90 0.9976 0.6614 0.9976 0.2823 0.028 0.9911 0.28232 0.027232 0.01193 0.9936

30 0.1263 0.4853 0.9793 1.069 0.028 0.9909 1.067 0.09865 0.02087 0.9372
50 0.1263 0.5189 0.9889 0.7899 0.018 0.9878 0.78995 0.07865 0.01087 0.9283
DF.1
70 0.0801 0.5636 0.9933 0.5202 0.014 0.988 0.5202 0.05254 0.01132 0.9274
90 0.0569 0.5972 0.9914 0.988 0.027 0.99 0.39398 0.0383 0.0098 0.9478

30 0.1284 0.5263 0.9869 0.971 0.019 0.9886 0.971 0.0747 0.0383 0.9473
50 0.984 0.5494 0.9969 0.7349 0.012 0.9882 0.73491 0.05327 0.0289 0.9873
DF.2
70 0.0713 0.5714 0.9897 0.5724 0.023 0.9904 0.57245 0.03982 0.01872 0.9743
90 0.0423 0.6307 0.9834 0.5424 0.014 0.9907 0.54245 0.0183 0.0672 0.9373

30 0.115 0.5324 0.9889 0.8244 0.017 0.9891 0.8244 0.0834 0.0522 0.9474
50 0.0869 0.5565 0.9954 0.5872 0.024 0.9803 0.61337 0.06934 0.0449 0.9374
DF.3
70 0.0734 0.5683 0.9934 0.6133 0.028 0.9832 0.5872 0.0458 0.031 0.9362
90 0.0636 0.5813 0.9929 0.5894 0.012 0.9858 0.56947 0.0283 0.218 0.9745
Table 3—Constants for rheological models of standard WDF (D.0) and NFWDF (DF.1 to DF.3).

The lower values of the flow behavior index predicted by the history matched NFWDFs of various concentrations of NPs are attrib-
uted to the non-Newtonian nature of fluid and critically reveal their shear thinning behavior. They further indicate efficient hole clean-
ing performance of NFWDF because viscosity increases in the annular side with a flat annular velocity profile. Nevertheless, a flat
velocity profile projects much better hole cleaning capacity than the parabolic velocity profile of Newtonian fluids (William et al.
2014). However, a decrease in magnitudes of n with an increase in temperatures reveals improvement in the shear thinning behavior of
the NFWDF. Further, the improvement in the constant k indicates the increased viscosity of the drilling fluid in the annular zone con-
tributes to its efficient hole cleaning capacity and is observed to improve with an increase in the temperature.
API Filtration Test. Fluid loss, or spurt loss, is the early invaded volume of fluid (filtrate) that flows into the formation before the
deposition of the filter cake. It is the critical parameter contributing to pipe sticking and formation damage problems due to the poor
design of drilling fluids (Ponmani et al. 2015). The fluid loss is found to increase with respect to conventional drilling fluid samples
starting with zero at the beginning of the test. Figs. 7a and 7b present the effect of NP concentration on the aloe-vera-based CuO nano-
fluids additive toward fluid loss properties of the drilling mud systems pre- and post-hot rolling. The standard WDF is found to result in
6.6 mL of fluid loss after 30 minutes, whereas the NFWDF (DF.1, DF.2, DF.3) results in 5.9, 5.4, and 4.6 mL, respectively (as seen in
Fig. 7a). The decrease in the filtrate loss is attributed to the stable rheological properties of the NFWDF (William et al. 2014). However,
the fluid loss is found to increase after hot roll aging, with 10.8, 9.2, 8.5, and 7.7 mL, respectively, for standard WDF and NFWDFs
(DF.1, DF.2, DF.3), as can be seen from Fig. 7b. The increase in fluid loss may be due to the deterioration of the chemical activity of
the additives added to the drilling mud after hot rolling (Jain et al. 2015).
Effect of Concentration of NPs on Filter-Cake Thickness. Fig. 8 presents the effect of nanofluids on filter-cake thickness. Filter-
cake thickness quantities measured using the Vernier calipers for NFWDF (DF.1 to DF.3) are observed to be 1.85, 1.62, and 1.5 mm,
respectively, in comparison to 4-mm thickness for the standard WDF (DF.0). The filter-cake thickness is found to decrease with the
increased concentrations of NPs in the preparation of nanofluid-based drilling fluids. However, the decrease in filtrate loss by adding
NPs may be attributed to the blockage of the voids created by coarse-sized particles and fractures, thereby creating an effective seal and
reducing the formation damage and drillpipe sticking in a highly permeable formation.
Table 4 illustrates the effect of CuO concentrations (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 wt%) on filtrate loss measured in this present study compared
with that of various studies reported for the incorporation of NPs, nanocomposites, and natural cellulose. It can be observed that present
aloe-vera-based CuO NFWDF shows lower fluid loss characteristics than those reported in the literature. It is critically observed that thick,
loose, highly permeable, and porous filter cakes are formed at lower NPs concentration, resulting in high fluid loss compared to thin, com-
pact filter cake with low-permeability and low-porosity higher NP concentrations, leading to low fluid losses. Aloe vera contains water-
holding tissue that can reduce its saturation in the reservoir, thereby behaving as a water trapper. It contains protein and acids, which can
also aid in mudcake or stuck pipe removal. Amino acids in large proportion can be applied for removal of the scale deposits as well.

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12
7 Before hot rolling After hot rolling
DF.0 10 DF.0
6 DF.1 DF.1
DF.2 DF.2

Fluid Loss (mL)

Fluid Loss (mL)

5 DF.3 8 DF.3

4
6
3
4
2
2
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
(a) (b)

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Fig. 7—Effect of NP concentration on API filtrate (a) before hot roll aging and (b) after hot roll aging.

4.5

4.0
Filter-Cake Thickness (mm)

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
DF.0 DF.1 DF.2 DF.3
Drilling Fluid Sample

Fig. 8—Effect of NP concentration on filter-cake thickness.

Serial Filtrate
Number Additives Volume (mL) Reference
1 Iron oxide clay 10 Barry et al. (2015)
2 Aluminosylicate clay hybrid 13 Barry et al. (2015)
3 Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide 27 Mohamadian et al. (2018)
4 Silica NPs (SiO2) 12.5 Mahmoud et.al. (2016)
5 Carbon NPs 9.7 Al-Ruqeishi et al. (2018)
6 Carboxyl methyl cellulose 7.2 Rahmatollah et al. (2017)
7 Nano carboxyl methyl cellulose 6.1 Rahmatollah et al. (2017)
8 Core shell composite 5.2 Rahmatollah et al. (2017)
9 Corn cob cellulose 5.9 Dagde and Nmegbu (2014)
10 Ground nut husk 5.8 Dagde and Nmegbu (2014)
11 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.2 wt% CuO)—before hot rolling 5.9 Present work
12 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.4 wt% CuO)—before hot rolling 5.4 Present work
13 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.6 wt% CuO)—before hot rolling 4.6 Present work
14 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.2 wt% CuO)—after hot rolling 9.2 Present work
15 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.4 wt% CuO)—after hot rolling 8.5 Present work
16 Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid(0.6 wt% CuO)—after hot rolling 7.7 Present work

Table 4—Comparative study of fluids loss during a period of 30 minutes of present work with literature studies of the fluid loss for cellulose-
added drilling fluid.

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Aloe vera is also an economically viable plant additive compared to other plant materials. It is cultivated in high rainwater and hot,
damp conditions. It grows well in bright sunlight. It is grown in all sorts of soils, but soil with high organic material is most suitable. It is
extremely susceptible to water stagnation. Hence, well-drained high ground is very desirable for its growth. Expenditures incurred for
aloe vera cultivation typicially amount to approximately 110,000 INR (1,491 USD) per hectare. It can be regrown using a piece of an
existing plant. So it is economical compared to other plant-based additives. The statistically significant variation due to aloe vera crop
grown in different soil, environment, and so on corresponds to the change in fresh leaf gel weight. Chowdhury et al. (2018) reported the
highest fresh leaf gel weight obtained from plants grown in calcareous soil is 907 g, which is close to the gel weight (880 g plant  1) of
the plant grown in acid soil. So no significant change in the composition of aloe vera leaf is reported with respect to the crop inconsis-
tency due to variation in soil, environment, and so on. We expect that the crop variation will not significantly impact the rheological
aspects of drilling fluids because the composition and properties of aloe vera have no significant changes for different soil conditions.

Conclusions
A comprehensive investigation on the application of aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid in water-based drilling mud was carried out in the
present work. CuO-based nanofluids were prepared and conventional characterization studies like morphological studies, particle size
analysis, and TGA were performed, which projected good dispersion of CuO, imparting better thermal stability characteristics. This
novel approach of preparation of aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluid as an additive for the standard WDF has shown improved performance

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of NFWDF in the rheological and filtration properties. Nanofluid played a vital role in maintaining a stable viscosity of the drilling
fluid. However, the rheological conditions increased with an increase in the concentration of CuO NPs and attained optimum stability at
the highest concentration of 0.6 wt%. Further, the experimental shear rate vs. shear stress data obtained for NFWDF (DF.1 to DF.3) are
compared to the conventional drilling fluid rheological models (power law model, Bingham plastic model, and Herschel-Bulkley
model). The Herschel-Bulkley model was found to be the best-fit model for the rheological properties of NFWDF and can be used for
the efficient design of NFWDF. Aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids were also observed to enhance the filtration loss properties signifi-
cantly. After the filtration loss studies, filter-cake thickness was also measured. The higher concentration of CuO NP yielded a thin com-
pact filter cake. The results of the filter-cake thickness studies revealed that NFWDF improves the filtration by an average of 66%.
Thus, the prepared aloe-vera-based CuO nanofluids are suitable for aiding the WDFs in enhancing their thermal stability, filtration
properties, and rheological characteristics to address drilling problems such as pipe sticking and lost circulation. This study paves the
way for the promotion of natural plant-based material as an ecofriendly additive toward WDF to enhance its rheological and filtration
properties, thereby performing efficient drilling operations.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the support of Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Sci-
ence and Technology, Delhi, India, for providing financial support for the project (Grant SERB; ECR/2017/000291). Council of Scien-
tific & Industrial Research-Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai, India, is acknowledged for providing us facilities to conduct
characterization studies; Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology, Jais, India, is acknowledged for helping us to perform rheo-
logical and filtration studies; and Academy of Maritime Education and Training, Chennai, India, is acknowledged for providing infra-
structure facilities.

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