FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

 BALLISTICS – is the science of the motion of projectile. 

ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC – The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the Greek word
“Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word “Ballista” which is
machine to hurl a stone. 
-From those words the modern term for Forensic Ballistics was derived to
indicate the science of moving projectile. 

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS 

a. ) INTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles while still in the
firearm, namely the studies of combustion of the powder, pressure developed and
velocity. 

b. ) EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles after leaving the
muzzle namely trajectory, velocity, range penetration, etc. 

c. ) TERMINAL BALLISTICS – traits of the effects of the projectile on impact on the

target. 

d. ) FORENSIC BALLISTIC – the science of firearms identification by means of the

ammunition fired through them. 

DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS: 

a. ) FIELD NVESTIGATION – refers to the work of an investigation in the field. It

concerns mostly with the collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission
of firearms evidences. It include the study of class characteristics of firearms and
bullets. 

b. ) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION – refers to the examiners who examine bullets/ or

shells, whether fired from also whether or not cartridges were loaded and ejected
made by the suspected firearms submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and
testify in court regarding their reports. 

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – “Firearms” or “Arms” are herein used includes

rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons
from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may discharge off by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles except such as being
of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be
considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised
Administrative Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal Revenue Code). 

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – instrument used for the propulsion of a

projectile by means of expansive force of gases from burning powder. 

AMMUNITION (defined) – under the National Internal Revenue Code the word
“Ammunition” shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
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revolvers and pistols from which bullets, ball shot, shell or other missile may be
ammunition for air rifles. 

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possesses
individual characteristics markings of their own. 

2. When a bullet is fired from rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this
engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens
that the engraving on the bullets fired from one barrel will be different from
another bullet fired from another barrel. 

3. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on very single bullet fired through it
just as every breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every fired
cartridges case. 

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS) 

1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave microscopical individualities
of their own. 

2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on ever cartridges case which it
fires. 

3. The whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since the breech face of
every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridges cases which it fires are
imprinted with this individuality. The imprints on all cartridges cases fired from
the same weapon are always the same; those on cartridges cases fired from
different weapons are different. 

TYPES OF PROBLEMS: There are six (6) types of problems in Forensic ballistic,
namely: 

Type 1- Given bullets, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was
fired. 

Type 2- Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from
which it was fired. 

Type 3- Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet
was fired from the suspected firearm. 

Type 4- Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearms, to determine whether or
not the cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm. 

Type 5- Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from
only one firearm. 

Type 6- Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether or not they were
fired from only one firearm. 
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CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determine prior to the manufacturer of

the firearm and are within control of man. These serve as basis to identify a certain
class or group of firearm. 

a ) Caliber (Bore Diameter) e ) Width of grooves b ) Number of lands f )

Direction of twist c ) Number of grooves g ) Pitch of rifling d ) Width of
lands h ) Depth of grooves 

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determinable only after the

manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose
existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distribution. Their
existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation resulting
through wear and tear, abuse, militilations, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous
causes. 

SMALL ARMS – firearms which propel projectiles of less than one inch in diameter. 

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL: 

a ) Smooth-bore – firearm which do not have rifling Ex: shotguns,

muskets 

b ) Rifled-bore – firearm which contain rifling marks. Ex: pistols,

revolvers, rifles 

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION – small arms ammunition consists of cartridges used in

rifles, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns and shell used in shotgun. 

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMETERS: 

a ) Caliber .22 – About 5.59 mm. 

b ) Caliber .25 – About 6.35 mm. 
c ) Caliber .32 – About 7.65 mm. 
d ) Caliber .30 – About 7.63 mm. (mouser) 
e ) Caliber .38 – About 9 mm. 
f ) Caliber .45 – About 11 mm. 
g ) Caliber .30 – About 7.56 mm. (Luger) 

RIFLING – consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the
bore. The rifling in firearms may be divided into the following types: 

a ) Small type – four grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width. (4R
G-L) 

b ) Smith and Wesson type – five grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal
width (5R G-L) 

c ) Browning type – six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves
(6R G2X) 
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d ) Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6L
G2X) 

e ) Webley type – seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves
(7R G3X) 

f ) Army type – four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R
G3X) 

PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of rotation to a bullet during its

passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the flight, and so that it will
travel nose-on towards the target. 

PARTS OF CARTRIDGES 

a) Bullet c ) Gunpowder 
b ) Shell d ) Primer 

TYPES OF CARTRIDGES:
a ) Pin-fire – the pin extends radically through the need of the cartridges case into the
primer. 

b ) Rim-fire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of the head
of the cartridges case. The flame produced is in direct communication with the powder
charge. Used in the calibers .22, .25 and .45 Derringer pistols. 

c ) Center-fire – the primer sup is forced into the middle portion of the head of the
cartridges case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin.
The flame is communicated to the powder charge through the vents leading into the
powder charge. 

TYPES OF CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGES: 

a ) Rimmed type – the rim of the cartridges case is greater than the diameter of the
body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22 

b ) Semi rimmed type – the rim of the cartridge case is slightly greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal. Super .38 auto, Pistol, .32
and .25 

c ) Rimmed less type – the rim of the cartridges case is equal to the diameter of the
body of the cartridge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30 carbine .223 

PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOTING CASES 

When an officer arrives upon the scene of a shooting case, he is usually confronted by a
condition of utter confusion. Neighbors and onlookers are crowded around the place;
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relatives are weeping and hysterical. In his career as an officer he will meet with other
situations which require as much as much poises tact and common sense when he
appears upon the scene of homicide. 

His first duty is to clear the premises of all persons so that an intelligent investigation is not
a matter of five or ten minutes, but it requires that a definite routine shall be followed,
if mistakes are to be avoided. Things should be done, which may appear wholly
unnecessary at the time, but only to become vitally important later. One can never
forces the angels that will develop and it is far better to do a hundred things
unnecessarily than to miss doing one that might mean the solution of the case. The
victim is dead and will stay dead. The officer may be important by reporters or other
to do things which he is not yet ready to do – to give statement to the press or to draw
conclusion. In spite of all persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one
purpose and one purpose only, and that is to carry out an intelligent investigation. 

Upon receiving a cell to the sense of a shooting case, the officer should always take along
with him a loose-leaf notebook and fountain pen to make notes at the time and on the
place and not trust to his memory to reconstruct the situation at his convenience.
When the officer is summoned on such an errand, his procedure should follow a logical
pattern. His observation should be put in writing at the time of his investigation to
keep for future references and to produce in court if necessary. These steps are as
follows: 

1. Note accurately in writing the time he received the call and by whom it was sent. 
2. Note accurately the time he arrive at the scene and the correct address. 

These first two items seem to be trivial, but it is amazing how often in court they
become of vital importance. It is not uncommon that the officer is unable to fix
the time accurately within an hour to the satisfaction of a jury. 

3. He should ascertain if the victim is dead, and if not non-medical aid or remove the
body to a hospital, otherwise the body should not be disturbed.  

4. Immediately clear the premises of all bystanders and under no circumstances allow
anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinity. 

5. Use every effort and means to identify the deceased. 

6. Does the body lie where the shooting took place? Often, before the officer arrives
the body will be moved by a bystander. Frequently it will be picked up off the floor
and put a bed or taken from one room to another. 

7. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written notes on the
statement of as many persons as practicable. 

8. Photograph the body from all angels to show its relationship to doors, windows,
furniture’s and other objects in the room. 

9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relation to the previously
mentioned fixtures of the premises. 
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10. Note in writing the exact position where he found the body whether he found it
lying on the side, back or abdomen that objects if any, were in the hands; reports
what was the conditions of the clothing and the amount of bleeding. 

11.Examine the ceiling, floor and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains, fired bullets,
fired shell or shotgun wadding. 

12. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should mote in writing the following
observations: 

a. Exactly where found. 

b. Type of weapon – automatic pistol, revolvers, rifle, or shot gun, caliber or
gauge designation. 
c. Make and serial numbers and at that time he should mark his initials on the
butt or frame of the weapon for future identification. 
d. Other distinct features. 

13. At the crime scene note down where the empty shells, bullets and/ or firearms
where found and make a diagram to
illustrates the same, to show their relatives distances from the body of the
victims, Photograph if possible. 

14. Be careful in handling a firearm found at the scene of the crime for they may have
latent fingerprint on the parts of the firearm. Note down the type, kind, make
caliber and serial number. If there are fingerprints, submit said firearm to a
fingerprint technician but be sure that the firearm should not be disturbed. 
15. Mark the empty cartridges cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the
initials to the investigation or the initials of the victims. 

16. Mark the bullets at the give (or nose) by scratching the investigation’s initials of
the victim but definitely NOT at the rifling marks (landmarks and groove marks). 

17. Mark the empty shotgun shells with indelible ink at the body. 

18. The barrel of the firearms must be marked too. 

19. After marking the empty shells and bullets, wrap them separately and individually
with soft tissue paper and note down on the wrapper where each was found the
time and date. The purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being
scratched. 

20. When a lead bullet is found at the scene of the crime the body of the victim, the
presumption is that a Revolver was used. 

21. When a jacketed bullets is found at the scene of the crime or in the body of the
victim, it can be measured that a presumed that a Automatic Pistol or Automatic
Weapon was used. 

22. When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an
Automatic Pistol or Weapon was used. 
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23. When one empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is a
Revolver was used. 

24. In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves, and the raised are
the lands. 

25. On a fired bullet, it is the reverse. The landmarks are the depressed portions, and
the groove marks are the raised portions. 

26. To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep thru the
barrel, place a land or groove in inclines to the right, then it has a right twist and if
it inclines to the left, then the rifling twist is left. 

27. To determine the direction of the twist of a bullet, look on the bullets in an
elongated position. If the landmarks and groove marks incline to the right, then it
has a right twist and if it is inclines to the left, then the rifling twist is right. If the
inclination is left then it is a left twist. 

28. A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the barrel from
which it was fired. So therefore if a bore has class characteristics of .45 caliber, .6
lands, .6 grooves,
right twist, groove wider than the land, each characteristics will be marked on
the bullet it fires. 

29. It is the rifling of the bore that marked a fired bullet. 

30. So if a fatal will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the suspected
gun, then it is possible that the bullets could have been fired from the suspected
gun. 

31. To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from a suspected gun,
then the case must be sent to a Forensic Ballistics Experts who will conduct the
proper examinations. 

32. If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, definitely and
conclusively they were NOT fired from the same barrels. 

33. If a fatal bullets does not have the same class characteristics as the suspected
firearm (barrel), then conclusively the bullets was not fired from said barrel. 

The following are suggestions for the investigator to observe in testifying in courts
of justice: 

1. Be prepared. 
2. Be calm and well poised. 
3. Tell the truth, nothing but the truth. 
4. Be courteous. 
5. Be natural and sit straight forward. 
6. Do not volunteer. 
7. Keep your temper. 
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8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer. 9. Speak loud
enough to be heard. 
10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the courtroom. 
11.Answer only what you are asked, no more. 

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 

1. PERCUSSION – Action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hit or

struck by firing in would ignite. 

2. JUXTAPOSITION – Two objects is evidence bullet and test bullet are examined and
compared under the bullet comparison microscope. Includes also the examination of
fired shells. 

3. BALLO or BALLEIN – Greek words where Ballistics was derived from which means “to
throw”. 

4. BALLISTA – The early Roman was Machine – a gigantic bow or Catapult. 

5. BALLISTICS – Science of the motion of projectiles. 

6. FORUM – A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in

relation to the court of justice. 

7. FORENSIC BALLIASTICS- The study of firearms identification by means of ammunition

fired from them. 

8. BALLISTICIAN – Person whose knowledge in identification is accepted by the courts

and other investigation agencies. 
9. ABRASSION – (in the world) Scratches cause by using improper cleaning materials, or by
firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal
enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive action of the
bullets. 

10. BLACK POWDER – A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and salt paper.
Burned with considerable white smoke. 

11. CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartridge case, gunpowder and
primer. 

12. AMMUNITION (legal) – SEC. 877 of the RAC – shall mean “loaded shell” for rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols which a ball, bullet shot shell or
other missile maybe discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term
includes ammunition for a rifles as mentioned else where in the code. 

Ammunition (technical) – refers to a group of cartridge or to a single unit cartridge,

meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullets, cartridge case, gun powder and
primer. The term may also refer to a single round. 
  
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13. BALL BULLETS – Bullets have soft lead course inside a jacket. 14. ROUND –

one single complete cartridge. 

15. BULLET ENERGY – the powder possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words its
ability to keep going meets an obstacle of immense importance, for obviously, the
more powder a bullet has and the harder it is to stop the, more effective it can be as a
weapon. 

16. BULLET RECOVERY BOX – consist of a wooden box, 12” x 12” x 96”, with the hinged to
cover and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and
separated into section by card board partitions. 

17. CALIBER – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land
to land. 

18. DUMDUM BULLET – “Dumdum” is an out molded and generally misused term. It was an
unofficial name first applied hallow point bullets maid at the British arsenal at
Dumdum, India. 

19. EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel
due to the mechanical abrasion or gliding. 

20. CORROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust
formation or chemical action of the by products of combustion after firing. 

21. CANNELURE (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet
which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage of
the bullet inside the bore. 

22. CALIPER – an instrument used for making measurement such as bullet diameter and
bore diameter.
23. CHILLED SHOT – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the
addition of a slight amount of antimony. 

24. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those that are determinable even before the
manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into caliber or gauge number of lands
and grooves, width of land and grooves, twist of rifling, patch of rifling and depth of
grooves. 

25. RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target. 

26. POINT BLANK RANGE – popularity used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel
before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A shot fired so closed to the target
that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming. 

27. MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled form a
firearm. 
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28. GALLERY RANGE – the indoor targets range on properly constructed indoor ranges,
firing maybe conducted with center fire pistols and revolvers at range of 25 years and
50 years. Such installation are generally referred to as indoor ranges the term gallery
being applied usually only to short range 22 caliber installation. 

29. EXTREME RANGE – the greatest distance the bullet will travel the cartridge is fire. 

30. EFFECTIVE RANGE – the maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonable be
expected types of live target. 

31. ACCURATE RANGE – the distance with in which he shoots has control of his shots. 

32. FOULING - the accumulation of a deposit wit in the bore of a firearm caused by solid by
products remaining a cartridge is fired. 

33. GUM COTTON – a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerine which is a chemical
compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid
on cotton or nay other kind of cellulose. 

34. LANDS – the raised portion between the grooves in the interior surface of the gun barrel. 

35. LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel. 

36. MACHINE REST – a machine used for testing the accuracy of a firearm. 

37. KNOCKING POWER – power of the bullet which believer of a very paralyzing blow that
put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal. 

38. STOPPING POWER – power of the bullet which put the victim out of the action instantly.
So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as
killing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the
shot.
39. PRIMER – the complete assembly of cup, priming composition, paper discs and anvil. 

40. CARTOUCHE – French word of cartridge which means ROOL OF PAPER. 

41. CHARTA – Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER. 

ORIGIN OF FIREARM 

13t h Century – development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in

Western Europe. 

Berthold Schwartz – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk are both
credited with gunpowder invention. 

-Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and Scientist with the
invention of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with application of
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gunpowder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s. This powder was
that we now call “Black Powder”. 

1245 – Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used artillery in Liegnits when he defeated the
poles Hungarians, and Russians. 

- It is also often stated that the gunpowder was first invented by Chinese, were
of gunpowder and its use as propellant long before its advantages became
recognized in Europe. 

- It may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistry at
that time. 

1247 – One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in war far was that of an attack
on Seville, Spain. 

1346 – Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy. 

1335 - Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople. 

-First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being
carried by an individual soldier; hence, the development of cannons preceded
that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years. 

Man never satisfies to himself. He is always trying to improve himself and his surrounding.
He created some rule crude or primitive weapons which were subsequently developed
into sophisticated firearms of modern times. 

The following are the stages of development of man’s weapon: 

1. Stones 
2. Cubs Knives Spears and Darts 
3. Sling shots to hurl objects 
4. Bows and arrows 
5. Cross – bows 
6. Guns 
7. Missiles
1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army – Father of Modern Ballistics. 

2. Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith and Weapon and pioneered the
making of breech – loading regales. 

3. Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partner of smith in revel verb making. 

4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pandered breech loading single shot
rifle. 

5. John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson sub Machine. 

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6. David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first know carbine. 7. Alexander John

Forsythe – Father of the percussion system. 8. Elisha King Root – Designed

machinery of making colt firearms. 9. Eliphalet Remington – One of the first rifle

makers. 10. John Malon Martin – Founder of martin Firearms Company. 

11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the model 1855 riffled – musket. 

12. Samuel Colt – (1814-1862) – Produced the first practical revolver. 

13. Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole classes of firearms. 

14. John C. Garand – Designed the semi-automatic US Rifle, Cal. 30 

15. Oliver F. Wichester – One of the earliest rifles and pistol makers. 

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY 

1313 ---Gunpowder as a propellant. Te age of gunpowder began with outs first use as
a propellant for a projective. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313. 

1350 ---Small arms, Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle
of the 14t h century that portable hand, F.A was introduced. These guns were ignited
by a hand-held wire or lighted match. 

1498 ---Riffling, The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although its important
as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it was many years after before rifling
was generally used. 

1575 ---Cartridges, Paper cartridges combining both powder and ball were developed.
This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder. 

1807 ---Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 1807 the that certain
compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the
charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridges development. 

1835 ---Samuel Colt-patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder was
rotated by cooking the hammer. 

1836 ---Pin fire. Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was probably the first
self really the first rim fire cartridge. 

1858 ---Center fire Cartridge. The Morse Cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of
the rapid development of the center fire cartridge. 

1884 ---Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim built the first fully Automatic gun,
utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge. 
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1885 ---Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Veille, Developed the first satisfactory

smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristics
of black powder, but also more powerful. 

1845 ---Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Florbert develop a “bullet” “breech cap” which
was in really the first rimterfire Cartridge. 

I. TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel Internal

Construction) 

A. Smooth-bore firearms – fire arms the have no rifling (land and grooves) inside their
gun barrel. 
Ex. Shot guns and muskets 

B. Rifled-the bore Firearms – Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel. 
Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rifles 

II. MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled) 

A. Artillery – Those types of firearm that propel projectiles more than one inch in
diameter. 
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas 

B. Small Arms – Propel Projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be operated
by one man. 
Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms 

III. TYPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construction 

A. Single Shot F.A – type of firearms designed to fire only one shot for every loading. 
Ex. Pistols, Rifles, Shot guns – single shots 

B. Repeating Arms – Fire several shots in one loading Ex. Rifles, Shot
guns 

C. Bolt Action Type – Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Ex. Rifles, Shot
guns, Machine guns 

D. Automatic Loading Type –After the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding
of the chamber takes place. 
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns
E. Slide Action Type (Trombone) –Loading takes place by back and forth manipulation
of the under forearm of the gun. 
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns 

F. Lever Type (Break Type) –Loading takes place by lever action of the Firearm. 
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns 

IV.TYPES OF FIREARMS according to USE 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

A. Military Firearms 
Ex. 1. Pistols 3. Rifles 
2. Revolvers 4. Machine Guns 

B. Pocket and Home Defense F.A 

Ex. 1. Pistols 3. Rifles 
2. Revolvers 

IV. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE 

--Those types of fire arm that is unique in mechanism and construction 

1. Paltik Pistols 
2. Paltik Revolvers 
3. PaltikRifles 
4. Paltik Shot Guns 

THE THREE MAIN PARTS 

REVOLVERS – Cal .38 PISTOL –Cal .45 

1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel Assembly 2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly

3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver 

RIFLE – Cal .30 SHOT GUN – Gauge 12 

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly 2. Magazine

Assembly 
3. Stock Group 3. Stock Group 

DETAILED PARTS 

REVOLVER .38 AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45 

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly  a. Breech end a. Breech end  b.

Muzzle end b. Muzzle end  c. Bore c. Bore 
Rifling (land grooves)  e. Chamber 
 
 h. Barrel link 
 i. Barrel link pin 
 j. Barrel lead (lead)
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly  a. Chambers a. Front sight  b.
Extractor b. Top strap  c. Extractor rod c. Ejection port  d. Racket d. Rear
sight 
 e. Cylinder groove e. Breech block  f. Yoke f. Breech Face  g. Cylinder
locking Notches g. Extractor 
 h. Firing pin 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

 i. Firing pin top 

 j. Serrations 
 k. Trade mark 
 l. Model 
 m. Interlocking lugs 

3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver  a. Top strap a. Ejector  b. Rear

sight b. Hammer  c. Breech Face c. Spur 
 d. Hammer d. Grip safety  e. Spur e. Thumb safety  f. Thumb latch f.
Disconnector  g. Side plate g. Back strap  h. Back h. Butt 
 i. Firing pin i. Lanyard loop   j. Butt j. Front strap  k. Front strap k. Magazine
well  l. Trigger guard l. Right side stock  m. Trigger m. Left side stock  n.
Cylinder lock n. Trigger  o. Right side stock o. Trigger guard  p. Left side stock
p. Model  q. Trade mark (monogram) q. Plunger  r. Serial number r. Serial
number 

The automatic Pistol-Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detailed it
has also the so called auxiliary parts (accessories) which must all be removed before
disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished. 

1. Recoil Plug 4. Recoil Spring 

2. Barrel Bushing 5. Recoil Spring 
3. Slide stop pin 

ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER 

1. It is an old standard weapon, every one is used to it, and almost every one knows
something about to handle it. 

2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry then an automatic
pistol. 

3. The mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better then that of the average
automatic weapon. 

4. A misfire does not put revolvers out of action. 

5. It will handle satisfactorily old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which gives a
reduced velocity that would jam an average automatic pistols.
DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER 

1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol. 2. Its grip on

handle is generally not as good as that of pistol. 3. It is hard to clean after

firing. 

4. It is slower to load. 

5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is factory job. 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper up of
cylinder. 

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL 

1. It as a better grip fits the hand points naturally. 

2. It is more compact for the same fire power. 

3. It is easier to load than a revolver. 

4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at little expense without
sending the gun to the factory. 

5. It gives a greater number of shots than revolvers. 6. It is easier to

clean than revolvers. 

7. It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing. 8. There is no gas

leakage in its operation. 

DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL 

1. Ammunition must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunition will cause a jam. 

2. A misfire stops the functioning of the gun. 

3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the magazine spring is under
tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble. 

4. The automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads. 5. It has a poor

trigger pull than the revolver. 

6. The magazines require a jacketed bullet which is not as good for practical use as that of
lead bullet. 

7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire especially for inexperienced
people due to the fact that after one shot it is always cooked and loaded. 

8. It is not adapted to reloading. It throws away empty shell at each shot. 

9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at each shot.
10. Its throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence. 11. It can not be

fired from the pocket without jamming. EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently

check his revolvers for: 1. Obstruction in the barrel. 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

2. Bulging or swollen barrel. 

3. Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position. 

4. On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the firing pin
hole (to insure blow in center of the primer). 

5. Evidence of “spitting lead” around breech of barrel for complaints of fellow shooters in the
firing line. 

6. Tightness of all side plate screws. 

7. Tightness of ejector if the weapon is a Smith and Wesson revolvers. 

anliness and projective film of oil to prevent rust. NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTION 

BARREL – initiates the path of the bullet. 

FRAME – Houses the internal parts. 

YOKE – Connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder. 

EXTRACTOR – Pulls the empty shells from the cylinder simultaneously. 

EXTRACTOR ROAD – Activates the extractor and is a locking device. CENTER PIN –

Serves as a looking device for the cylinder. CENTER PIN SRPING – Holes the center

pin in a locked position. SIDE PLATES – Provides access to the internal parts. SIDE

PLATE SCREW – Hold the side plate and yoke in place. 

HAMMER BLOCK – Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer. 

DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – Built into the weapon to allow double action fire. 

HAMMER – Strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer. 

BOLT – Disengage center prim to allow opening of cylinder and blocks hammer. 

THUMBLATCH – Actuates bolt to release the cylinder. HAND (pawl) – Rotates

the cylinder when the hammer is cocked.

CYLINDER STOP – Stops and holds the cylinder alignment for firing. TRIGGER –

Actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon. 

TRIGGER GUARD – Guards the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid accidental
firing. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

REBOUND SLIDE – Returns trigger, actuates hammer block and locks hammer. 

TRIGGER SPRING – Provides energy for return movement or rebound slide. 

TRIGGER LEVEL – Contacts rebound slide to return trigger forward. 

MAIN SPRING – Provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism. 

STRAIN SCREW – Controls tension of the mainspring. 

TRIGGER STOP – Prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer the release. 

RACKET – Helps in the withdrawal of the Cartridges or shells from the chambers of
the cylinder. 

CYLINDER NOTCH – It helps hold the cylinder in place and aligned ready for firing. 

NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE 

1. Bullet – A projectile propelled from a firearm by means of explosive force of gases

coming from burning powder. 

2. Cartridge Case – A tubular metallic container for the gunpowder sometimes called shell. 

3. Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas
under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on
the target. 

4. Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite, such action is
called “PERCUSSION”. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE 

A. According to the type of firearms asked 

1. Revolver cartridges Used in revolver 

2. Pistol cartridges Used automatic pistol 3. Rifles cartridges Used in
rifles 
4. Shot Cartridges Used in shot gun B. According to location of

primer 

1. Pin fire cartridges no longer used (absolute) 

2. Rim fire – the primer is located at the rim or the base portion 
 -- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and rifles
3. Canter fire – Priming powder is located at the center  -- Economical
can be repealed 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

a. Rimmed type – Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35 

b. Semi-Rimmed – Used in super .38 
c. Rimless – Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine gun 

A. TYPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES 

A – Case 
B – Priming mixture 
C – Propellant powder/ gun powder 
D – Bullet 
E – Sensitive Area 
B. According to Caliber 

1. cal .22 – used in revolvers, pistols and rifles 

2. cal .25 – used in pistols and rifles 
3. cal .30 – used in carbine and other rifles 
4. cal .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers 
5. cal .380 – used in pistols 
6. cal .38 – used in revolvers 
7. cal .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum) 
8. cal .44 – used in magnum revolvers 
9. cal .44 – used in automatic pistols 
10. cal .50 – used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in crimes) 

Cal .30 bullet is replaceable by the bullet of cal .44 

Shot gun Shell 

 Single unit of ammo. for shot gun 

 It is usually larger used in smooth bores capable withstanding for less pressure. 
 Paper Tube 
 Metal base 
 Base rod 
 Battery cap 
 Priming cap 
 Anvil 
 Priming Powder 
 Propellant 
 Over powder wad 
 Filler wad 
 Shot 
 Closing wad 

45-70 Cartridge 
Contains 70 grains of gunpowder 

Cartridge Life – a well made cartridges have a life of 10 years some have only 5 -6
years. 
45 years or more – depend upon the surrounding of the cartridge and climate, damp,
warn, condition. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

Bullet / slugs 

Is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by

means of expansive gases coming from burning gun powder.
Slugs – laymen’s term – use in court during proceedings 

Projectiles propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or pellets. 

Iced Bullet – Super cooled water made as a projectile of solidified bullets have a life of
3 minutes maximum 

History – Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small ball 
In Government parlance a cartridges containing bullet is called Ball-Bullet 

Ball – Comes from terminology of bullet 

 -- The core of the slugs is an alloy of lead, antimony and sometimes tin. 

Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel with continues to penetrate
armor cars after the jackets and the filler have been striped away by contract with the
resistance surface. 

CLASSIFICATION 

A. According to mechanical construction 

1. Lead Bullet – Those which are made of lead alloys of this mental – lead, tin,
antonym—which is slightly harder than pure lead. 

2. Jacketed Bullets – Those which core of lead covered by jacket of harder metal 
 -- The primary function of the “jacket” in a bullet is to prevent adherent of metal
(lead) to the inside of the gun barrel. 

B. According to shape 

 Flat Base Boat Tailed Square Base Hollow Base C. According to type/ common

bullet type 

Solid Lead Solid Hollow point Solid Paper Metal Case point Patched 

Soft Metal case Hollow pointMetal point rifled slug 

Metal point Rifled Gaypely Quadraximun Slug Bullet Bullet 

KEY HOLE SHOT – The tumbling of a bullet in its flight and hitting the target
sideways as a results of spinning on its axis. (due to destroyed barrel or loose barrel) 

In generally .0002 sec. explosion of a bullet by means of a tremendous explosion of

burning gases. 

RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/pound 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

CONTACT WOUND – 4,8 inches – distance of the fire with gunpowder without the
burning of the tissue means firer is more than 24 inches 

Copper nickel ----- 60% 

 ----- 40% 

Gliding metal ------ 90%

 ----- 10% 
8-4 inches 1-3 inches 

 Gun powder Gun 

Powder 
 Tattooing Priming powder 
Ta powder 

PURPOSE OF BULLETS 

.38 Bullet --- disability purpose – used by police officers to get confession 
.45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purpose 
M16 --- Fatal effect 
Garand and Carbine --- penetration, long range shooting .45 Bullet ---
Knowing Subdue Purposes 

Rifled Bullets (5 Principal Parts) 

1. Ball Bullets 
2. Armored Piercing  
3. Tracer Bullet 
4. Incendiary 
5. Explosive (fragmentation) 

B. All Bullets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel
only. 

Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a fired against vehicle and
other armored target is general. 

Tracer Bullets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar barium nitrates
which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. --- The flash of the smoke from the
burning permits the light of the bullet to be seen 

In Cendiary --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials that can
be set on fire by impact. 
---They are used against target tat will readily burn such as air crafts or
gasoline depot. 

Explosive (Fragmentary) --- contains a high changed explosive, because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small size ammunition. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

For the reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20 mm. and
above. 

Pointed Bullet --- is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same weight 

Soft Point or Mushroom Bullet --- will expand on striking an object and there for
produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater stopping power. 

Hollow Point Bullet --- a bullet with a cavity in the nose design to increase the
expansion when it hits the forget. 

Metal Cased Bullet --- colonially use to indicate either a metal patched or full patched
bullet.
Metal patched --- any metal patched bullet 
Bullet having soft steal jacket often clog or plated with gilding metal to prevent
rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore. 

CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL 

-- Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which old together the bullet,

gunpowder and primer. 
-- The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridges that is automatically ejected from
the automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is
a firearm evidence than can help trace particular firearms use. 

FUNCTION: 

1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into
a unit. 
2. It serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder. 3. It prevents the escape of
the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridges cases are forced against the
walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the “gas seal” at the breech end
of the barrel. 

PARTS 

1. RIM – Serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of the cartridges into their
chambers and this also limit the clearance. If any between the heads and the
supporting surface of the bolt or breech block. 

2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs tipple function: 

a. Holding primer securely in control position 
b. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the rear of the
cartridges. 
c. Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which the latter could
not be fired. 

3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket
thought which the primer “flash” impart ignition to the primer charges. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

The “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder. 

4. THE HEAD – THE BODY – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel
against the escape of the gas. 

5. NECK – That part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bullet. 

6. CANNELURES – are the separate grooves that are sometimes found “rolled” into the
neck and bodies of the cases at the location of the bullets bases to prevent the
bullet from being pushed back or loosened. 

7. CRIMP – Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in upon the bullet. 
a. if aid in holding the bullet in place 
b. if after resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which effects
the burning of the powder. 

8. BASE – The portion of case which contains: 

a. The primer which contains the priming mixture
b. The shell head which contains the head stamp caliber and the year of
manufacture. 

9. SHOULDER – That portion which support the neck. 

10. EXTRACTION GROOVE – The circular grooves near the base of the case of shell
designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing. 

mouth 
neck 
shoulder 
shell cannelure 
body  
gun powder 
vent 
extracting grooves 
rim 
primer 
shell head 

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE (3 GEN. SHAPES) 

A. --- straight 
--- all rim fire shell and most center fire 
revolver cartridges that are new manufactured 
have straight cases. 

B. --- Tampered 
--- is very rare but presently being used in the 
so called “magnum jet” cartridges cal .22 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

C. --- Bottle neck 

--- most modern center fire rifle cartridges 
case are of bottle neck types. Since this case 
form provided the greatest powder capacity 
commensurate with over all case length. 

STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE: 

A. RIMMED – designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the base of the cartridges is
very much bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartridges. 
-- straight type cartridges 
-- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35 

B. SEMI-RIMMED – designed to be used in automatic weapons like pistols and

sub-inactive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm. -- normally found at the crime
scene because they 
are automatically ejected for easy firing of the 
firearm. 

C. RIMLESS – case within the diameter of the body of the cartridges is the same as
the diameter of the cartridges case. -- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45
thompson Sub machine gun and cal .45 grease gun. 
-- Automatically ejected like semi-rimmed type. 

PRIMERS
-- Is that portions of the cartridge which consist of the brass gilding metal-cup
containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by
the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is called Percussion. 
-- Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on the primer cup
compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composition to detonate on
explodes. This detonating on explosion produces “flame” which passes through the
“event” on “flash hole” in the cartridges case and this ignites the gunpowder. 

ORIGIN 
-- 1807 – Alexander John Forsyth 
-- First one to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds for igniting
powder charges in small arms by percussion. -- A scotch Presbytorian minister
chemist and hunter. 
-- A well known authority on firearms 
-- First successful priming mixture was one composed of Potassium chlorate,
charcoal and sulfur in powder form. 

PARTS: In a typical center fire cartridges have four parts 

1. PRIMER CUP – container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gliding metal or
copper. 

2. PRIMING MIXTURE – highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer

cups. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

3. ANVIL – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by
a blow from the firing pin. To provide the resistance necessary to fire the priming
mixture. 

4. DISC – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foil which is pressed over the priming
mixture. 

Two fold purposes 

a. to help hold the priming mixture in place 

b. to exclude moisture 

1. primer cup 2. priming mixture 3. anvil 4. disc 

PRIMING COMPOUNDS:Classes 

1. Corrosive primers – e.g Potassium chlorate – if ignited produce potassium chloride, draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun
barrel. Advances in chemistry produce new composition which potassium chlorate
has been eliminated. 

2. Non-corrosive – every manufacture has his own formula mixture of the mercuric primers
of 25 years ago. 
Ingredients: 

- Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel 45%) 

- Antimony Sulfide (elements and fuel 23%) 
- Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford Arsenal known as
FH-24 had the following composition: 

- sulfur - 21.97% 
- Potassium chlorate - 47.20% 
- Antimony Sulfide - 30.33%
- German have their own composition barium nitrate in the place of Potassium
chlorate together with some Picric Acid to strengthen mixture. 
- This formula: Fulmirate of mercury - 39% Barrium nitrate - 41% 
Antimony Sulfide - 9% 
Picric Acid - 5% 
Ground glass - 6% 
- Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was
base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss formula. 

Fulmirate of mercury -40% 

Barrium nitrate -25% 
Antimony sulfide -25% 
Barrium carbonate - 8% 
Ground glass - 4% 

GUN POWDER 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas
under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes through the barrel
and on the target. 

Class or Composition: 

1. BLACK Powder – although if features loss important still manufactured by the

Europeans. In recent time has completely superseded by smokeless powder. 

Ingredients: 
Potassium nitrate -75% 
Sulfur -10% 
Charcoal -15% 

Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel. 

Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited. 
Block Powder – relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities which are typical of
all explosives 

FIRST – when ignited it will burn by it self without aid from the outside air. 
SECOND – in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas. THIRD – a
considerable amount of heat is evolved. 

2. SMOKELESS POWDER – terms smokeless powder is misnomer for the are

neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters terms term being applied to
them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke like the black
powder. 

Two main Classes of smokeless powder 

1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE  -- contains only the pure

nitroglycerine gelatoriged with nitrocellulose 
2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT 
 -- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as their major
ingredients according by one more ingredients such as: 
a. Centralize
b. Vaseline Phthalate esters 
c. Inorganic salt 

Purpose of minor ingredients 

a: Insure stability 
b. Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)  
Double – base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in size
and shape to the single – base propellants. Almost all smokeless powder grains
have perfectly definite shape such as 

a. small squares d. strips 

b. disc e. pellets 
c. flakes f. perforated cylindrical grains 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

The powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of burning. 

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION 

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope 

A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms identification
expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with camera attachment. 

2. Stereoscopic Microscope 
No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court
tampered serial number. 

3. Shadowgraph 
A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification use to determine class
characteristics of fired bullets and shells.  Also for orientation purposes. 
It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in the
circulation ground glass. 

4. CD-6 Comparison Projector 

Very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope No eyestrain because
the magnified image appears on the large screen. What can be seen in the
screen can be photographed by any kind of camera. 

5. Bullet Recovery Box 

Long box (12” x 12” x 96”) filled with ordinary cotton and separated into
sections by and board partitions. 

6. Helixometer 
Used in measuring “pitch of rifling”. Distance traveled by the bullet in one
complete rotation. 

7. Micrometer 
Similar in use as caliper 

8. Caliper 
Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel length. 

9. Analytical or torsion balance 

Use to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible determination of
type, caliber and make from which fired.
10. On scope 
Small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has
a tiny lamp the terminal portion and is inserted inside the bore for internal
examinations. 

11.Taper Gauge 
Use primarily for determining bore diameter. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

12. Electrical Gun Maker 

Used in the laboratory for making fired bullets fired shells and firearms
submitted for examination. 

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION 

PHYSICAL: Evidence bullets, cartridges cases and suspected firearms once submitted
by the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or
initials will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the
investigators for identification purposes. 

TEST FIRING: The firearms is test fired from a bullet recovery box in order to obtain
test bullets and test cartridges cases for comparison with evidence bullets and
cartridge cases, but before firing the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case on
the nose portion of the bullet with letter T (test) followed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their
order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the recovery of the
test bullets and test cartridges cases, they will be compared with the evidenced bullet
and evidence cartridges cases, under the bullet comparison microscope to determine
whether or not they have the congruency of striations or the same individual
characteristics. 

Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are
examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the two object evidence and the test bullet
are examined and compared: 

1. at the same time 

2. at the same place or level 
3. at the same direction 
4. at the same magnification 
5. at the same image 

For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets that should be
compared 
First 1 for Comparison/ preliminary 
Second 1 for confirmation 
Third 1 for conclusion 

PERIPHERY 
These are the sides of the bullet are in contact with the inner surface of the
barrel. 

STRIATIONS 
A individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion and of
the side of the bullet come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel. 

TEST BULLETS 
Are those recovered from bullet recovery box for a comparison with the
evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.
A fired or evidenced bullets or cartridges cases are those recovered from the crime
scene. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

Interconnected or intermarriages 8 or more striations can be accepted by the court. 

3 Points of basic positive identification the markings must be: 

1. Prominent 
2. Significant; and are 
3. Consistent 

Means of –test firing, other than the recovery box. 

1. Water tank 5. Darak 

2. Saw dust with oil 6. Banana trunk 
3. Sand 7. Rubber trips 
4. Waste threads 

PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION 

Two things mark by one and same tool will bear the same markings, likewise two or
more things mark by different tools will have the same markings. 

DEFINITIONS 

PISTOL – a hand firearm usually applied to simple sot and automatic loading. 

REVOLVER – a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively  -- places

cartridges into position for firing. 

SHOTGUN – a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one

charge. 

RIFLE – a type of weapon designed to be fired from the shoulder. 

CARTRIDGE – term used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of the bullets,
primer cartridges case and powder charge. 

BULLET – is a projectile propelled from a charge. 

AUTOMATIC – a weapon is automatic when its mechanism is so arranged that it will

fire continuously while the trigger is depressed. 

DOUBLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and
release the hammer. 

SINGLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger release the hammer
that must be manually cocked. 

CALIBER – term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured between two
opposite lands. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

GAUGE or GAGE – as applied to shotguns, it indicates that the bore diameter is equal
to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to the reciprocal gauge
index.  
Ex. bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of a pound.
BORE – the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the projectile travels. 

PITCH OF RIFLING – the distance that the rifling advances to make one complete
turn. 

EXPERT – as used in, court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience. 

BREECHBLOCK – the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the force of
charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the action against the firing of
the cartridges; the face of this block is known as the breech face. 

CHAMBER – that part of the weapon in which the cartridge is placed into position for
firing. 

EJECTOR – that mechanism in a firearm which causes the empty shell or

ammunition to be thrown out from the gun. 

EXTRACTOR – that mechanism in a firearm by which the empty shell or ammunition

is withdrawn from the chamber. 

GROOVES – the depressed channels cut in the interior of a rifled gun barrel. 

LANDS – that raised portion between the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel. 

VELOCITY – is the forward speed at which the bullet travels measured in feet per
second. 

PRESSURE – the outward thrust of the burning powder gases against the
breechblock, chamber and bore normally measured one inch from the breech and
recorded in pounds per square inch.  
Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for caliber .45 automatic pistol. 

RANGE – the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target. 

PENETRATION – the depth to which a projectile sinks in the tar get. Ex. 6 inches
at 15 yards in white pinewood. 

TRAJECTORY – in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in flight. 

FIRING PIN – that part of that firearm which strikes the primer causing the firing of
the cartridge. 

HAMMER – that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger which causes the firing
pin to strike the primer striking the gun. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

CORROSION – the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rusting or the
action of salts deposited from they cap or powder. 

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sliding friction
when the bullet passes through it. 

BERDAN PRIMER – a primer with two flash holes or vents.

BOXER PRIMER – a primer with only one flash hole or vents. RIM – the projection

edge of the base or head of a certain cartridge. 

OGIVE – is the technical name of the cylindrical head critic of the bullets. 

BREECH end – the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartridges is inserted.
PANGASINAN COLLEGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE
OFCRIMINOLOGY 
Urdaneta City 

NOTES IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION 

BRIEF HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING 

In tracing the origin of the fingerprint science we must draw a distinction between the
realization that the tips of the finger bear diversified ridged and the application of the
knowledge to the problem of personal identification. 

Unquestionable, men’s consciousness of the patterned ridges on his fingers and palms
predates the Christian era by many centuries and has been evidenced in varying
degrees by successive civilizations. On the face of a cliff in Nova Scotia, for instance,
has been found prehistoric India “picture writing” of a hand with ridge patterns
crudely marked. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets
recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals of Ancient Chinese origin
bearing thumb prints. Apostles Paul concludes one of his epistles with the words.
“The Salvation a Paul with mine own hand which is the token in very epistle; so I
write.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his finger impression as a
distinctive signature. Chinese documents identified with the eight century (A.D) T’ and
Dynasty refers to fingerprints being increased upon business contracts, and the
Chinese Monarchs termed fingerprint as Hua Chi 

It is conjectural to what extent these earlier instance of fingerprints were intended for
actual identification of the persons impressing the prints. Certainly in some cases the
object was simple to add more or less superstitious solemnity to business contracts
trough the personal contact of the contracting parties fingerprints with the written
record. 

Their evidence, however that fact of the individuality of fingerprints though not put to
practical use drowned recurrently through the ages. In fourteenth century in Persia,
various official government papers were reportedly impressed either fingerprints, and
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

the observation was made by a government official who was also a physician that no
fingerprints of two persons were exactly alike. 

In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew, a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, in the
course of a lecture commented upon the ridge patterns appearing on the fingers. But
if any of these early adventures in fingerprints observation had any direct influence on
the men who are the fathers of the modern science of fingerprints identification, the
known record does not reflect it. 

A scientific approach to fingerprint was essential before it could be put practical use
on any extensive scale. The outline which follows begin with what are believed to be
the first scientific observations which may reasonably be supposed to have
contributed to the inception of modern fingerprint identification. These observations
were in: 

1686 – by Marcello Malpighi, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna,

Malpigi, making use of a newly discovered, microscope, noted and discussed in his
treaties “certain elevated ridges” describing “diverse figures” on the palm surfaces. 

He perceived them to be “drawn into 1686 and spiral” at the end of the fingers.
Apparently the significance of his observation escaped him, however, for he purposed
them to further. More than a century elapsed, and it was not until, 1823 that John
Evangelist Purkinje, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Breslau, published a
thesis in which he commented upon the diversity of ridged patterns “especially on the
last phalange of each finger and evolved a vague differentiation of these patterns into
nine varieties. Purkinje’s paper was intended only as a scholarly treaties and had no
practical application to the problem of personal identification, but thirty years later, in
1858 Sir William Herschel, the British Chief Administrative officer for the Hooghly
district, Bengal, India, began the first known official used of fingerprints on large
scale. He required natives to affix their fingerprints as well as their signature to
contracts. 

Apparently he had no idea originally that the marks were individual but adopted the
practice with the thought that this very personal type of contract with official papers
would be impressed to the native mind and would discourage, dishonesty and
default. 

A familiarity with finger impressions grew; however, their individual must have
become evidence to him, for in 1877 Herschel introduced the use of fingerprints in
general departments at Hall and also submitted report asking permission to extend
the practice as a means of identification of prisoners as well as parties to civil
contracts. The permission was not forthcoming but Herschel, within his own province,
applied the system extensively. He did not, however, evolve a method of classification
suitable for general use. 

At about this same time, Dr. Henry Faulds, of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan,
began his observation of fingerprints. The English scientific journal, “Nature” in 1880
published an article by Dr. Faulds, discussing his studies and making suggestions as
to the future possibilities of the fingerprints sciences. His ideas are remarkable for
their anticipation of present day practice. He recommended the use of a thin film of
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

printer’s ink as transfer medium just as it generally used today. He discussed quite
fully the potentialities of identification of criminals by their fingerprints left at the
scene of crimes, just as in the modem science of latent fingerprint identification. As a
matter of facts, Faulds, himself, demonstrated the practical application of his theory
establishing through greasy fingerprint marks the identity of a person who had been
drinking some spirits from the laboratory supply--- certainly one of the earliest latent
fingerprint identification of modem times. 

1882 – is the year in which appears the first authenticated record of officials use of
fingerprints in the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson of the United States
Geological Survey, while in change of a field in New Mexico, used his own fingerprint
on commissary orders to prevent their forgery. 

An interesting sidelight, which had possible effect on the introduction of fingerprint

identification into the United States, occurred in 1883 with the publication of Mark
Twian Life in the Mississippi. An episode in this book relates to the identification of a
murdered by his thumb print. Mark Twian further developed his theme ten years later
in 1893 with the publication of “Pudd’n head Wilson”, novel plotted around a dramatic
fingerprint identification demonstrated during a court trial and including a striking
exposition of the infallibility of fingerprint identification, the more remarkable because
of the dates its publication.
It was also in the 1880’s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted British Anthropologist and
a cousin of scientist, Charles Darwin, began observations which led to the publication,
1892, of is book, “Finger Prints”. Galton’s studies established the individuality and
permanence of fingerprints and he made another important contribution by devising
the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns. 

1891 – marked the first installation of fingerprint files as an official means of criminal
identification . Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police official, based his system on the
patterns typed by Bertillon system of identification by body measurements, which it
gradually replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently used
in most Spanish speaking countries and a number of the countries as well Vucetich
also claimed the first official criminal identification by means of fingerprints left at the
scene of a crime. 

1892 – At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who murdered her two sons
and cut her own throat, through not fatally, blamed the attacks on a neighbor. Bloody
fingerprint on a door post were identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself
and led to her confession. 

1901 – marked the official introduction of fingerprint for criminal identification in

England and Wales, the system employed was also developed from Galton’s
observation and was devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry, the inspector General of
police in Bengal. Henry simplified fingerprint classification and made it applicable to
police identification, and later on Sir Edward Richard Henry was credited as the father
of fingerprint science. 

1902 is the year in which the first known systematic use of fingerprints in the United
States was begun with the establishment of the practice of fingerprints by the New
York Civil Commission to Prevent applicants from having better qualified persons
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

takes their tests for them. Dr. Henry P. De Forest, an American pioneer in the
fingerprint science, installed the system in December 1902. 

1903 is claimed by the New York State prison system as the date of the first practical,
systematic use of fingerprints in the United State for the identification of criminals. 

As early as March of this year, fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and
on June 5, the fingerprint system was officially adopted. 

1904 found acceptance of the fingerprints system accelerated when the United States
Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St. Louise Missouri Police Department
both established fingerprint bureaus. The St. Louise bureau was inaugurated with the
assistance of a Sergeant of London’s Scotland Yard who was on duty at the St. Louise
Exposition guarding a British exhibit. The Leavenworth bureau become the first to
offer facilities on more than a local basis when it gradually expanded the scope of its
operation to include a free fingerprint exchange service among a growing list of
contribution peace officers. 

During the first quarter of the 20t h Century more and more local police identification
bureaus established fingerprint systems and many sent copies of their fingerprint
records to the National Bureau of Criminal Identification established by the
International Identification, Association of chief of Police. The obvious need and
demand by police officials led to an Act of Congress establishing on July.
1924 the identification Division of the FBI. The fingerprint records of both the
National Bureau of Criminal Identification and of Leavenworth Penitentiary, totaling
810, 188 were consolidated to form the nuclear of the FBI files. The national
repository of criminal investigation date quickly proved its worth to law enforcement
officials faced with problems of criminals moving rapidly from city to city and state to
state. Additional services were added in the FBI identification Division as the need
became apparent, on March 1, 1932. The International Exchange of fingerprints date
was initiated with a number of other nations, on February 15, 1932. 

1933 – A Latent fingerprint Section for making technical examination of latent prints
or of inked prints on an individual basis, was instituted. On November 10 of the same
year the Civil Identification Section was established. A steadily increasing rate of
receipts brought the number of fingerprints cards in FBI files to 10 million. In 1939,
but it was the exigencies of world II tat brought about the phenomena period of the
identification Divisions growth. 

Drawing the years just before and during the war, the number of civil fingerprints,
including of aliens, military personnel and civilian employees in defense industries,
far outstripped the number of arrest prints. Both types together added to the swelling
total until January 31. 

1946 – the 100 millionth fingerprint card use was received in the Identification
Division of the FBI, the world’s largest repository of fingerprint records. Although new
methods of personal identification are constantly being suggested even today, it is
hard to conceive of a system being devised, which can improve upon the combination
of facility, practically, and infallibility, which is characteristic of the fingerprint
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

system. As of January 1,1959. The total had grown to over 152,000,000 records as of
May 11,1959. 

3 BRANCHES OF DACTYLOSCOPY 

1. Chiroscopy – It is an allied science of dactyloscopy which deals with the scientific

examination of the palm of the hand 

2. Podoscopy- A branch of science of dactyloscopy which focused on the scientific

examination of the sole of the foot. 

3. Poroscopy- Allied branch of dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the sweat
pores found in the friction skin. 

Three (3) fundamentals facts that have made Fingerprint a superlative method of
the individualization of person. (Doctrines of fingerprint identification) 

1. Perenniality- An individual fingerprint ridges are formed during the fetal life 100-
120 days (3-4 mos) inside the womb of the mother and remain unchanged for the
remainder of person lifetime.(Gods given) 

2. Infalliability-It has been shown empirically (based on experienced and observation)

with theoretical support, that fingerprint are unique (one of its kind) no two person
possess the same ridge characteristics.
3. Immutability – it has been proven that the fingerprint of a person are
unchangeable, you cannot change the fingerprint of Any individual. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF DACTYLOSCOPY 

1. It is the only infalliable system of identification 

2. it is the most convincing proofs to mans individuality 3. it enable to
unmask the real identity of the law breaker 

Fingerprint as a science- it is an identification of a person through the used of

ridges appearing in the finger of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot 

Fingerprint as an impression- It is the reproduction of some surface of the

pattern formed by the ridges on the first joint of the finger. 

Two (2) types of fingerprint impression 

1. Rolled impression- Rolling the fingers 

2. Plane impression- No need to roll the finger you just dent the finger  including
the thumb. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE

DELTAS. 

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation, which does open toward the core. 
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the
bifurcation is selected/ chooses. 
3. When there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to the definition the one
nearest the core, is chosen. 
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type line
toward the core, but at the nearer end only. 

RULES IN THE SELECTION OF CORE OF A LOOP: 

1. The core in placed or within the innermost sufficient re-curves. 2. When the
innermost sufficient re-curve does not contain any ending ridge or rod, the core is
placed on the shoulder of a loop further from the delta. 
3. When the innermost sufficient re-curve contains odd number of rod, the core is
placed upon the tip of the outer rod. 
4. When the innermost sufficient re-curve contains even number of rod, the core is
placed upon the end of one of the two center rods further from the delta. 

INTERPRETATION OF FINGERPRINTS: 

Three basic types of pattern are as follows:

 Percentage of appearance 

1. Arch 5% 
2. Loops 60% 
3. Whorls 35% 

The three basic types of pattern are further subdivided into the following: 

1. Plain arch 5. Plain Whorl 

2. Tented arch 6. Central pocket loop 
3. Radial loop 7. Lateral pocket loop 
uble loop/twin loop 9. Accidental Pattern 

RIDGE COUNTING: 

The number of ridges interviewing the delta and the core is known as the ridge
count. Every ridge that crossed or touched by the imaginary line between the core and
the delta, neither the delta/ core is counted red line upon the ridicule of the
fingerprint glass is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is bifurcation
of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary line would be drawn, two ridges are
counted. Fragments and dots are counted as ridges if they appear to be thin and
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

heavy as the ridges in the immediate pattern. Variations inking and pressure must of
course be considered. 

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS 

1. PLAIN ARCH 

A type of fingerprint pattern where the majority of the ridges came from one side then
flow to the other side with the slight rise at the center. It has no delta and core. 

2. THE TENTED ARCH 

In the tented arch, most of the ridges enters in one side of the impression then flow or
tend out upon the other side with a rise at the center giving 90 degrees more or less
and with a present of up thrust. It has no delta and core. 

Three types of tented arches:

1. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angel: i.e. 90 or less 
2. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an up thrust is an ending
ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plain, 450
degree or more. 
3. The type approaching the loop type possessing two of the basic or essential
characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third. 

The arches and some of the loop are often confused. It should be remembered that
the mere converging of two ridges does not form a re-curve, without which there can
be no loop. In the other hand, there are many patterns which at first sight resemble
tented arches but which on abuse inspection are found to be loop, as when one
looping ridge will be found in an almost vertical position within the pattern are
entirely free from and passing in front of the delta. 

ULNAR LOOP 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

A Type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses a delta, core, and one or more ridge
forming a sufficient recurve within the pattern area. The slope or downward flow of the
innermost sufficient recurve is towards the little finger or to the ulna bone of the hand
of origin. 

RADIAL LOOP 

A type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses one delta and one core, and  one or
more ridges within the pattern area, formed a sufficient recurve. The  flow of the
innermost ridges is towards the thumb or to the radius bone of the  hand of origin.  

THE PLAIN WORL 

The plain has two deltas and one core and at least one ridge making a complete
circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle. And when an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas it must touch or cross at least one of the
re-curving ridges within forming a complete circuit within the pattern area. A re-
curving, however, which an appendage connected with it in the line of flow cannot be
construed as a circuit. An appendage connected to the points is considered to spin the
re-curve on that side. 

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP 

The central pocket loop type of whorl has two deltas and least one ridge making
a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must not touch or cross any of the
recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has
an appendage connected within the line of flow and on the delta side,
cannot be constructed as a circuit. An appendage connected at that point is
considered to spoil the re-curve on that side. 

On lieu of re-curve in front of the delta is the inner pattern area; an obstruction
at the right angle to the line of flow will suffice. 

It is necessary that the inner line of flow be fixed artificially. The inner line of
flow is determined by drawing a line between the inner delta and center of the
innermost re-curve or looping ridge. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

DOUBLE LOOP 

The double loop consists of two separate loop formation with two separate and
distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas. 

The world “separate” as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loop
may be connected by an appending ridge provided aid. It does not turn about at the
right angle between the shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for the
loop applies also to the double loop. 

The fact that there must be two separate loop formation eliminates from
consideration as a double loop the “S” type core, the interlocking type core, and the
formations with one loop inside another. 

It is essential that both sides of a loop be equal length, nor that the two loops
be of the same size. Neither is it materials from which side the loop enters. 

LATERAL POCKET LOOP 

A type of fingerprint pattern in which the core ridges of the two loops makes  their
access or exit on the same side of the fingerprint impression. 

ACCIDENTAL WHORL 

The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different

types of pattern with the exception of plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a pattern,
which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different types; or a
pattern, which conforms to none of the definitions. It may be a combination of loop
and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and whorl, loop and central
pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop or other combination. The plain arch
is excluded,  
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (Henry system with FBI modification

and extension) 

Sir, Edward Richard Henry – Simplified the use of finger print and made it applicable
into police works 

Mr. A.J Renoe- Superintendent of the U.S dept of justice fingerprint bureau (1920),
the Bureau was located in the Penitentiary Leavenworth, Kansas. He devised what
was known as the A.J Renoe Extensions and modification. 

William Burns- Head of U.S secret service (1924) he made division and accumulation
of fingerprint record cards into sufficiently small groups. 

J. Edgar Hoover- Devised further extension, which in turn have been revised from
time to time until present. He made an adequate file containing many million of
fingerprint. 

Note: The entire plan or further revision is based on the Henry System of
classification. 

Division of Classification – the classification formula is divided into six possible

divisions under 
the extension system: 

a) Primary classification 
b) Secondary classification 
b.1 Capital letter groups 
b.2 small letter groups 
c) Sub-secondary classification 
d) Major classification 
e) Key classification 
f) Final classification 

Classification- The method of attaining a formula in a set of fingerprint placed in the

fingerprint record cards 

Classification Formula- The numerical description in a set of fingerprints which is

composed of letters and figures written above and below the classification line. 

Classification line- Refers to a long line which is usually placed on the right upper
corner of the fingerprint card or chart where classification formula is written. 

The positions in the classification line for these divisions when complete applied are
as illustrated. 

K.C M.C P.C S.C S.S.C F.C  18 L 29 rW2u MO I 5

I 5 Xt OIO 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

a. The Primary classification – the primary classification is the numerical value of

the whorls in a set print. The arbitrary value assigned to the fingers for this
purpose is as follows: 

Why do we have a pre-established fraction of 1/1? 

a. T o give the numbered value group a place in the file b. Zero over zero
might be mistaken as outer over outer in filing 

Blocking- Is the process of writing below each finger print pattern the corresponding
symbol of its name. 

Patterns as to numerical value 

a. Pattern with numerical value – all whorl 

b. Pattern without numerical value- arches and loops 

Four stages to obtain primary classification 

1. Pairing- 10 fingers are divided in 5 pairs 

Finger # 1 and # 2 --------------- 16 

Finger # 3 and # 4 --------------- 8 
Finger #5 and # 6 --------------- 4 
Finger #7 and #8----------------- 2 
Finger #9 and #10 -------------- 1 

2. Assigning numerical value 

3. Knowing the numerator and denominator- The first pattern of every pairs are the
denominator (odd fingers; 1,3,5,7,9) while the second pattern of every pair is the
numerator (even fingers 2,4,6,8,10) 

4. Summing the numerical value or values assigned to whorl plus the pre-established
fraction of 1/1 

The sum of numerical value of whorls if any, in fingers 1,3,5,7 and 9 with one
added is the denominator of the primary classification. The sum of the numerical
value of the whorls, it any in, 2, 4, 8 and 10, with one added, is the numerator of the
primary classified where no whorl appears in a set of impressions, the primary,
therefore, would be 1/1/. It is noted that 10/24 possible primaries may be obtained
1/1 to 32/32, which is the primary when whorls appear in every finger. 

b. Secondary Classification- The secondary classification is based on the types of

patterns appearing on the index fingers. Each finger is represented by capital and
small lettered symbols 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

Secondary classification by capital lettered group- This is done by exhibiting the

capital; letter symbol of the individual type of patterns from the two index finger
after the primary classification. 

Right index finger – Numerator 

Left index finger – Denominator

A symbol of the following symbol may come out 

A – Plain arch 
T – Tented arch 
R – Radial loop 
U – Ulnar loop 
W – Plain whorl 
C – central pocket loop 
D – Double loop 
X – Accidental Pattern 
Secondary classification by small lettered groups- the secondary classification by
small lettered refers to the 3 types of fingerprint patterns that can be exhibited by
small lettered groups. 
- It can be applied to all fingers with a said patterns except the two index
fingers 

Radial loop – r 
Plain arch - a 
Tented arch- t 

c. Sub-secondary classification- it is based upon the ridge count or ridge tracing in

the index, middle and ring fingers 

Ridge counting refers to loops pattern while ridge tracing refer to whorl
patterns. 

Ridge count – refers to the total number of ridges intervening between the delta and
the core (delta and core are not included in the counting) 

Tables for symbols of loops as a result of ridge count 

1. A ridge count of 1-9 inclusive of the two index finger is deducted into symbol
capital letter I for inner, while 10 or more O for outer. 
2. A ridge count of 1-10 inclusive of inclusive of two index fingers is deducted
into symbol capital letter I for inner while 11 or more O for outer. 
3. A ridge count of 1-13 inclusive of two ring fingers is deducted into capital
symbol I for inner and O for outer. 

Ridge tracing- It is the method of tracking or trailing the ridge commencing from the
left delta, with the number of ridges intervening between the right delta are accounted
for and compared the table for corresponding symbol, capital letter I-M-O. 

 @ Tables for symbols of whorl as a result of ridge tracing 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

1. When the ridge being traced (from the left to the right delta) goes inside or in front
of the right delta, and there are 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is known
as inner and represented by capital letter symbol I. 
2. When the ridge being traced goes either or inside to the right delta and there are 2
or less ridges intervening the tracing is known as meeting and represented by the
capital letter symbol M. 
3. When the ridge being traced goes outside to the right delta and there are 3 or more
intervening ridges the tracing is known as outer and represented by the capital
letter symbol O. 

Note: Arches are represented by a minus sign (-)

d.The Major classification- are created by counting and by tracing ridges of the left
and right thumb respectively. These divisions are to be used for the purpose of
subdividing large collections of prints. 

In a large collection of prints where both thumbs are loop they are divided into
nine major divisions by counting the ridges of the thumb. The ridge counts of the left
thumb are represented in the denominator by the symbol S, M, and L, which are
arrived at as follows: 

Major division of loops 

1. Ridge counts 1 to 11; inclusive are S (small), 12 to 16 inclusive, by M (med), and 17

or over, L (large). 

2.The ridge counts of the right thumb are represented in the numerator by the same
symbols, M and L. The count in this instance for the small, medium and large is the
same as just explained for the denominator when an S or M appears as denominator. 

3.When there are 17 ridges or more making a “Large” (L) in denominator the
combinations changes in the numerator thus, the combinations changes in the
numerator, thus: 1 to 17 inclusive S, 18 to 22 inclusive M, and 23 or more L. 

Left Thumb Denominator Right Thumb Numerator 

1 to 11 inclusive S (small) 12 to 16 inclusive M (medium) 

17 or more ridges L (large) 

m) 1-11 inclusive S (small) 12-16 Inclusive M (medium) 

17 or more ridges L (large) 

1-17 inclusive S (small) 18 to 22 inclusive M (medium) 

23 or more ridges L (large) 

The following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in
this division. 

S M L S M L S M L 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

 ------------- ------------- ------------- S S S M M M L L L 

Major division of whorls 

In a large collection of prints when both thumbs are whorls they are divided into nine
major divisions by the result of ridges tracing inner (1), Meet (M) and Outer (O) of both
thumbs. The left thumb represents the denominator and the right thumbs the
numerator. 

The following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in
this division. 

 I M O T M D I M O 
 ------------- ------------- ------------  I I I M M M O O O
e. Key Classification- is the ridge count of the first loop is a set of prints beginning
with the right thumb, but not including either of the little fingers. 

- If there is no such loop, the key is the result of the ridge count of the first
whorl being treated as an ulnar loop. 

- When arches appear in all fingers, the symbol of the key classification is just
a minus sign (-) 

- The result of the ridge count of the key classification be exhibited or placed at
the extreme left of the classification formula in line with the numerator 

f. Final classification- this is the ridge count of the loop in the little finger of the right
hand, placed in the numerator line 

- If there is no loop in the right little finger, then the ridge count of the one
appearing in the left little finger/s used, in which case it is placed in the
denominator line. 

- If no loop appear in either little finger, the result of the ridge count the whorl
is being treated for the final classification 

- When arches appear in both little finger the absence of a loop or whorl or
either in the right and left little finger the last loop is being used as a final
classification, except the loop that is being used in the key classification. 

- Arches are represented by a minus sign (-) in the classification line.  

Classification of scarred patterns (amputated, missing at birth fingers) 

a. Always indicate the amputated or missing at b birth fingers to the fingerprint record
cards. 
b. If one is absent carry the symbol or counting by the counterpart, or opposite fingers,
which is present. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

C. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given classification of whorls
with M for meeting. 
d. if all fingers were missing or amputated the classification will be; 

 N= M 32 W MMM 
D= M 32 W MMM 

e. If both hands are amputated or missing at birth the classification will be. 

Suspect fingerprint sample and data base making 

 Method/ essential of the fingerprint sampling 

Points of he fingerprint sampling are as follows; 

1. Washing the hands before fingerprint sampling 

2. Relax
3. Position 
4. Area to be covered on the fingerprint collection 
5. Rolling direction of the rolling method 
6. Spreading of ink 
7. Thickness of the ink 
8. Speed in rolling the fingers 
9. Check up after fingerprint recording 

Search, preservation and collection of fingerprint evidence 

Fingerprints are very fragile and may be destroyed by 

contamination or improper handling 

The methods of searching, preservation and collection usually  affects both

the quality and quantity of latent fingerprints. 

The primary concerns are preventing the addition of fingerprints  to the

evidence and preventing the destruction of ones that are  already present. 

So the first step to be undertaken in a case involving that  evidence is to

exclude those unauthorized person and to protect  the scene. 

SEARCHING- The search should begin with the area surrounding  the actual
scene. The next logical places to search area points of  possible exit and entry. 

PRESERVATION- when a latent print is located, the first thing to do is to

photograph the actual crime scene. A data card should be  prepared and it should
contain the case number, date, location,  name of officer who discovered the print
and the name of the  photographer. Next is to sketch the objects on which the
latent  prints was found and indicate the exact location of the print. 
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LATENT IMPRESSIONS 

Each ridge of the finger, palms and soles bears a row of sweat ports, which in
the average person constantly exude perspiration. Also the ridge of the fingers and
palms are in intermittent contact with other parts of the body, such as the hair and
face, and with various objects, which may leave a film of grease or moisture on the
ridges. In touching an object, the film of moisture and/ or grease may be transferred
to the objects, thus leaving an outline of the ridge of the fingers or palm there on. This
print is called a latent impression the word “latent” meaning hidden, that is, the print
many times is not readily visible. 

Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are of the
greatest importance to the criminal investigator as identification of them may solve the
crime and result in successful prosecution of the subject. Consequently, every effort
should be made to preserve and identify them. 
Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt, or dust are equally important to
the investigator but strictly speaking, are not latent impressions. 

A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. Points of

entry and exit should be examined, along wit surface or objects disturbed or likely
touched during the commission of the
crime. The examiner should wear a pair of light cloth gloves and handle an object only
in so far as is necessary and then only by edges or surface, which are not receptive to
latent impressions. A record of the exact location of a print on an objects and of the
objects itself should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in
any trial resulting from the investigation. NO one should handle and objects other
than the examiner him self. 

Portable articles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may readily
identify thereafter. 

The beam of a flashlight played over the surface of an objects will frequently
show the location of latent impression, although this is not an infallible test their
presence. 

Evidence should be examined as soon as possible after its discovery. Following

the location of any latent prints scene of a crime, the prints of all persons whose
presence at the place under inspection has been for legitimate purposes must be
excluded from further attention. It is advisable, therefore, during the initial stages of
an investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints of all
members of the household, the employees, and any police or other official who have
touched the objects on which the latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken
for this purpose are referred to as elimination prints. 

Due to the fragment nature of most latent prints it is not possible to derive a
classification which makes a file search practicable, a latent impression may be
identified, however by comparison with the prints of a particular suspects. 

Inked fingerprints taken for comparison with the latent impressions should be
illegibly and as complete as possible including the areas not essential to classification,
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since identification are often made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should
likewise be complete and clear and should include impressions of the finger joints.
Persons not experienced in latent comparisons should not attempt to evaluate latent
fragment, since the area necessary for identification may be extremely compared to tat
of an average inked fingerprint. 

Articles are which are to be transported by mail or express should be so packed

that the surface bearing latent impressions are not in contact with other surfaces.
This may be accomplished by mounting the articles on a piece of a fiberboard or
plywood. The board should then be secured in a box so that the objects will not touch
or be taken against the side in transit. The package should be plainly marked
“Evidence”, to prevent inadvertent handling on opining. Cotton or cloth surface never
be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent prints. 

Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single

protective wrapper, since contact with other surface does not harm latent on such
objects. Lifts, negatives and photographs are readily enclosed with letters. 

An explanatory letter should accompany all evidence. If it is necessary to pack

the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should be placed in every package so tat
the recipient will know immediately the import of the contents. All items of evidence
should be marked and describe exactly in the accompanying letter so that will not be
confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a check on what
the package should contain.
In addition, the letter should include for the record purposes brief outline of the
crime, i.e., date and place of occurrence, and names of victims and subjects. If
suspects are named for comparison, sufficient descriptive data should be set out to
permit location of their fingerprint records. This information, in preferential order,
comprises individual’s complete name, aliases FBI number, date or prior arrest or
fingerprinting, fingerprint identification, date and place of birth, and physical
description. 

Evidence is preferable forwarded by registered mail of railway express, as these

means provide records of dispatch and receipt. Elimination or suspect fingerprints are
best enclosed with evidence itself, with notation as to the type of prints forwarded. 

POWDERING ANF LIFTING LATENT IMPRESSION 

The sole purpose in “developing a latent impression is to make it visible so that

it may be preserved and compared various powders and chemicals are used for this
purpose. When a latent prints is plainly visible, it should be photographed before any
effort is made to develop it. 

No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in just,

obviously greasy or bloody prints, as this will almost surely destroy them. Objects,
which have been wet or immersed in water, may still bear identifiable latent
impressions. Before any examination is attempted however, the objects must be
dried. 
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Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to grease or

moisture in the ridges of a latent prints, making it visible against the background.
Obviously, a powder should be used which will contrast with the color of the surface.
Photographic contrasts should also be considered. 

A gray powder and black powder are adequate for latent print works. Many
fingerprint powders of various colors and compositions are available from fingerprint
supply houses but none are superior to the gray and black. 

A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for application to the
surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to
the direction of the ridges. All excess powder should be brushed from between the
ridges. Too much powder and too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners. 

Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. It is also used on mirrors and

metal surface which have been published to mirror like finish, sense these surfaces
will photograph with the fingerprint camera. Black powder should be applied to white
or light-colored surfaces. 

Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red bronze
powders, although of a glittering appearance, will photograph dark and should
consequently be used on light-colored surfaces. Dragons’ blood powder is a
photographically neutral powder and may be dusted on either a light or dark surface. 

On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be used, it being
necessary only to use a contrasting black or white background when photographing.
Prints should be lifted after photographing both rubber and transparent tapes are
available for this purpose. Rubber lifting tape id procurable in black or white 4” x 9”
sheets with the adhesive surface protects with a celluloid cover. A black powder print
should obviously be lifted on white tape and gray powder print on black tape. 

Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be lifted on white tape, aluminum
on block. Dragon’s blood is lifted on either black or white. 

After cutting a piece of tape sufficiently large to cover the entire latent print, the
celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side supplied to the latent. The tape
should be pressed evenly and firmly to the surface, taking care not to sift is position.
It is then peeled gently from the surface and the piece of celluloid placed over the print
to protect it. The operator should handle the lift in such a manner that he will leave
no prints to his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper identification tag bearing
the initials of the operator, date an objects from lifted should be placed under one
corner of the celluloid, or this information may be written on the black of the lift itself
if it can belong in a permanent legible manner. 

If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print, more legible print
may sometimes be obtained by lifting a second time (on a new piece of tape, of
course). 

It should be noted that a print lifted on rubber tape is in a reverse position.

Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print of such a lift, it will be necessary
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

to print the negative from the reverse side in order for the print to appear in its correct
position for comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted be
persons of inadequate knowledge an experience. 

Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in 1” to 2” widths

for fingerprint work. The common variety of transparent tape is not suitable due to the
deterioration (drying) of the adhesive surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape
is in correct position. Transparent lifts should be affixed to a smooth gain less, opaque
background of a black or white color contrasting with the powder used. 
Every effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such lifts. In no
instance should a transparent lift ever be folded on itself or struck. To another piece
of such tape as a backing. Since it is generally not possible to determine the correct
position of such a print. 

Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent fingers and palms

which appear to have been made simultaneously, shroud be lifted as units, that is, on
single piece of tape, as this may facilitate the task of making comparisons. 

PREPARATION OF FINGERTPRINTS CHARTS FOR COURT

TESTIMONY 

In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to

visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his testimony. Many
times it is undoubtedly difficult the layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation
alone, the full import of an expert’s testimony, due to its technical nature;
consequently, some graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified
and rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the
expert using them. As a matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in
fingerprint work, a brief explanation
of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks based on long experience
in these matters. 

To do the work conveniently, it will be necessary to have available, in addition

to the ordinary photographic developing and printing materials, a projection enlarger
which will enlarge preferably to at least ten diameters. In the projection method of
enlargement, the image is printed directly from the original negative, and the
preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary. 

Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are: 

A roll of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to outline the areas of the
fingerprints on the negative to be used; some stiff cardboard approximately 1/32 inch
thick on which to mount the prepared charts a tube of rubber cement and a bottle of
translucent ink, other than black or white. 

A light-box on which to view the negative whole blocking, and a lettering set to
draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not absolutely essential,
are helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a frosted pane of glass wit a light
beneath it to produce soft, even, none glaring illumination. If no light-box is available,
a clear window may be utilized in “blocking” the negatives. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

If the experts find it necessary to have an outside source prepare is

photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation. 

The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical can be
photographed 25 times the actual size. This procedure eliminates guesswork in
enlarging both the same degree. Whatever areas of the two prints are deemed requisite
to illustrate the method of identification are then outlined (blocked) on negative with
the masking tape, so the only those areas will show in the subsequent enlargements.
Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to show the complete
print. If the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which will not make the
cart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected. 

On blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light box by means
of strips of photographic tape across the corners, wit the side to be blocked up. The
prevent constant shifting of the negative while it is being prepared. The latent print
should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Cares should
be exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formation shown and the
ridge formation in the same upright or horizontal positions. This may be facilitated by
fixing a negative, bearing ruled squares between the negative being blocked and the
glass to which it is attached. 

If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on a dark

background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and blocked in order that
both prints may appear as black ridges on light. This is done by placing the original
negative adjacent to a new sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative
contains the same image as the original except tat the color of the image has been
reversed. 

If the negative is a photograph of an upper lift, the print appears reverse

position; tat is, as a mirror image, and the negative will
accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear
in a position comparable to that of the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in
question in the same color and position may confuse the observer and nullify the
purpose for which the chart is made. 

The degree of enlargement is not important in itself, so long as the ridges of the
latent print are readily distinguishable by the eye. Ten diameters have been found
adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 will serve. It should be remembered
however, that small enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and tat
background. A white border of at least 1/1/2 inches or a width equal to one-third the
enlarged area should be left from carting purposes. 

Any chart prepared must be technically correct; tat is, the corresponding ridge
characteristics in the two prints must be similarly numbered and indicated. 

Several ways of pointing out the similar ridge formations have been observed
but the one which appears soundest is also simplest and consists or merely marking
the characteristics with lines and numbers. 
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All the ridge characteristics in the prints need not be charted. Twelve have the
ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for identification, but it is neither claimed
nor implied that this number is required. 

All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two impressions have
the ridge characteristics of similar shapes which occupy the same relative positions in
the patterns. 

Method involving superimposition of the prints are not recommended because

such a procedure is possible only in a very few instances, due to the distortion of
ridges in most prints through pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not
necessarily a test of identify. 

Likewise, presenting charts with the shapes of the characteristics drawn in the
margin is not recommended. Individual ridge characteristics may vary slightly in
actual shape or physical position due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking
condition of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background, etc.
Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a unit relationship
and not on the microscopic-appearance of single characteristic. 

Since the enlarged-photograph appear in black and white, an ink other than
black or white should be used to line the chart. Such an ink should be preferably
translucent so that it will be possible to see the ridges which it reverses. A translucent
carmine drawing ink serves well. In placing the lines the chart should be arranged so
that they do not cross or touch. 

The chart will present a clearer, hearer and more pleasing appearance if it is
numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. It is necessary however, to
place the numbers evenly around the photograph. 

Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print (latent
or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of numbering should be
subservient to an explanation of the
characteristics in an orderly sequence; and, if the situation warrants it, all of the
points may be illustrated on a single side of the photograph. 

A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a numbered point on

the march. Care should be taken to draw the line exactly to the characteristics point,
not short of it, beyond it or obscuring it. Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs
or blots, it is sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in denatured alcohol,
without damaging the photograph. 

If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might be well to draw

a small circle around each characteristic and then draw the line from a circle to the
number, since the ridge will be much thicker than the illustrating line. All line and
numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the
enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might be called upon
to explain. 
 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

The chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard with rubber
cement, which maybe purchased in small tubes. After cementing the photograph to
the cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy flat object which will cover the entire
surface to prevent warping and wrinkling. After drying, trim the two enlargements to
the same square size with heavy scissor, a pen knife or scalped, and fasten them
together, book fashion. Of course, if charts are large, 0 to 36 inches square, mounting
is unnecessary and they will have to be supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks
or metal rings. 

Some courts do not permit numbering or lining of the photographs and the
enlargements alone in these cases will have to suffice. If there is some question about
admissibility of the charted enlargements, it is well to prepare an extra-uncharted
set. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS 

1. Bifurcation – is the dividing of ridge into two or more branches. 

2. Enclosure, Eye or eyelet – is the splitting of a ridge into two but meet at a
certain point to continue as a single ridge. 

3. Divergence – is the spreading apart of two ridges which have been parallel or
nearly parallel. 

4. Ending ridge – is a ridge that terminates. 

5. Dot ridge – is a ridge that resemble a period. 

6. Type lines – two innermost ridges which start parallel or nearly parallel
diverge, and surround the pattern area.
7. Pattern Area – is that part of a loop and whorl in which appears the cores,
deltas and ridges. 

8. Delta – is that point on a ridge or in front of the near the centers of the
divergence of the type lines. It may be a bifurcation, an abrupt ending ridge,
a dot, a short ridge, a meeting of two ridges or a point on the first recurring
ridge located nearest the center and in front of the divergence of the type
lines. 

9. Core – is the approximate center of the patterns area. 

 FORENSIC BALLISTIC 

10 Ridges- Little lines found at the finger/palm of the hand and sole of the
foot. 

11. Focal point- it is within the pattern area of a loop and whorl, which are
enclosed and called delta and core. 

12. Friction skin- the epidermal hairless skin found on the lower portion of
the hands and feet covered with minute ridges and without pigment or
coloring matter. 

13. Furrows- The canal or depression in between ridges.