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Cancer Module
Christine Hawkins
(c.hawkins@latrobe.edu.au)
Lecture 11.2: Deregulating
Cellular Energetics Hallmark
latrobe.edu.au CRICOS Provider 00115M
Commonwealth of Australia
Warning
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA.
Hallmarks of cancer: the next
generation. Cell. 2011;144:646‐74.
Energetics in normal cells
Normal cells
glucose
glycolysis
pyruvate
Anaerobic Aerobic
low [oxygen] High [oxygen]
lactate acetyl-coA + CO2
citric acid cycle, OXPHOS
CO2 + H20
2 ATP 38 ATP* * Theoretical max=38, experimentally ~31
Important: “aerobic” and “anaerobic” describe the oxygen levels in the cellular environment.
The biochemical pathways are called “glycolysis” and “citric acid cycle”, “OXPHOS” etc
Energetics in cancer cells
Cancer cells
(and other
proliferating cells)
glucose
Aerobic
High [oxygen] glycolysis
pyruvate
Anaerobic
low [oxygen]
lactate acetyl-coA + CO2
citric acid cycle, OXPHOS
CO2 + H20
2 ATP 38 ATP* * Theoretical max=38, experimentally ~31
OH
When oxygen is plentiful, transcription factor
HIF‐1α is degraded so can’t induce target genes
When oxygen is scarce,
as it is in the centre of
tumours, degradation of
HIF‐1α doesn’t occur,
and its levels increase Carmeliet, P., & Jain, R.K.
Nature 407: 249-257, 2000
Together with HIF‐1β, it stimulates expression
of many proteins, including glycolytic enzymes
and a protein that prevents the citric acid cycle
Non‐cancerous cells revert to OXPHOS if oxygen levels rise
But in cancerous cells, the switch to glycolysis is irreversible.
Nagao A et al,
Most cancer cells remain predominantly glycolytic Int J Mol Sci.
regardless of oxygen levels 20(2): 238, 2019
How do cancer cells get enough energy?
Cancer cells
glucose
Glut 1 GLUT-1
upregulated Glucose transporter
glycolysis
pyruvate
http://www.breastcancer.org/pictures/diagnosis/ Bone metastases in spine and pelvis
Why does aerobic glycolysis benefit cancer cells?
glucose
(mmol/litre)
Stattin, P. et al, Diabetes Care 30: 561‐567, 2007
Prospective study – cancer diagnoses within 20y of glucose measurement
Caloric restriction / ketogenic diets: therapeutic?
Bryan G. Allen et al Redox Biol. 2014; 2: 963–970.
Data from animal studies: marginal efficacy of ketogenic diet
Mice with gliomas (type of brain tumour), on normal or ketogenic diets, were compared for
responses to bevacizumab (avastin; anti‐VEGF/angiogenic)
Mouse glioma model
4.2% likelihood that
difference is due to chance
(ie only just significant at
P=0.05 threshold)
U87MG tumor cell inoculation in mice on standard diet (SD) or ketogenic diet
(KD) treated with PBS (control) or bevacizumab (BEV). Kaplan‐Meier analysis.
Rieger, J. et al Int J Oncol 44: 1843‐1852
Human studies: most are flawed
Clinical responses
OS = overall survival
Klement RJ et al, Med Oncol. 2020 Jan 11;37(2):14.
Data from only randomised clinical trial
that assessed clinical tumour responses
• Participants were breast cancer patients with advanced
local disease (also a few with metastases, data not shown
here)
• Randomly allocated 40 patients to keto diet, 37 to standard
diet, but some patients dropped out
• Ended up with 25 non‐metastatic patients receiving keto
diet and 18 had normal diet
• Marginal efficacy. Difference 14/15 dropped out
between groups barely ketogenic
control
statistically significant
• Most patients were “lost‐to‐ 5/6 dropped out
follow‐up” during trial
P = 0.046 (4.6% likelihood this difference is due to chance)
• If some drop‐outs were due to
disease progression, that may
skew the data
• Not promising
Klement RJ et al, Med Oncol. 2020 Jan 11;37(2):14.
Khodabakhshi A et al, Nutr Cancer. 9:1‐8, 2019
Knockdown of GLUT1 reduces tumour growth in mice
• Cancer cells are often heavily reliant on high Glut1 expression to
get enough glucose to make enough ATP via inefficient glycolysis
• Presumably if its levels are reduced, this would impact more on
cancer than normal cells
• Glut1 downregulation did impede mammary tumour growth in a
mouse model
Young CD et al. PLoS ONE 6: e23205, 2011
Lunt, S.Y & Vander M.G. Annu Rev Cell 0.5 million 78617GL cells expressing control
Dev Biol 27: 441‐464, 2011 shRNA (C) or GLUT1 shRNA (G1) were injected
into contralateral mammary fat pads of
athymic nude mice. Bioluminescence from
the labelled tumor cells was detected on days
2, 4, 6 and 8 after implantation.
Inhibition of hexokinase by 2DG reduces tumour growth in mice
• 2‐deoxyglucose inhibits conversion of glucose to glucose‐6‐P by hexokinase
• 2‐DG treatment of mice bearing implanted lung tumours slowed tumour growth
Wang H et al Cancer Cell International 16:9, 2016
2‐DG reduces tumor growth in KP2 xenograft model. a–b NSG mice were subcutaneously injected
with 1 × 106 KP2 cells. Once the tumor was measurable, two groups of mice were treated by I.P.
injection with 800 mg/ml 2‐DG or PBS for 15 consecutive days
Limitations:
• May be difficult to administer enough to cancer patients to
out‐compete normal glucose
Lunt, S.Y & Vander M.G. Annu Rev Cell
Dev Biol 27: 441‐464, 2011
• Short half‐life – rapidly metabolised
• Derivatives are being developed to address these issues
2DG is tolerated by cancer patients, may reduce tumour growth
• Patients with various solid tumours treated with docetaxel (taxane; mitotic
inhibitor) and various doses of 2DG
• Safe until ~63mg/kg. Higher doses caused cardiac symptoms
Echocardiogram
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QT_interval
Raez LE et al Cancer Chemother Pharmacol (2013) 71:523–530
Outcomes
• 1/33 partial response (65 days). This patient had failed 8 prior therapies, so this response
does suggest 2DG can be useful
• 11/33 stable disease Verdict:
• 21/33 progressive disease Further work will be needed to exploit
this hallmark for cancer therapy