Chapter 3 Linguistic and Literacy Development of Children and Adolescents

Objectives
1. Explain the natural history of language development
2. Describe bilingual development
3. Classify the emergent and early literacy particularly reading development and
performance
4. Name the factors affecting language development
5. Differentiate exceptional language development

I. Natural History of Language Development

The traditional learning view holds that language development depends
upon the principle of reinforcement. From the point of view of other learning
theorists however, language primarily is learned through imitation. While learning
principles admit to the need of modifying language usage, there is no explanation
as to the number of reinforcement linkages required to be able to communicate
effectively. Not even the regular sequence of language development and
children’s utterances are accounted for. Even the fact that children learn to speak
using correct grammar in the absence of grammar reinforcement.
Noam Chomsky espouses the nativist approach to language development
which asserts that children have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
that enables them to learn a language early and quickly. This is bolstered by the
concept of universality of language that uses the same set of sounds and word
combinations. Critics have opposed this idea pointing out the variations in
grammatical and syntactic rules. They also claimed that the nativist ignores the
social context in which language is acquired and developed.
Modern theorists hold an interactionist view that recognizes children as
biologically prepared for language but requires extensive experience with spoken
language for adequate development. This view maintains the need for an active
role in acquiring language through formulating, testing, and evaluating
languages’ rules.
Jerome Bruner emphasizes the critical roles parents and other early
caregivers play in language development. Bruner proposes the Language
Acquisition Support System (LASS). Among American middle-class mothers,
support may come in the use of infant-directed or child-directed speech or
simplified language. This can be done by paying nonverbal games with them,
using the technique of expanding children’s statements and recasting children’s
incomplete sentences in grammatical form.
 The Antecedents of Language Development

The give and take of conversation is one of the early training infant’s
acquire in the language development. This is called “pseudodialogues." Adult
maintains the flow of conversation. Example, Oooglie ooogilie googlie googlie. By
the time an infant reach one year, he becomes skilled in nonverbal
communication. Another early training device is using protodeclaratives. An infant
uses gestures to make some sort of statement about an object. Another training
device is protoimperatives. Gestures that an infant or a young child may use to
get someone to do something he or she wants. Children can make statements
about things and get other people to do things for them.
II. Bilingual Language Development
It has been established that bilingualism where children learn two
languages simultaneously, puts children to an advantage in terms of language
proficiency. It affords advanced cognitive skills, flexibility of thought and greater
acceptance of peers from other cultural backgrounds (Bec, Helen and Denise
Boyd, 2002. Lifespan Development, 3rd edition).
Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism
1. Bilingualism does not impact on early language milestone like babbling.
2. In bilingual homes, infants readily discriminate between the two languages
phonologically and grammatically.
3. Learning a grammatical device as using s to denote plurals in one language
facilitate learning corresponding devices in the other language.
4. Bilingualism is associated with an advantage in metalinguistic ability, or
capacity to think about language among preschool and school age children.
5. Most bilingual children manifest greater ability than monolingual children
when it comes to focusing attention on languages tasks.
Cognitive Disadvantages of Bilingualism
1. Limited vocabulary. Infants in bilingual homes have expressive vocabularies
that are as large as those of the monolingual, but the words they know are
divided between two languages resulting into a more limited vocabulary which
continues into the school years.
2. Think more slowly in the language in which they have the lesser fluency.
Bilingual children are fluent in both languages and thus, encounter fewer
problems, but they do not attain equal fluency. In such case, the tendency is
for them to think more slowly in the language where they have lesser fluency,
so that if this is the language used in school, then, they are at risk for learning
problems.
3. Parents who choose bilingualism should consider whether they can help their
children achieve fluency in both languages.
4. Children who speak their immigrant parents’ language tend to be attached to
their parents’ culture of origin and therefore are able to speak the language.
Bilingual parents should weight the advantages and disadvantages of
bilingualism and decide on the kind of linguistic environment they will provide
their children.
Learning a second language is a constructive process similar to learning a
native language. This is made possible through interactions with the children
and adults.
When parents talk with preschool children learning to speak their native
language, they scaffold and extend the children’s language. Parents find a
way to understand the children’s special words for things. This is called
“motherese.” The kind of adaptation done by parents in the process of
learning the language.
Students learning English as a second language tend to mix English with
their native language. They shift back and forth within sentences. This
misunderstood phenomenon is called code switching (Troika, 1981 as cited
by Tompkins, 2002) Code switching is a special linguistic and social skill.
Sometimes students read the text in English and mentally translate it into their
native language for easier understanding.
Based from having learned to speak their native language on account of
interactions between the members of the family, children acquire an
understanding of the language system.
Listening to parents tell and read aloud stories also contributes to this
knowledge. From the elementary grades, they learn about phonics, spelling,
semantics, vocabulary, and grammar.
Children from various cultural groups bring with them backgrounds of
learning experiences unique to their group. This is the reason why they find
learning English as a second language difficult.
Language and culture have important implications for how children learn
language in school and how teachers teach language. Some implications are:
1. Children use the four language systems at the same time in the process of
communicating.
2. Children bring their unique background of experiences to the process of
learning.
 3. Children’s cultural and linguistic diversity impact on the students’ learning
process.

III. Emergent and Early Literacy: Reading Development and Performance

From birth, infants listen to sounds of speech and that of their native
language. Babbling starts at the end of the second month. This usually
reflects the sounds they hear in the native language. At the age of 12 months,
infants utter the first word. It is only in the second year where there is
vocabulary expansion. However, the difficulties related to articulation and
pronunciation are observed.
Children may communicate single words not only to name things but also
to communicate more complex thoughts. This is usually called holophrase –
the first stage of language acquisition.
In this process adults use names that will show the distinctions children
need to make in using the objects named. Usually, children learn the meaning
of new words upon hearing them, even just once. This refers to the ability to
map the meaning of a new word used in context. That is, if a thing has a
name. it is not likely to be called by another. Another strategy used in learning
new words is bootstrapping – which is using their knowledge of word class
ad syntactic clues to learn the meanings of new words.

Fast mapping is the child’s ability to map the meaning of a new word onto
a referent after hearing the word used on context just once.
Holophrase is a single word used to represent a phrase or sentence:
typical of the first stage of language acquisition.

Vocabulary explosion is the rapid addition of new words to a toddler’s

vocabulary which occurs late in the second year.
Children begin putting two words together at about 18 months, and three
or more words together anywhere from 2 to 3 years of age. The length of
children’s utterances has been found to correspond to their use of ever-
morecomplex rules for communicating. Using this index, stages of language
development have been identified (Gabb, 2001):
1. Children speak in two-word sentences.
2. Children use rules to inflect words, indicating plurality and tense.
3. Children can use rules to transpose meaning from one form of sentence to
another.
4. Children’s sentences become increasingly complex in the fourth and fifth
stages.
It is in the preschool years when children gradually learn to read and write.
This is the time when they go through the process of becoming literate. They
start to notice sign on billboards, logos, and symbols in print.
Literacy is a process that begins well before the elementary grades and
continues to adulthood and even throughout life. Normally children aged five
attend kindergarten school to start with reading and writing lessons. Those
children who are not ready are given opportunities to engage in varied
reading activities to prepare them for reading and writing.
A new approach to language arts instruction in kindergarten is called
emergent literacy as coined by a New Zealand Educator Marie Clay. This is
looking at literacy from the child’s point of view. The age range has been
extended to include even 12 or 14 months of age who can listen to stories
read aloud, notice signs and labels in their environment, and experiment with
pencils and crayons. The concept of literacy has been broadened to include
the social and cultural aspects of language learning and the understanding of
written language.
Teale and Sulzby (1989 as cited by Tompkins, 2002) paint a portrait of
young children as literacy learners with these characteristics:
1. Learning the functions of literacy through observation and participation in
real-life situations in where reading and writing are used;
2. Developing reading and writing abilities concurrently and interrelatedly
through experiences in reading and writing; and
3. Constructing understanding of reading and writing through engagement
with literacy materials.
Teale and Sulzby describes young children as active learners. They
construct their own knowledge about reading and writing with the help of
literate elders like parents, brothers, and sisters. These literate elders
demonstrate literacy as they read and write. They supply materials and
provide opportunities for children to involve themselves in reading and writing.
Children’s introduction to written language begin early in life with learning
experiences provided by parents and even caregivers. They experience this
before they could come to school. It is when they start attending Kindergarten
and get exposed to formal instructions that the knowledge of the written
language expands. Activities call for actual participation in genuine, functional,
and meaningful experiences. Students also grow in their ability to stand back
and reflect on language. The ability to talk about concepts of language is
 called metalinguistics and children’s ability to think metalinguistically is
developed by their experiences with reading and writing. (Templeton and
Spivey, 1980 as cited by Tompkins, 2002).
According to Juel (1991 as cited by Tompkins, 2002) children moved
through three stages as they learn to read, namely: emergent reading,
beginning reading and fluent reading.
In emergent reading, the purpose of communicative print is understood
by children. They start to notice environmental print, can dictate stories for the
teacher to record, and even read predictable books after they have
memorized the pattern.
It is in the beginning reading stage that children learn phoneme-
grapheme correspondences and start to decode words.
In the fluent reading stage, children have learned to read, decode
unfamiliar words and recognize words automatically. The fluent stage is
reached in the third grade. Once this stage is reached, children are able to
make use of their cognitive energy on comprehension. This accomplishment
is significant because beginning in fourth grade, children read more
information books and content area textbooks as reading becomes a learning
tool (Tompkins, 2002).

IV. Factors Affecting Development: Early Language Stimulation, Literate

Communities and Environment, Story Reading
According to Dr. Gail E. Tompkins (2002), Piaget recognized that children
are naturally curious about the world and are active and motivated learners.
As they acquire new experiences, they start to experiment with the objects
they come in contact with. These interactions become meaningful as they
construct their own knowledge about them. This holds true in both oral and
language work so that children interact with language just as they experiment
with bicycles they ride.
A. Early Language Stimulation
Learning occurs through the process of equilibrium. Disequilibrium
often times referred to as cognitive conflict arises from encounters that a
child cannot understand nor assimilate. A child in this case, gets confused,
feels agitated so that he is compelled to seek for a comfortable balance
with the environment. The balance is called equilibrium. When
confronted with an environment that is new but comprehensible, the child
is able to make sense of it. When the child’s schemata can accommodate
the new information, then the disequilibrium caused by the new
experience will motivate the child to learn, thus regaining a higher
developmental level.
The three steps of the process are:
1. Disruption of equilibrium by the introduction of new information;
2. Occurrence of disequilibrium followed by the dual processes of
assimilation and accommodation function; and
3. Attainment of equilibrium at a higher developmental level.
The process of equilibrium is repetitive. It happens again and again
throughout the day. Learning occurs only when the new information is not
too difficult. New but difficult information cannot be easily related to what is
already known, hence, there is no learning. This is true to both children
and adults. Assimilation is made possible and with too familiar information
which can be easily accommodated.
Children’s cognitive development is enhanced through social
interaction. Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) asserted that
children learn through socially meaningful interactions and that language
is both social and an important facilitator of learning. Whatever
experiences children have these are products of their interactions with
society. Aside from absorbing these experiences, children negotiate and
transform them as a dynamic part of culture. Actually, children learn to talk
and to read and write through interactions with literate children and adults
(Dyson, 1993, Harste, 1990 as cited by Tompkins, 2002)
Interactions with adults and collaboration with classmates enable
children to learn things which otherwise they could not learn on their own.
They need the support and guidance of adults as they move from the
current to a more advanced level of knowledge. Vygotsky described these
two levels as, just, the actual development, the level at which children can
perform a task independently, and second, the level of potential
development, the level at which children can perform a task with
assistance. This is the reason why children need the help of the teachers
including that of others to do more difficult things.
A child’s zone of proximal development is the range of tasks that the
child can perform with guidance form others but cannot yet perform
independently. Vygotsky believed that children learn best when what they
are attempting to learn is within this zone. He felt that children learn little
by performing task they can already do independently – tasks at their
actual developmental level or by attempting tasks that are too difficult or
beyond their zone of proximal development.
 Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner both used the term scaffold as a
metaphor to describe adult’s contributions to children’s learning. Scaffolds
are support mechanisms that teachers, parents, and others provide to
help children perform successfully a task within their zone of proximal
development. This is done when teachers act out as models, demonstrate
procedure, guide children through a process, ask questions, supply added
information, and make complex task simple. The transition from social
interaction to independent functioning is done as soon as children show
signs of knowledge and experience that make them ready to perform a
task, at this point the teachers gradually withdraw their support.
The teacher’s role in guiding student’s learning within the zone of
proximal development includes three components, according to
DixonKraus (1996) as cited by Tompkins (2002):

1. Teachers mediate and augment children’s learning through social

interaction.
2. Teachers are flexible and provide support based on feedback from
children as they engaged in the learning task.
3. Teachers vary the amount of support from very explicit to vague, to
suit children’s needs.
According to Vygotsky, language can be used for purposes other
than social. Piaget described how young children engage in egocentric
speech – talking aloud to themselves as they build blocks. Talking
aloud is also done by older children and even adults usually while
doing a difficult task and it seemed to guide them in their thinking if not
direct their thinking. Vygotsky call the children’s egocentric speech as
“selftalk.” It is talking to themselves mentally other than orally. Self-talk
which gradually becomes inner speech guides children in their learning
as observed by Vygotsky. Self-talk is the link between talk used for
social purposes and talk used for intellectual purposes. Children used
both self-talk and inner speech to guide their learning.
The following are ideas contributed by the constructivist and
sociolinguistic learning theorists:
1. Students actively participate in learning.
2. Students learn by associating new information to acquired
knowledge.
3. Students organize their knowledge in schemata.
4. Students consciously and automatically use skills and strategies as
learning progresses.
5. Students learn through social interactions.
 6. Teachers provide scaffolds for students.
Language is a complex system for creating meaning through
socially hared conventions. (Halliday, 1978 as cited by Tompkins
2002). Even before the children can enter the elementary school they
interact with the members of the community through language. They
learn even the most complex forms of the native language which
allows them to understand sentences they hear for the first time.
Further, they can construct sentences they have never said before.
Knowledge about language is something that develops tacitly or
unconsciously.

B. Literate Communities and Environment

Elementary classrooms serve as venue for language acquisitions.
They offer language environments that encourage students to listen, talk,
read and write, reflect, view and visually represent. The physical
arrangement and even classroom materials play an important role in
setting the stage for language instruction.
There is no single best classroom physical arrangement. The
configuration of a classroom, however, can be modified to include many
facets to facilitate learning. Students desks or tables should be grouped to
allow free movement and encourage students to talk, share and work in
groups. Provision for cooperative learnings where students can act in
groups of 5 or 6 should be made. There should be separate area to serve
as listening center, a computer center, and a center for dramatic activities.
Students should also have ready access to instructional materials. In the
case of Kindergarten classrooms, there should be provided literacy play
centers.
The teacher plays a multifaceted role in a language classroom.
Teachers should realize that children’s literacy is dependent upon
opportunities for children to engage in meaningful and purposeful
experiences with the members of the class. Teachers have ceased to
serve as knowledge providers only. They have assumed a more complex
role of creating a classroom environment that will be conducive to
learning, like planning the language arts curriculum with focus on the four
instructional patterns to meet the needs of the students. The ultimate
objective is training students for communicative competence. In the
classroom teachers assume the role of instructors, coaches, facilitators,
and managers.
 Teachers begin the process of establishing a community of learners
when they make deliberate decisions about the kind of classroom culture
they want to create (Sumara and Walker 1991 as cited by Tompkins
2002). Teachers make sure the school becomes a real life for students.
They think of the kind of language instruction that will make the students
see a purpose for learning to read and write. Usually, a democratic
classroom is an advantage because it offers students opportunities for
developing reading and writing skills through purposeful and meaningful
literacy activities.
The classroom environment needs to be established within the first two
weeks of the school year. They are oriented about the procedures and
routines to be observed in language arts by the teachers. After which they
get demonstration lesson on literacy procedures like how to choose a
book from the classroom library, how to provide feedback in a writing
exercise to the members of the group and how to participate in
conversations and discussions. Teachers also serve as models so that
students learn how to interact with classmates, respond to literature,
respect classmates, and assist them in reading and writing activities.
Teachers are classroom managers. They lay the rules and set the
expectations. The classroom rules are definite and consistent for the
purpose of instilling discipline. Teachers also model classroom rules in
their interaction with students.
According to Sumara and Walker, the process of socialization at the
beginning of the school year is planned, deliberate, and critical to the
success of the language arts program (Tompkins, 2002).
C. Story Reading
Young children are aware of what makes a story. Knowledge about
stories is called a concept of story. It includes knowing the elements,
structure such as plot, character, setting, theme and information about the
authors style and conventions. Children’s concept is usually intuitive. They
are not conscious of what they know.

Researchers have documented that children’s concept of story begins

in the preschool years and that children as young as two years old have a
rudimentary sense of story (Tompkins, 2002). This concept is acquired by
listening to stories, reading, telling, and writing, stories by themselves.
Among older children the story structure is more complex like the plot
structures are more organized and characters are more clearly presented
and fully developed. Even Kindergarten pupils have developed the
concepts of a story usually using three markers: Once upon a time…; to
 begin a story; the past tense in telling a story and formal endings such as
“The End” or “and they lived happily ever after.”
Children’s concept of a story contributed to a better understanding of
the stories read and even through reading and writing experiences. As
soon as they learn to explore stories, they learn about elements of story
structure.
Key concepts in story reading (Tompkins, 2002)
1. The concept of story is acquired by reading and writing stories and by
learning about the elements of story structure.
2. Stories are distinguished from other forms of writing by their unique
structural elements such as plot, characters, setting, point of view, and
theme.
3. Teachers present lessons about the elements of story structure and
students apply what they have learned from stories read.
4. The concept of story informs and supports the reading of stories which
is done aesthetically.
5. Comprehension involves three factors: the reader, the text, and the
purpose.
6. Teachers involve students in varied activities to develop students’ use
of all five comprehension processes.
7. Students read and write stories as part of literature focus units,
literature circles, reading and writing workshops, and theme cycles.

V. Exceptional Development: Aphasia and Dyslexia

Language disorder refers to any systematic deviation in the way people
speak, listen, read, write or sign that interferes with their ability to
communicate with their peers (Crystal 1987 as cited by Piper, 1989).
Language disability covers a wide spectrum of dysfunction as in fluency
and articulation disorders. This affects the structure, content and even the use
of language. There are many causes but a large proportion of cases are
traced from brain damage resulting in mental or physical disability: This can
have serious effects on language skills. Deafness is also a physical
impairment that causes language disorders.
The disorders themselves vary according to the degree of severity and the
level of language they affect. The language impairments that is caused by
specific brain damage are called aphasias.
Aphasia is the loss of ability to use and understand language. It excludes
other language disorders caused by physical conditions such as deafness.
 Aphasia can be categorized according to the particular area of the brain
that is damaged into receptive, expressive and global aphasias.

Receptive aphasia is also referred to as sensory aphasia or “Wernicke’s

aphasia”. It results from a lesion to a region in the upper back part of the
temporal lobe of the brain called Wernicke’s area. People afflicted with this
type of aphasia manifest no difficulty in articulation or disfluency. What is
affected is comprehension resulting in speech marked by repeated patterns of
formulaic phases, by unintelligible sequences of words or odd combinations of
words or even phonemes. Sufferers of receptive aphasia experience
problems in retrieving from memory (Piper, 1998).

Expressive aphasia also called motor aphasia and “Broca’s aphasia”

after the French neurologist who found that damage to the lower back part of
the frontal lobe interferes with speaking ability, is characterized by severe in
impairment and articulation and speaking ability. It is caused by the damage
to the lower back part of the frontal lobe resulting in slow and labored speech,
defective individual sounds usually with hesitation in the prosodic features of
utterance. Grammar is not attended to as seen in sentences that are very
short and telegraphic in structure. Expressive aphasics, however, experience
no difficulty with comprehension.
Global aphasia is characterized by the combined symptoms of expressive
and receptive aphasia. Global aphasics have limited comprehension and
speech is minimal. Since recovery of those afflicted with this disorder is poor,
there is very insignificant improvement in performance. This is why this type of
aphasia is sometimes is referred to as irreversible aphasia syndrome
(Piper,1998).
Most schools provide specialist for the diagnosis of aphasic children in
particular those who have not been identified before they reach school age.
Dyslexia is defective reading. It represents loss of competency due to
brain injury, degeneration and developmental failure to keep pace with
reading instruction. It is often classified as a developmental (a general failure
in learning) or as specific (in contrast to general learning failure). An individual
does not have mental defects, but he experiences a severe reading disability.
Defective reading is oftentimes traced form environmental origin. It is
genetically determined.
Tentative anatomical evidence supporting the existence of cerebellar
involvement in dyslexia is suggested by the cerebellar atrophy or aphasia
reported on neuroradiological examinations of learning-disabled children.
Structural cerebellar abnormalities have also been reported from
computerized tomography and autopsy studies of adult schizophrenic persons
(Piper, 1998).
Anatomical findings along with sensorimotor manifestations usually
observed in directional coordination and rhythm and other background
difficulties suggest that reading problems are caused by vestibule-cerebellar
mechanisms in conjunction with higher brain levels (Piper, 1998).
The visual-spatial form of dyslexia corresponds to the following types:
Dyseidetic, Agnostic Dyslexia, Visual-perceptual, Visual Dyslexia,
Visualspatial, Left-hemisphere Strategy-type L, Surface and Type S.
The acquired adults dyslexias result from lesions in the visual association
cortex or the corpus callosum. This provides a useful background for
understanding these phenomena in children. At the same time, extrapolation
from adult dyslexia to childhood reading difficulty is risky. In the former a
mature brain loses an existing function, and in the latter a function is not
acquire well by a changing brain. There is evidence, however, that the
developmental dyslexias may not be neuropsychologically distinct form
acquired dyslexias (Piper, 1998). For this reason, adult acquired dyslexias
can be useful models for those in children, because the relationships between
CNS function and structure can be explicated through known lesions in adults
(Piper, 1998).
The two adult conditions of posterior alexia and dysgnosia affect the
visualspatial dyslexias in children.
Posterior Alexia. Dejerine (as cited by Piper, 1998) initially described the
syndrome of posterior alexia in an adult who could write but not read. The
adult was suffering from a lesion that involves the medial and inferior aspects
of the left occipital lobe and the splenium of the corpus callosum. Dejerine
was of the opinion that the visual pathways of the left occipital area had been
destroyed by the lesion and had cut-off the connection between the right
hemisphere visual area and the left hemisphere language area. The patient
had no problems with spoken language or written language and could see
written material adequately. Dejerine conjectured that for as long as the
center for the interpretation of the visual images of written language which is
the dominant angular gyrus was intact and isolated from visual information,
the patient could retain normal language, including the ability to write,
however he will still be unable to read (Piper, 1998).
An optic alexia is seen in adults with occipital lesions where letters similar
in configuration area mistaken form another, for example, m and n or k and x.
Another form of alexia, referred to as verbal alexia is also associated with
occipital lesions where patients could easily recognize letters but could not
 grasp whole words. Words have to be put together letter by letter. Optic alexia
is accompanied by a gaze disturbance in which patients easily lost their place
in lines and picked out fragment from different lines (Piper, 1998).
Dysgnosia means inefficient recognition. The term was introduced by
Sigmund Freud in 1891 to mean loss of the ability to recognize objects.
An agnostic dyslexia remains after a more generalized agnosia in adults
with brain lesions. Patients can read but throw a slow, letter by letter analysis
of a word. When there are errors in reading, this results in distortions of words
rather than meanings. There is awareness of errors and resulting frustration.
Slips of the tongue may be cues to unconscious concern on the part of the
individual in the same way. Children’s misreading may have psychodynamic
significance (Piper, 1998). Subjective meaningful reading considers errors
reflective of a conflict between what is printed on a page and a child’s own
concerns. An inadequate separation of internal fantasy and external stimuli
may be manifested.

Study Guide
1. Why is it important for teachers to know about linguistic and literacy
development of children and adolescents?
2. What are the relevance of knowing theories of language development?
 Chapter 4 Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents
Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the theories of cognition.
2. Explain the various theories of intelligence and learning styles.
3. Describe the factors affecting development.
4. Categorize exceptional development.

I. Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, Informationprocessing

Theories, Bio-cultural Theories
Cognition is the process of learning in the broadest sense that includes
perception, memory, judgement and thinking. It is both a mental activity and
behavior that provides an understanding of the world arising from biological,
experiential, motivational and social influences.
There are a variety of theories that attempt to explain the pattern of
cognitive development in children.
Piaget made two important observations on the development of the first
intelligence test started by Alfred Binet.
First, children of the same age tended to make the same mistakes and get
the same answers wrong.
Second, errors of children of a particular age differed in systematic ways
from those of older or younger children.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development that relates to difference in the
ways of thinking and understanding the world was shaped by the errors of
children. Piaget maintains that children’s incorrect responses on tests were
more enlightening than their correct responses.
Piaget used two methods to study children’s thinking: interviews and
observations. In his interviews, children would be presented a problem to
solve or a question to answer. Afterwards they were made to explain their
thinking. In his observational research, he would watch closely the behavior of
children, as they tried solving the problem presented.

A. Piaget’s Main Tenet: The Child Actively Seeks Knowledge

According to Piaget children actively seek out information. Such
information is in turn adapted to the children’s acquired knowledge and
conceptions about the world. It is from their experiences that children
 construct their understanding of reality, a view held by the constructivist.
Children have the capacity as well to organize this knowledge into an
increasingly complex cognitive structure called schemata.

A schema (plural schemata) is an organized unit of knowledge. This

child uses this to be able to understand a situation or an experience and
which will serve as basis for organizing actions to respond to the
environment.
Different schemata change as the children develop. For example,
sucking which is an innate reflex and a reaction pattern is a newborn
schema. As the child advances in age and gains added experiences
whatever schemata possessed shift from motor activities to mental
activities, referred to as operations. This operations increase in complexity
as the child ages.
Piaget opined that schemata are modified by organization and
adaptation.
Organization is the predisposition to combine simple physical or
psychological structures into more complex systems. Structures are
viewed from larger dimension and not on limited parameters.
Adaptation involves the processes of assimilation and accommodation
that are complementary.

Adaptation is adjusting one’s thinking according to environmental

demands.
Assimilation is making use of an existing schema to a new experience.
Accommodation is modifying an existing schema to make it work in a
new experience.
The Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget divided intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive
structures of children into four stages; children go through these changes
although changes may not occur at the same age. Development however
necessitates the attainment of the earlier stages to reach the later periods of
development.
1. Sensorimotor Stage – from birth to two years
This is the stage where the child is able to use internal
representation of external events without simply relying on reflexes.
This period is divided into six sub-stages characterized by the ability of
 the child to explore the physical environment and engaging in symbolic
thought and deferred imitation.
During this stage, a child makes the transition from relying on
reflexes to using external representation of external events. Piaget
divided this period into six sub-stages, during with the child physically
explores the environment, developing such activities as symbolic
thought, and deferred imitation.
The sub-stages include basic reflex activity, primary circular
reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary
circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and inventing new means
using mental combination. It is in these sub-stages that children
gradually acquire an understanding of the world and what is referred to
as object permanence.
Piaget’s view of object permanence that children may acquire,
including ideas about properties of objects and the principles of the
physical word as causality had already been acquired earlier than
Piaget thought, claimed his critics.
Recently, researchers interested in early knowledge systems have
begun to study the understanding by very young infants of the physical
world, including physical laws, such as containment numerosity. They
claim this type of understanding basic to functioning as a person and
make-up what they call core knowledge. However, there is an ongoing
debate whether the core knowledge systems are innate or learned
early in life. There are also efforts exerted to interpret the evidence
from young infants exploring such ideas.
2. Pre-operational Stage – two to seven years
One major development in the pre-operational development of
symbolic function as the ability to use symbols such as words, images,
gestures, to represent real objects and events. This is reflected in the
use of language in creative writing, in imaginative play and even in an
increase in deferred imitation. Pre-operational stage is divided into
preconceptual stage and the intuitive stage.

The pre-conceptual sub-stage limit’s children thinking to animistic

thinking – such as attributing lifelike characteristics to inanimate
objects. Children during this stage are egocentric. They view things
from their own perspective and usually find it difficult to accept and
understand other person’s view.
 The intuitive sub-stage affords the children to use certain mental
operations but may not be aware of the principles used for lack of
ability to explain them. They have limited ability in problems involving
partwhole relations even in classification and conservation.
It is to be noted that the notion of conservation is the most
important of acquisition of the pre-operational stage. The child at this
stage is able to learn to conserve numbers but not physical properties
as mass and volume.
Piaget proposed that three characteristic of pre-operational thought
limit children’s thinking. The first is the child’s inability to understand
reversibility, that logical operations can be changed back to the original
state and there are logical steps involved in an operation. The second is
the tendency to focus on ends rather than means. The third characteristic
is centration or focus on only one dimension of a problem. 3. Concrete
Operational Stage - seven to eleven
Children are able to perform tasks that they were unable to do and
master in the preceding stage, like conservation, classification, and
partwhole relations.
4. Formal Operations Stage – eleven to sixteen years
This is the stage when children can use abstract reasoning and can
be flexible whenever they consider varied solutions to a problem.
However, not all children, even adults attain this stage, formal
operations depend upon the nature of the problem to be solved and
the preparation acquired from formal schooling.
Piaget’s concept of egocentrism and object permanence have
implication on the child’s learning process and even in distinguishing
himself from others. Recent research on children’s theory points to the
mind guides the child’s own behavior and that of others.

B. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Following the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, the Soviet government
hired Russian Psychologist Lev Vygotsky to create a school system that
would serve the ends of the new communist regime. Vygotsky devised a
theory of child development that was unique. His death in 1938 and the
historical events that followed WW II and the Cold War resulted in his work
remaining only unknown outside the Soviet Union for decades. Recently
however, the developmentalists have become interested in his views on
the influence of cultural forces on individual development.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory asserts that complex forms of thinking
have their origins in social interactions rather than in the child’s private
explorations as Piaget thought. According to Vygotsky, children’s learning
of new cognitive skills is guided by an adult for a more skilled child, such
as an older sibling who structures the child’s learning experience, a
process Vygotsky called scaffolding. To create an appropriate scaffold, the
adult must gain and keep the child’s attention, model the best strategy,
and adapt the whole process to the child’s developmental level, or zone of
proximal development (Laundry, Garner, Swank & Baldwin, 1996 as cited
by Bee and Boyd, 2002). Vygotsky used this term to signify tasks that are
too hard for the child to do alone but that he can manage with guidance.
For example, parents of a beginning reader provide a scaffold when they
help him sound out new words.
Vygotsky’s interest in the child’s potential for intellectual growth led him
to develop the concept of the zone of proximal development. For years,
this concept laid the foundation for the application of scaffolding. In this
process, teacher makes adjustment in the amount and type of support he
gives to the child as he tries to acquire a skill. When the child has acquired
the skill, teacher withdraw support. This is similar to concepts of reciprocal
instruction and guided participation.

Reciprocal instruction stems from the use of community learners’

models whereby learning abilities and skills development are acquired
through social interaction.
Guided participation emphasizes the cognitive development through
active participation of both the learners and the more experienced people,
usually in cultural activities of the community.
Vygotsky’s ideas have important educational applications. Like Piaget’s
Vygotsky’s theory suggests the importance of opportunities for active
exploration. But assisted discovery will play a greater role in a Vygotskian
than in a Piagetian classroom; the teacher would provide the scaffolding
for children’s discovery, through questions, demonstrations, and
explanations (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988 as cited by Bee and Boyd,
2002). To be effective, the assisted discovery processes would have to be
within the zone of proximal development of each child.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the need for social interaction in
facilitating the child’s development. It assumes that the thought processes
 that are internalized accrue from interaction with others in the social
environment.
The shifts in the use of symbols and language give way to the honing
of intellectual capacities that is manifested in the transitions between
elementary mental functions and higher mental functions.

Two Principles of Cultural Influence in Vygotsky’s Theory

First, cultures are varied. They use different ways, tools and setting to
facilitate children’s development.
Second, variations in culture as well as culture contexts must be
considered in assessing children’s cognitive development.
Vygotskian theory recognizes the important role language plays in
learning the art of communication and regulating other intellectual function
as children engage in social speech, egocentric speech, and inner
speech.
Egocentric speech is the transition from the social activity of children to
a more individualized activity which involves thinking until they are able to
overcome difficulties. From egocentric speech develops the inner speech.
Egocentric speech takes the form of a self-directed dialogue while the
child instructs herself in solving problems and drawing up plans. It is in the
age of maturity that egocentric speech materialized to inner speech.
Inner speech is egocentric speech that has been internalized and
which develops intellectual capacities.
According to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, learning is
fundamentally a socially mediated activity.
Thinking and problem solving according to Vygotsky have three
categories:
1. Some can be performed independently by the child.
2. Others cannot be performed even with the help from others.
3. Between the lst two are tasks that can be performed with help from
others.
The task in number three are in the zone of proximal development. If a
child uses these cognitive processes with the help of others, such as
teachers, parents, and other students, they will become skills and abilities
 that can be independently practiced. As Vygotsky puts it, “What the child is
able to do in collaboration today, he will be able to do independently
tomorrow.” In reading instruction, the term independent level, instructional
level and frustration level correspond to Vygotsky’s zone, with instructional
level being the same as the zone of proximal development.
C. Information-Process Theories
The information-processing theory approach takes the human mind as
a system that processes as information. This is similar to computer
programming where the process involved are subject to limitations and
observance of logical rules. This views development according to
cognitive competencies as derived from changes in the processes and
strategies applied in the process.
Several basic assumptions of information-processing approaches are:
1. Thinking is information processing
2. Mechanisms of change is important to describe.
3. The cognitive system is self-modifying
4. Careful task analysis is crucial
Explanation of number 1. Mental activity or thinking is putting into the
mind whatever information there is to process in ways or means that can
render the information understandable, functional and usable. There are
underlying questions about how the processes such as perceiving,
encoding, representing and storing information, change as children get
older and have more experiences with the world.
Explanation of number 2. Mechanisms like encoding, strategy
instruction, automatization, and generalization all together help in
instituting change in the children’s cognitive skills. Constantly used
cognitive skills eventually become a routine. Where these are automatized
the cognitive system are better able to work on new aspects of the
problems, which may require application of new cognitive skills.
Explanation of number 3. Child is able to modify his responses to new
situations or problems by using the acquired knowledge and strategies
from solving earlier problems. With a powerful knowledge base new and
better ways of responding to situations are developed. Thus, children play
an active role in their own cognitive development.

Explanation of number 4. Child’s cognitive performance is dependent

on the problem or situation and the ability to handle such according to his
level of development. A careful task analysis is needed to appraise the
child’s actual performance and how the performance vary according to
 change. Most likely, the analysis will reveal of children how different ages
understand, approach and solve a problem, and what strategies they
apply in solving problems. Careful task analysis often involves error
analysis or attending to the errors children make. This involves examining
incorrect answers for evidence of less sophisticated, although systematic,
strategies that children apply to problems. Such analysis often relies on a
method called microgenetic analysis.
Microgentic analysis calls for a close scrutiny, a detailed examination
of how a child solves a problem on a particular learning situation or in the
succeeding learning activities that immediately follow.
Metacognition is the individual’s knowledge and control of cognitive
activities. It is knowledge that develops through time, over childhood and
which includes knowledge of the self, his frame of mind, knowledge about
task and the strategies that can be applied.
D. Bio-cultural Theories
One of the most current trends in developmental psychology is the
established link between physiological processes and development
explained through universal changes and individual differences.
Theories of Nativism, Ethology and Sociobiology
1. Nativism views human as endowed with genetic traits seen in all
members of the species, regardless the differences in their
environments. Developmentalists who adhere to the nativist theory
hold that peculiarity in behavior can be identified early in life,
developed in all individuals in every culture but do not exist in other
species. Example: a child learns to speak the language in the absence
of formal instructions of adults at home, he learns by imitating and by
hearing. Actually, no evidence has been found of grammatical
language in non-human species.
To some critics, nativism reduces the impact of environment in
learning a language. While it is true that children learn language in the
same way, still environment factors and characteristics of language
cannot be discounted where the rate at which a language is learned is
taken into account.
2. Ethology points to genetically survival behaviors assumed to have
evolved through natural selection. Ethologists say that nature has
equipped birds with nest-building genes which is imperative for
survival.
 Likewise, as claimed by exponents of ethology even emotional
relationships are important for infants’ survival. Emotional bonding is
achieved between the infant and the mother every time he attends to
the needs of the infant. As ethologists’ say, even infants’ crying is
genetically programmed, and adults are genetically programmed to a
baby’s crying needs. The interaction between the infant and the adult
increases the prospect of infant’s survival.
Ethologists on one hand are criticized for placing too much
emphasis on heredity. For one, ethological theories are hard to test for
the same reason that behavior like attachment for survival is difficult to
quantify or explain.
3. Sociobiology focuses on the study of society using the methods and
concepts of biological science. Like the ethologists, sociobiology
emphasizes genes that aid group survival. Living in groups affords
humans better chances of survival. As claimed by the exponents of
sociobiology even the concept of cooperation is genetically
programmed.
To support their views, sociologists look for social rules and
behaviors that exist in all cultures. For example, any society has to put
up a set of rules to regulate conduct of human behavior. Respect for
other people’s rights is deemed an imperative to and orderly society.
Where laws/rule are want only disregarded, conflicts arise and people
cannot leave in peace and in harmony with others. Sociologists claim
that respect for people’s lives is genetically programmed.
Critics of sociobiology do not seem to favor the genes. They claim
sound rules that govern life in a society are passed on over many
generations because they are workable through language not genes.
Behavior Genetics aver that a broad range of traits and behaviors
like intelligence, shyness and aggressiveness are a result of heredity.
Heredity provides for individual differences. Whatever traits or
behaviors children acquire are said to be influenced by genes coming
from related people.
Further, hereditary traits are observable across the lifespan. It has
been found that children who are stubborn and can be difficult to get
along encounter more problems in the adult life. Likewise, good
tempered children in their young age look at life more positively and
therefore were able to adjust to difficult and complicated situations in
life. On the other hand, bad tempered children had fewer years of
school, less achievements in life, and with low paying jobs.
 Such studies also show that environments determine how
apparently hereditary traits affect an individual development, and to
what extent. For instance, only ill-tempered boys with low status
occupations change jobs often in their adulthood. Those with jobs with
high status had more stable careers.
Such findings point to psychological behavior as a product of both
heredity and environment. Inherited characteristics continue over time
reflected in the same response patterns that influence human reaction
to world realities.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Another approach gaining interest in developmental Psychology is
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. This theory explains development
in terms of relationships between people and their environment, or
contexts, as Bronfenbrenner calls them. He attempts to classify all the
individual and contextual variables that affect development and to
specify how they interact.
The contexts of development are like circles within circles. The
outermost circle, the macrosystem (or the cultural context), contains
the values and beliefs of the culture in which a child is growing up. For
example, a society’s beliefs about the importance of education exist in
the cultural context.
The next level, the exosystem (the socioeconomic context) are the
cultural institutions which have indirect influence on the child’s
development. For example, institutions acknowledge that it is the duty
of government to provide the basic services (cultural context) but the
inability of the government to provide its citizens the basic services is
hampered by the economic slowdown and budget deficits
(socioeconomic context).
The microsystem (or the immediate context) includes those units
that have directly influence on the children. Examples are: families,
schools, religious institutions, and neighborhoods.
The mesosystem consists of the interconnections between these
components. For example, the specific schools a child attends and her
own family are part of the microsystem. The parents involvement in the
school and the response of the school to their involvement are part of
the mesosystem. Thus, the culture a child is born into may strongly
 value quality education. Moreover, the nation’s economy may provide
ample funds for schooling. However, her own education will be more
strongly affected by the particular school she attends and the
connections or lack thereof, between her school and her family. Thus,
the child’s immediate context may be either consistent with the cultural
and socioeconomic contexts or at odds with them.

The child’s development is also influenced by his genetic make-up.

This is attributed to the biological context. Learning and mastering a
specific skill is dependent on a combination of his culture,
socioeconomic status and family. The ability to make use of such
mastery will still be determined by the degree to which his learning skill
fits his individual needs.
Ecological theory calls for a way of thinking that development is a
complex of individuals and contextual variables and that development
is a result of the combined effects of all contexts.
II. Individual Differences: Theories of Intelligence that Influence Individual
Differences
Information-processing researchers’ interest in information process has
given way to a new direction in the study of intelligence and intelligence
testing. Information-processing believe that to understand intelligence, we
must supplement traditional IQ tests with procedures that asses the
components of information-processing, such as memory and problem-solving
abilities people use in performing intellectual tests.
A. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Stenberg
This theory points to three major components of intelligent behavior:
information-processing skills; experience with a given task or situation; and
ability to adjust one’s behavior to the demands of a context.
Information-processing skills are required to encode, combine, and
compare varying kinds of information.
From experience an individual can automize information over repeated
experiences in doing a task. There is a relative difference in intelligence
between performance of one who experienced doing a particular task or years
than one who has not.
Context accepts the view that people function according to different
situations and try to adapt to the demands of a situation by selecting and
shaping other situation as necessary to meet their own needs.
 Stenberg has developed a theory of successful intelligence as an
extension of his triarchic theory. This states that man can mold, shape
environment to meet his needs as well as that of society through analytical,
creative and practical abilities.
Analytical abilities refer to the power to apply logical reasoning to arrive
at the best answer to a question.
Creative abilities involve imagining and devising new ways of addressing
issues and concerns including present demands.
Practical abilities involve the use of tacit knowledge or common sense.
These are day-to-day activities people used in the process of social and
professional interaction within the family and in the workplace.

B. The Gender Schema Theory

The Gender Schema Theory of Sandra Bem has evolved from the social
learning approach and is a variation of the cognitive development theory. This
theory postulates an organizational pattern of behaviors that enables children
to sort out perceived information. The organized information revolves around
what the society defines and classifies in terms of accepted behavior patterns
and individual differences and the principle of gender. For example, boys do a
different set of tasks more complicated than that of girls. Girls also go for
ribbons and laces while boys are interested in balls and wagons.
Children develop a self-concept that fits this particular schema, adapting
for themselves the society’s notion of male and female better known as
society’s gender schema. Boys and girls learn to judge their behavior
according to social standards. For example, boys learn that it is important to
be strong and aggressive, while girls learn to judge their own behavior and to
measure their self-esteem by social standards.

C. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner, the exponent of the theory of multiple intelligences,
opines that human beings have seven kinds of intelligences. After 1999, he
added a new intelligence which he called as naturalist intelligence. He
claimed that the number of intelligences can even be greater than eight and
possibly be nine which he called spirituality or existential intelligence.
Three of the types of intelligence in his initial list, linguistic,
logicalmathematical, and spatial are similar to the kinds of abilities assessed
in traditional intelligence test. The remaining types have been much less
widely studied, yet according to Gardner, they are equally important to human
functioning. For example, interpersonal intelligence may be of crucial
importance to a parent, a nurse or a teacher. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence
may greatly facilitate the performance of a dancer or an athlete and even a
sports medicine professional (Hetherington, et.al 2006).
8 Multiple Intelligences
1. Linguistic - the ability to use language effectively. There are people
who are proficient in the use of the language, can speak and write, and
possess knowledge about grammar and therefore are better off in oral
and written communication. They are those who show greater linguistic
intelligence.
2. Logical-Mathematical - facility with numbers and logical
problemsolving. Logical-mathematical intelligence affords individuals to
learn the science of numbers more easily and come up with logical
solutions to different problems.
3. Visual-Spatial - ability to appreciate works of art like paintings and
sculptures.
4. Bodily Kinesthetic - the ability to move in a coordinated way usually
common among athletes and those involved in athletics.
5. Musical - the ability to appreciate and produce music. This intelligence
is seen among musicians, singers, composers, and conductors who
have an ear for rhythm and melody.
6. Interpersonal - sensitivity to the behavior, moods, and needs of others.
People who have this intelligence are called “Helping Professionals.”
Examples are counselors, social workers, ministers, and the like.
7. Intrapersonal - the ability to understand oneself. This intelligence is
manifested by people who are able to identify their strengths. They are
good at choosing their goals in life.
8. Naturalist - the ability to be attached to the natural worlds, being able
to discriminate between the flora and fauna, patterns and designs of
human artifacts.
One of the most controversial issues in the study of human
intellectual functioning is the question of how individual differences
develop in intelligence. As early as 1969, there had been claims from
psychologist, Arthur Jensen that as much as 80 percent of difference in
IQ were attributable to genetic or inherited factors. Only a small portion
of differences comes from social environmental factors.
Jensen proposes two types of learning, both inherited but each
distinct from the other:
 Associative learning (Level 1 learning) involves short term memory,
rote learning, attention, and simple associative skills. For example, a
set of objects is presented to a childlike number series and then the
child is asked to recall them.
Cognitive learning (Level 2 learning) a child as he moves on to a
higher level of learning can engage in abstract thinking, analyzing
symbols, learn concepts, and even use language in problem solving.
The ability to answer questions is an example of cognitive learning
such as:
How is a male different from a male?
What does a knife symbolize for teenagers?
The cognitive learning abilities are mostly measured by intelligence
tests. Jensen opines that cognitive learning predicts school
achievement for it manifest the mount of knowledge one is able to
acquire and therefore is a measure of performance. According to
Jensen, associative learning is distributed across people, but Level II
learning is more concentrated in the middle class than in working class
(Hetherington, 2006).
D. Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance
Achievement motivation comes in various manifestations: a tendency to
strive for successful performance, to evaluate performance against specific
standards of excellence, and to experience pleasure out of a successful
performance. This academic motivation impacts on the children’s
performance along with experiences in the family, school, peers, and
community.
Achievement motivation and intellectual performance vary according to the
child’s idea or concept of himself, as a person or as a learner. This is referred
to as self-esteem. The child’s self-esteem index is influenced by his negative
feeling about learning tasks which consequently affects his learning capacity
in some areas. If this happens, the learner gets distracted from the task and
the learning process is not successful.
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is the capacity to think and understand. It includes the
combination of various separate abilities that includes verbal communication,
abstract thinking logical reasoning and use of common sense.
 Over the years, four different conceptual approaches to intelligence have
emerged, the psychometric approach, factor analysis and general intelligence
and the cognitive approach.
1. The Psychometric Approach refers to measurement of hidden intelligence
or mental characteristics. Through analysis of results of intelligence tests
the structure of human intelligence is caused by one factor or a
combination of factors. The Psychometric approach was established by
British psychologist Charles Spearman.
2. Factor Analysis and General Intelligence. This approach is similar to the
concept of “factoring” in mathematics where complex algebraic
expressions are simplified to arrive at the common multiplier of all terms.
Applied to intelligence, factor analysis establishes the relation of different
measures of intelligence. Factor analysis will reveal a different common
factor given a particular situation. For instance, one maybe adept in
Mathematics in particular in solving problems involving complicated
solutions but poor in giving meaning to symbols in a story.
Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence stating that all
measures of intelligence could be divided into two independent factors: a
general factor of g or general intelligence and the s factor or individual
tasks. Intellectual tasks are correlated, and each has specific factors that
affect performance. There are different s factors in the individual task
which influence the correlation between tasks.
3. The Cognitive Approach concerns itself with the processes that result to
intelligent behavior. The products of intelligence come from mental
operations that enable one to give answers to questions and solutions to
problems.
The cognitive approach aims at describing the specific components of
a given intellectual task and spell out the mental activities/operations to be
able to perform the task.
Different people use specific mental processes. They vary according to
the speed and rate the individual uses them. This is why cognitive
theorists consider the individual differences in learning.
A noted psychologist, Robert Stenberg has argued that there is a joint
operation of components and metacomponents of intelligence.
Components include all the cognitive processes that afford the person the
ability to respond to stimuli, store information, perform mental
comparisons, arrive at solutions, and engage in a system of recall from
long-term memory.
 Metacomponents are the higher-order processes that we use to
analyze a problem and to pick a strategy for solving it.
4. The Implicit Theory Approach asserts that intelligence is that which is used
every day. A person manifests practical intelligence by trying to analyze
situations, solve problems, and interpret information by being conscious of
the implications of his actions on others.
III. Factors Affecting Development: Three Factors which Affect Modern
Development, Psychologists point to Age-Related Changes – Universal, Group
Specific, and Individual

A. Universal Changes
Universal changes are changes all individuals undergo as biological
organism. We all go through the process of growth and maturation as we age.
Every organism is subject to a genetically programmed maturing process. In
other words, all physical changes that happen from infancy to adulthood are
programmed and are part of the plan for the physical body.
Some changes are universal arising from shared experiences that
eventually serve as shared patterns of normal experiences like the right time
to marry, right time to enter into a serious relationship and the right time to live
an independent life. Even the concept of three meals a day, breakfast, lunch
and dinner is a shared universal experience.
Age norms can lead to ageism, a set of prejudicial attitudes about older
adults, analogous to sexism and racism (Palmore, 1990 as cited by Bee and
Boyd, 2002). For example, as workers age, they are perceived to be less
efficient, traditional in their ways because they are no longer receptive to
change. Although this is more of a misconception, still the idea of retirement
due to age has revolved around the social expectations about the appropriate
age for retirement, prompting people to set a specific retirement age or simply
reduce working hours in later adulthood.
B. Group-Specific Changes
Group-specific changes are changes manifested and observed from
members growing up together in a particular group and hence influenced
heavily by the dominant culture. This includes a system of meanings,
customs, language values, attitudes, traits, laws, beliefs, moral guidelines,
and physical artifacts like tools, work of arts and dwellings. This complex and
diversified totality of symbols and meanings are handed down from one
generation to another and shape the development of the individual.
C. Individual Changes
These are changes typical of particular individuals and which result from
unique, unshared events. Every individual is unique, a product of a unique
combination of genes which sets him apart from anyone. This is attributed to
genetic differences. For example, body build, body type, skin color, facial
contours, represents the category of individual differences. There are also
characteristics unique to person like intelligence and personality, which
constitute another class of individual differences.
Other individual differences according to child development theorists are
the result of the timing of a development event. They are the critical period
and the sensitive period.
The critical period is the stage at which an individual is most sensitive to
the presence or absence of some particular experience.
The sensitive period is the stage at which a child may be particularly
responsive to specific forms of experience or particularly influenced by their
absence. A situation where a child between 6 to 12 months under the care of
a nanny in the absence of a working mother spends less hours with the child
will most likely impact on the emotional bonding between mother and child.
Still another important concept related to timing is the idea of on-time and
off-time events (Neugartea, 1979 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002). It says an
experience that occurs at a time expected possess lesser difficulties than one
which is not. Since the situation comes when it is expected, the individual is
able to make preparations or adjustment to meet the demands of the change.
Unexpected changes in life patterns may cause serious disruptions in the
regular activities and eventually pose hazards to the individual.
Atypical Development
It is another kind of individual change. This kind of development is harmful to
the individual in that it deviated from the typical or normal development path.
Usually, this points to the abnormal or maladaptive behavior. An alcoholic,
drug addict, mentally retarded, even those with hyperactivity disorder are
examples of deviants or individuals with atypical development.
In the past, most developmentalists held the view that development was the
result of maturation. However, development has been viewed lately, in
particular by modern developmentalists as influenced by both environment
and genes.
Development is a continuous process involving smooth and gradual change
over time and in difficult steps or stages. Still some developmentalists argue
over the role played by individual or contextual, influences. As it is, they agree
that cultural context is a factor to any phase of development.
Some developmentalists continue to debate the question of whether
individual or contextual influences are more important in determining
development.
Most developmentalists agree however that cultural context must be
considered in any account of development.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development
Theories serve two functions. First, they help explain the knowledge about
how children develop and second, they encourage further research anchored
on predictions about behavior that can be tested and evaluated. While they
take varied positions on the issue or concept of development, they are seen
as being complimentary to each other.
Structural-organismic perspectives zero in on the composites of the
developing organism. They consider the quality of various changes in the
stages of human development. Freud’s psychodynamic theory and Erickson’s
psychosocial theory belong to this category. They assert that a child responds
to a set of biological drives. Freud recognizes the early experiences as
determinants of later development. For example, the development of
personality is always associated with the concepts of id, ego, and superego.
On one hand, from the Freudian theory is the deprivation or satisfaction
child’s drives that consequently impacts on the later adult personality.

Erickson expanded Freud’s theory to include social and cultural factors as

influences on the child’s development as well as to extend the theory into a
lifespan perspective. This psychosocial theory is based on the most important
tasks both personal and social that the individual must accomplish at a
particular stage.

Piagetian theory has the intellectual development as its focus. Development

is looked upon as resulting from the complex reorganization of understanding
as a child moves from one stage to another in terms of cognitive functioning.
This theory asserts the continuous search for new knowledge, information
and experiences that are vital for his functioning as a fully developed or
mature individual.
The early behaviorists proposed that learning is regulated by environmental
factors that define and modify patterns of behavior. They may either be
classical or operant conditioning.
 Cognitive social learning theory emphasizes other than behavior the
concepts of imitation as a form of learning. Learning according to this theory
results from the ability of the child to select the pattern of behavior to imitate.
Information-processing approaches have been applied in studies dealing
with cognitive development and social behavior. They focus on how a child
process information and uses this as guide in adapting a particular behavior
pattern.
Dynamic systems theories look at individuals as members of a system and
that this dynamic interaction contributes to their development. Behavior is
shaped by their constant relations with the members that make up the
system.
Contextual perspectives take into account in the matter of psychological
development, the contributions of cultural factors. According to Vygotsky, a
child interacts with his social environment. Development then as the child
ages, is guided by the more mature skilled others with whom the child
establishes a continuous relationship.
Ecological theory underscores the importance of the various environmental
systems to development. These include the family, school, community, and
culture. These are referred to as ecological systems – the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. In the ecological
theory perspective, a child acquires experiences from the environment, adds
such experiences to the built-n knowledge, and modify his understanding of
the environment.
Historical approaches acknowledge the contributions of historical events to
human development. Psychologists view development from a life-span
perspective.
Ethological theory describes development from a biological-evolutionary
approach. It concerns itself with the observation of behavior including
distinguishing features that cut across human societies, human cultures, and
even intrahuman species.
Evolutionary psychology touches on the cognitive development and how
cognitive capabilities and constraints influence the processes of human
evolution and meeting the survival needs.
Microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory focuses on the ways
children live and relate to people including institutions with the most number
of interactions like family, peers and school.
Mesosystem is the interrelations among the components of the microsystem.
 Exosystem is the actual situation a child is in that included the settings that
influence the development of the child and where the child is not directly a
participant.
Macrosystem is the system that surround the microsystem mesosystem and
exosystem; represents the values, ideologies and laws of society or culture.
Chronosystem is the time-based dimensions that can alter the operation of al
other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from microsystem through
macrosystem.
IV. Exceptional Development
Every child is unique to himself, in personality traits, in cognitive abilities,
in physical stature, in emotional stability and others. Among children, these
differences are highly noticeable. Even in the aspect of learning some children
are fast learner, those gifted with exceptional intellectual capabilities and
some are slow, those who function at significantly lower intellectual levels.
An IQ score above 130 signals intellectual giftedness whereas a score
below 70 in intelligence testing indicates mental retardation visibly
demonstrated by the child’s inability to cope with appropriate activities of
everyday life. Even among the gifted children, there can be difficulties in
learning attributed to language impairments and reading disabilities, called
dyslexia (Hetherington et.al., Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint,
2006).
Exceptional development in children can be seen in both the intellectually
gifted and those with intellectual deficits. Classified as intellectual deficits are
the following: Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, Pervasive
Developmental Disorder, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger’s Syndrome.
A. The Intellectually Gifted
Questions about how to educate a gifted child, one who has exceptional
intellectual capabilities have cropped up among almost everyone in particular
those involved in developmental studies – when to put an intellectually gifted
child in school, when to be accelerated, what activities for them to engage in
and when to skip grades. Things of these sort become crucial because,
placing a child in a situation where he has to meet and deal with adults may
likely disrupt his social and emotional development. Further, these children
may show preference for older children for company. According to Terman
(1954 as cited by Hetherington, 2006) one of the earliest leaders in the study
of the gifted child bright children are usually far ahead of their age-mates, not
just intellectually, but socially and physically as well. Some researchers
support these view (Richardson and Benbow, 1990, Hetherington 2006).
 Veronica Dark and Camilla Benbow (1993) suggest that the process that
underlie the cognitive achievements of gifted children are not unique – it is
simply that the gifted children are able to learn faster and more efficiently and
process information at a rapid pace, significantly better and different from the
rest.
There are educational alternatives for gifted children. Some of these are in
the form of enrichment programs like, special activities designed to make their
educational advancement more interesting and challenging. There are also
special classes for the gifted where they are made to involve themselves in
particular area of their interest. In some schools, enrichment programs consist
of special courses like creative writing, painting, and even dancing. The
important consideration however, is to ascertain the particular inclination of
the child. Since the knowledge about multiple intelligence as espoused by
Gardner, has come into practical application, more schools have began to
offer programs that are designed to harness the special talents of the
intellectually gifted (Gardner, 1993; Hetherington 2006).
B. Children with Intellectual Deficits
Down syndrome is characterized by a distinct physical appearance, and
physical and mental retardation. The most common physical characteristics
are almond shaped eyes, folded eyelids, and short stature. Children with
Down Syndrome are susceptible with respiratorial infections, heart disorders,
leukemia, and pneumonia. Mental retardation can be moderate to severe.
They are also at risk to develop Alzheimer’s disease later in life. However,
with the advancement of the treatment for physical disorders afflicting these
children, their life span has greatly increased. Some are able to reach age 60
(Hayes and Batshaw, 1993; Hetherington, 2006).
Down Syndrome is caused by a deviation in the set of chromosomes
labeled number 21. Normal individuals have a pair of these chromosomes as
against three for one who has Down Syndrome which is why the disorder is
also called trisomy 21. The extra 21 st chromosome most often comes from the
mother’s egg, when her homologous pair of 21 st chromosomes fails to
separate during meiosis. Male sperm carry the extra chromosome in only
about 5 percent of cases (Antonarakis and Down Syndrome Collaboration
Group, 1991; Hetherington, et.al., 2006). And for reasons that are not yet fully
understood, this error occurs more often as women age. The father’s age
matters, too; the rates of Down Syndrome births are higher for men over 50
(Hayes and Batshaw, 1993). Scientists have recently identified a gene that
may play a role in the mental retardation associated with Down Syndrome, but
other genes likely play a role as well (Smith, et.al., 1997).
 Infants with Down Syndrome may develop fairly normally for their first six
months, but unless they receive special therapy their rate of intellectual
growth begins to decline after about a year. These children are generally slow
to learn to speak and often have difficulty articulating words. They also have
trouble attending to, discriminating, and interpreting complex or subtle
information in their environments.

Table 2
Risk of Down Syndrome (Sources: Gardner and Sutherland, 1996; Hsu, 1998)
Maternal Age Down Syndrome Down Syndrome Frequency of Down
Detected at 9 to 11 Detected at 16 Syndrome Among
weeks by CVS weeks by Births
Amniocentesis
20-24 1 / 1,400
25-29 1 / 1,100
30 1 / 900
35 1 / 250 1 / 250 1 / 385
40 1 / 80 1 / 70 1 / 100
45 1 / 25 1 / 25 1 / 40
Over 45 1 / 20 1 / 15 1 / 25

Abnormalities may also arise in the sex chromosomes, whey they

are rarely fatal but will lead to various physical and psychological defects.
For examples, some females are born with only one X chromosome rather
than the normal XX pattern. Usually this occurs because the father’s
sperm contained neither an x nor a Y chromosome. Girls with this XO
pattern, called Turner Syndrome remain short, with stubby fingers,
misshaped necks, and unusually shaped mouths and ears. They usually
have normal intelligence, and they tend to be docile, pleasant, and not
easily upset. As teenagers they do not develop secondary sex
characteristics such as breast and pubic hair, unless given female
hormones. Because their internal reproductive organs do not develop
normally, they remain sterile throughout their lives. Women with Turner
Syndrome tend to have problems in social relationships because they are
immature and lacking in assertiveness.
(Hetherington, et.al., 2006). These problems are related in part to others’
responses to these women’s physical appearance. More important,
women with Turner Syndrome have difficulty discriminating and
interpreting emotional cues and facial expressions in others, skills
essential for appropriate social interactions (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Another sex chromosome abnormality found in females is the XXX
pattern, in which a girl inherits three X chromosomes instead of the normal
two. This triple X girls appear normal physically and have normal
secondary sexual development, but their cognitive abilities are affected,
especially their short-term memory and verbal skills (Robinson, Bender
and Linden, 1992; Rovet, Netley, Keenan, Bailey, and Stewart, 1996;
Hetherington, et.al, 2006).
1. Turner Syndrome is a chromosome abnormality found in females in
which secondary sex characteristics are developed only with the
administration of female hormones. Any abnormality in the internal
reproductive organs cause permanent sterility.
2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome is a form of chromosome abnormality
characterized by feminine physical like breast development and
rounded broad, hipped figure. When a male inherits an extra X
chromosome, it results in the XXY pattern, making him sterile. Similar
to a triple X female, an individual with this type of syndrome is
sometimes mentally retarded and has verbal language deficits and
reading problems.
A male who inherits an extra Y chromosome, the XYY pattern once
believed to be accompanied by excessive aggressiveness is very likely
to suffer some cognitive impairment. The XYY men generally age taller
than normal men, but they have not been shown to be anymore
aggressive or violent than others (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Some people carry an X chromosome that appears to be pinched
or narrowed in some areas, causing it to be quite weak or fragile. This
fragile X syndrome is more frequent in males than females accounting
for about 5 percent of retarded males with IQ scores ranging between
30 and 55. However, not all males with the fragile X syndrome are
retarded (Hagerman and Cronister, 1996; Jacobs, 1991; Hetherington,
et.al., 2006). Moreover, people with fragile X syndrome often have
physical abnormalities and psychological and social problems. More
common physical abnormalities are cleft palate, seizures, abnormal
EEG’s and eye disorders. Psychological and social problems include
anxiety, hyperactivity, attention deficits, and abnormal communication
patterns. Males may have deficits in social interaction, and females
 may be more likely to suffer from depression (Hagerman and Cronister,
1996; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
The severity of the manifested symptoms or persons with fragile X
syndrome arising from hereditary disorders is related to the degree to
which the person has a supportive environment. (Evans and Gray,
2000; Hodap, 2002; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
3. Pervasive Developmental Disorder is a collection of disorders
characterized by gross deficits in many areas of cognitive, emotional,
and social development. These result from severe and pervasive
impairment of social interaction and communication skills. (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Such disorders are often referred to as
psychoses (broadly, disturbances in which the person’s functioning is
so maladaptive that he or she is said to be out of touch with reality).
Behaviors are unusual and incapacitating than other forms of
psychoses.
Pervasive development disorders have often been confused with
schizophrenia a serious disorder characterized by hallucinations,
delusions, and other kinds of thought disorders not found in the
pervasive development disorders. These two disorders differ in ages of
onset: while pervasive development disorders, become evident in the
first few years of life schizophrenia most commonly manifests in late
adolescents or early adulthood. Schizophrenia is not found with any
great frequency in children.
4. Autistic Disorder is a pervasive developmental disorder otherwise
known as early infantile autism or childhood autism. The first to have
identified this disorder is psychiatrist Leo Kanner (another name for the
disorder is Kanner’s autism) who noted its many puzzling and siturbing
characteristics (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Autistic disorder is characterized by the inability of the children to
communicate and interact socially. These autistic children have
specific language deficiencies, demonstrates a need for sameness in
their environment, and engage in repetitive behaviors.
These features include:
a. Extreme autistic aloneness. An autistic is a loner. He expresses
lack of interest in other people.
b. Language abnormalities. Rather than engage in conversation, the
autistic tends to repeat the words rather than reply, answer or
engage in conversation.
 c. Repetitive behaviors. An autistic extends concentration on
something and preserves the sameness of the environment.
Public awareness about autism has improved. There are more films
and books about autism aside from the introduction of the use of a
broader diagnostic criterion thus increasing the number of children
being labeled autistic. Usually, autism commonly appears in boys than
in girls. (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
5. Asperger’s Syndrome was first identified by an Austrian physician
Hans Asperger in 1944 calling it a developmental disorder which has
many symptoms similar to that of autism. However, it is considered a
mild form of autism since people with this syndrome manifest a higher
mental functioning. DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders classifies Asperger’s as a separate disorder although
a controversy has existed as to whether it is a distinct syndrome or a
form of autism. Some professional believe that the definition of autism
should include Asperger’s because no biological tests have been yet
identified for either disorder.
Although Asperger’s syndrome and autism have many similarities,
there are important differences. Both are classified as pervasive
developmental disorder which impairments exist in social interaction,
communication and other range of activities and interest. The
differences lie in the degree of impairment. For example, an autistic
may have a delayed speech but an individual with Asperger’s does not
suffer from it, although he may have difficulty with understanding the
abstract forms of spoken language such as humor or irony (APA, 2000
as cited by Sousa, 2001).
Cognitive ability is another distinction between the two disorders.
Children with Asperger’s do not suffer from cognitive delay. In the case
of autistics, some are likely to have mental retardation. A person with
Asperger’s usually has an average to above average intelligence.
(APA, 2000 as cited by Sousa, 2001).
Other characteristics of Asperger’s which are not present in
autistics are the need for high stimulation, overdeveloped use of
imagination, have fewer language deficits are more social and willful in
their behavior.
These differences from autistic children are not noticeable at the early
elementary years, the reason why they go undiagnosed.
 Children with autism seem to have a world of their own. They prefer
inanimate objects to human interaction, avoid looking at others in the
eye and fail to regulate social interaction. Very often, they are not even
aware of themselves.
Echolalia is a form of autism where the autistic repeats what is said
by another rather than respond to a question. It is usually a word for
word repetition. If you are to ask an echolalic “Where do you live?” he
will answer by saying “Where do you live.” Moreover, they suffer from
language problem called pronoun reversals. Autistic refers to
themselves by “you” and to others as “I”. Even after acquiring speech,
still it is not used for effective social communication. They do not
respond to verbal comments.
Professionals working with these disorders, add that compared to
people with autism, those with Asperger syndrome have a need for
high stimulation, have an overdeveloped use of imagination, tend to be
more social, have fewer language deficits and are more willful in their
behavior. As a result of these differences, young children with
Asperger’s syndrome, often go undiagnosed through their early
elementary years because their strengths masked their deficits.
Asperger syndrome was first recognized in 1980 and sometimes
was confused with autism. Though both share same manifestations in
terms of social and affective deficits, children with Asperger syndrome
are able to progress in school at a rate farther than those who suffer
from autism (Gelfand and Drew, 2003; Pennington, 2002;
Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Autistic children seem to live in a different world, unmindful of the
immediate surroundings. They are not interested in other people, thus
lack social interaction. They may not be even aware of themselves.
Many autistic children learn to master only a few tasks of life. They
need constant help with feeding, cleaning, dressing, and even toileting.
The impression autistic children give is the presence of sensory deficits
though in reality their senses function adequately. The obsessive
selfstimulating behavior is noted among. Autistic children, like,
switching lights on or off throwing objects, and spinning of objects
(Baker, 2000).
Although Asperger disorder shares some of the social and affective
deficits associated with autism, children with Asperger symptomatology
do not show significant language delays and are often able to progress
 in school at a satisfactory rate (Gelfand and Drew, 2003; Pennington,
2002; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
It is difficult to imagine just how disturbed an autistic child is, but
once you have observed one of these unfortunate children, the
memory will last forever. If two autistic children are placed side by side
in a room full of toys, chances are they will ignore each other and most
of the toys. These children seem to be living is a world much different
from our own, a world in which they seem to prefer inanimate objects
to human interaction. Autistic children often avoid eye contact with
others and fail to modulate social interaction in any way. Often, they
appear to be unaware not only of other people but even of themselves.

Study Guide
1. Explain the intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive structures
of children.
2. Explain the concept of the zone of proximal development of Vygotsky.
3. Enumerate and explain the basic assumptions of information-processing
approach.
4. Compare and contrast the theories of nativism, ethology, and Socio-biology.
5. Explain the contextual variables that affect development and specify how they
interact.
6. Enumerate and explain the eight (8) multiple intelligences of Gardner.
7. Name the factors affecting development. How are they related to each other?
8. Discuss giftedness and mental retardation.

Chapter 5 Social and Emotional Development of Children and Adolescents

Objectives
1. Identify the various theories of socioemotional development
2. Reflect on the interaction between drives and cultural demands
3. Analyze how Bandura’s how social cognitive theory can best apply in life-like
situations.
4. Explain socialization and the development of identity and social relations
5. Analyze how the various theories of development of moral reasoning, attitudes,
and beliefs can best improve the development of individuals.
I. Theories of Socioemotional Development: Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory
of Human Development, Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theories,
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Theories related to the way children grow and mature have influenced
greatly the scientific approach to child development. First, they facilitate the
organization and integration of whatever information there is into a more
interesting, understandable, and coherent account of how children develop.
Second, the theories bring out testable predictions and interferences about
children’s behavior. However, in the field of child psychology, despite a
number of theories, still not one theory dominates that field, that is to say that
no single theory can explain comprehensively all aspects of human
development.

A. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development

Erickson considered development as resulting from the interaction
between internal drives and cultural demands; thus, his theory is about
psychosocial stages and not psychosexual ones.
Development according to Erickson is a continuous process
encompassing the entire life span.
Table 3
Erickson Psychosocial Stages
Period Stage Positive Characteristic Gained and Typical Activities
Birth to Trust vs. Hope: trust in primary caregiver and in one’s own
ability 1 yr. Mistrust to make things happen
1 to 3 Autonomy Will: new physical skills lead to demand for more
versus choices, most often seen as saying “no” to caregivers;
shame and child learns self-care skills such as toileting. Doubt
3 to 6 Initiative Purpose: ability to organize activities around some versus
Guilt goals; more assertiveness and aggressiveness (Oedipus or
electra conflict with parent of same sex may lead to gulit)
6 to 12 Industry Competence: cultural skills and norms, including school
versus skills and tools use (failure to master these leads to Inferiority
sense of inferiority)
12 to Identity Fidelity: adaptation of sense of self to pubertal changes,
 18 versus Role consideration of future choices, achievement of a more
confusion mature sexual identity, and search for new values
18 to Intimacy Love: person develops intimate relationships beyond
30 versus adolescent love; many become parents
Isolation
30 to Generativity Care: people rare children, focus on occupational
old age versus achievement or creativity, and train the next
generation; Stagnation turn outward from the self toward others
Old Integrity Wisdom: person conducts a life review, integrate earlier age
versus stages and come to terms with basic identity; develop Despair
self-acceptance

Erickson view achievement of a healthy personality through successful

resolution of a crisis at each of the eight stages of development where each crisis
consists of a pair of opposing possibilities, such as trust versus mistrust or
integrity versus despair. When a crisis is solved there is a development of the
positive side of the dichotomy. However, a resolution does not always guarantee
a complete movement to the positive side. A healthy development requires a
favorable positive ratio of positive to negative. Of the eight stages, so much focus
has been given to the first four in research and even in the amount of theorizing;
trust in infancy; identity in adolescence, intimacy in early adulthood, and
generativity in middle adulthood.
Erickson acknowledge the major role the caregiver (usually the mother)
plays in the most critical stage and that is the first life crisis: trust versus mistrust.
It is required of the caregiver for a successful resolution of crisis to be
consistently loving and attentive and respond to the child predictably and reliably.
Infants early develop mistrust when early care is erratic and harsh. When the
child is not able to resolve this crisis, the development of personality is affected
which will render the resolution of later tasks much more difficult.
Erickson’s description of the central adolescent dilemma, which is identity
versus role confusion has been particularly influential. He believed that every
adolescent goes through examination his identity and the roles he must occupy.
It is imperative that he develops a concept of self, what he wants to be, and what
appropriate sexual role he should have. Very likely, he will suffer from confusion
arising from a variety of roles opening up to him at this age.
The adult builds on the identity during the first three adult stages to meet
the crisis of intimacy versus isolation.
 Erickson defines intimacy as the ability to fuse one’s identity with someone
else’s without fear of losing something. The fusion of identities can only be
reached when young people have already formed a clear identity, contrary to
what is usually perceived as finding identity in any relationship. For young adults
whose identity is still weak or unformed, relationships will also be shallow, thus
resulting in a sense of isolation or loneliness.
The middle adulthood crisis points to generativity versus stagnation, which
is the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation. One way to
achieve generativity is through the rearing of children, but this is not the only way.
Achieving generativity can also be done by serving as model/mentor to younger
colleagues, doing creative work, playing an active role in an organization or
community/society. When the adult becomes self-absorbed, and non-generative,
he may feel a sense of stagnation.
Each new crisis constitutes a development thrust on the person as he
contends with changes in social demands that most always accompany changes
in age. The fourth stage industry versus inferiority begins when the child starts
school and must learn to read and write. What he doesn’t absorb in the
elementary will be pushed forward into his high school. Such unresolved crisis
will be carried over as excess baggage. Thus, the childhood crisis sets the stage
for crisis in the adolescence and adulthood.

B. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Among the developmental psychologists, Albert Bandura has been the
most influential in terms of learning concepts. He argues that reinforcement is
not always a pre-requisite to learning. Learning may also occur as a result of
watching someone else perform an action and experience reinforcement or
punishment. This kind of learning called observational learning or modeling,
involves a wide range of behaviors. For example, children learn to strut by
watching other people do it in real life and on television.
In the matter of skills acquisition, adults learn them by simply observing
others.
Bandura also calls attention to a class for reinforcements called intrinsic
reinforcements. These are reinforcements within an individual, such as the joy
and pleasure felt after having written a poem, or on the part of a child, his
having drawn a star or a flower. Bandura has bridged the gap between
learning theories and other approaches by emphasizing the role of cognitive
(mental) elements in learning. That is to say, that whatever a person learns
from observing others as they perform tasks is influenced by processes such
as attention and memory.
 Another important consideration is maturation. It needs maturity to be able
to understand/perform a more complicated task, thus, a 4-year-old cannot be
expected to learn geometry by simply watching a high school student learn
geometry. Further, as Bandura suggests that what an observer learns from a
particular model is influenced by his own goals, expectations about what kinds
of consequences are likely if he adopts the model’s behavior and judgements
of his own performance (Bee and Boyd, 2002).
A child goes through four sets of processes to produce a behavior that
matches that of a model.
First, a child’s experience in particular situation influences his ability to
achieve a model behavior.
Second, whatever skills are retained from what a child has observed a
modeled behavior.
Third, the reproduced behavior is dependent on other cognitive skills, that
includes feedback from others.
Fourth, the motivation to produce the behavior is influenced by various
incentives; his own standards, and his tendency to compare himself with
others (Bandura, 1989 as cited by Hetherington, et.al., 2006).

C. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the
individual the ability to monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide his thinking and actions.
There are three components of EQ:

1. The awareness of one’s own emotions;

2. The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately; and
3. The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives
As Goleman claims, an individual does not achieve one’s intellectual
potential in the absence of emotional intelligence. This view has been
strengthened by research on the relationship between self-control in early
childhood and achievement in adolescence. Children’s ability to exercise
control over their emotions in early childhood is strongly related to measures
of academic achievement in high school (Shoa, Mischel, and Peake, 1990 as
cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
Major qualities that make up emotional intelligence and how they can be
developed:
 1. Self-awareness. The ability to recognize a feeling as it happens is the
keystone of emotional intelligence. People who have greater certainty
about their emotions are better pilots of their lives.
2. Mood Management. The ability to change mood from good to bad and vice
versa.
What should be done to relive rage? It is said that ventilating is one
way to feel better. However, researchers found that it is one of the worst
strategies. Sudden outbursts of rage cause brain arousal making one
angrier.
a. Reframing is a more effective technique which means reinterpreting
a situation and looking at it in a more positive light.
b. Going off alone to cool down is also an effective way to defuse
anger.
c. Praying also works for all moods.
3. Self-motivation. Trying to feel more enthusiastic and developing more zeal
and confidence to arrive at concrete achievement.
4. Impulse Control. The essence of emotional self-regulation is the ability to
delay impulse in the service of a goal.
5. People Skills. The ability to feel for another person, whether in job, in
romance, in friendship and in the family.
II. Socialization and the Development of Identity and Social Relations

The child’s sole interpersonal relationships in the early years are with his
parents who present their cultural beliefs, values, and attitudes to their
children. The parents, own personalities as well as their own family
backgrounds, attitudes, values, education, religious beliefs, socioeconomic
status, and gender influence the socialization process.

Socialization is the process by which parents and others set the child’s
standards of behavior, attitudes, skills, and motives to conform closely to what
the society deems appropriate to his role in society.
Children interact with peers and the interaction is more free and more
egalitarian than their parents. This helps in the development of the children’s
social competence and acquisition of the concept of social justice.
Development of Identity
James E. Marcia, a psychologist, had figured well on research that dealt
with identity issues during adolescence. For him, identity is internal,
selfconstructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, and individual history.
He has identified four identity or statuses and correlated them with other
aspects of personality. These are anxiety, self-esteem, moral reasoning, and
patterns of social behavior. These stages do not form a progression: and are not
in any way included in the identity search but they are not necessarily permanent.
A person’s identity status may change as he or she develops (Cobb, 2001).
Marcia’s four identity statuses are determined by the presence or absence
of the two elements which to Erickson are crucial to forming identity: crisis and
commitment. Marcia defines crisis as a period of conscious decision making
while commitment as a personal investment in an occupation or a system of
beliefs (ideology).
Marcia identifies four categories of identity information: identity
achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, and moratorium.
1. Identity Achievement. (crisis leading to commitment). Those with identity
achievements are characterized by flexible strength and tendency to be
thoughtful, although not so introspective. These individuals function well
under stress, have sense of humor, are receptive to new ideas and ready for
intimate relationships in accordance to their own standards.
2. Foreclosure. (commitment without crisis) characterized by rigid strength;
selfassurance; self-satisfied; and strong sense of family ties. These are the
people who recognize the need for law and order, as well as obedience to a
leader. They can be dogmatic when their ideas are put to test.
3. Identity Diffusion (no commitment). They are those who shy away from
commitment. As carefree individuals, they drift in the absence of focus.
Oftentimes they are carefree, thus, in the absence of intimate relationship
they become unhappy.
4. Moratorium (in crisis). They may not necessarily be in good relationship but
express preference for intimacy. They are characteristically talkative,
competitive, lively and anxious.
Erickson believes that individuals have to confront with old troubles before
they arrive at an identity. This, he refers to the sense of self usually achieved
through an examination and commitment to the particular role an in individual
should pay as an adult member of society. Identity affords the individual to
know himself better, prepare for his future and realize his dreams and
ambitions. The perception of self includes how others see us, and the
importance they attach to the values and accomplishments (Patterson,
Socthing and Marcia, 1992 as cited by Cobb, 2001).
In defining identity, Erickson also considered three domains to be of
paramount importance: sexuality as expressed in an adult gender role
occupation, and ideology or religious and political beliefs.
The Process of Identity Consolidation

Before adolescence, children’s identities are reflective of the conscious but

simple identification with parents. As observed, children take on what they
see in terms of behaviors and ways of fathers and mothers. Most likely, they
develop the same patterns of doing things and acting out roles in the family. It
is when they reached the period of adolescence that they moved beyond form
what they were able to organize by way of identity, putting together all
elements to create a new whole that will bear the new sets of interest, values,
and choices. This process is called identity formation. At this stage,
adolescents act and behave in a manner distinctly their own which when put
together will manifest an inner sense of self. The process begins in early
adolescence and even in early adulthood when individuals feel free to make
choice about studies jobs and relationships. Identity helps direct the
adolescent’s commitment to occupation, religious, political and gender roles,
and values.
When individuals develop a sense of self thereby being able to identify what
is common to oneself from that of others, they understand their uniqueness,
decide for themselves, rely on personal judgements and evaluate themselves
in terms of concrete accomplishments. They can also become intimate with
others without fear of blurring their personal boundaries (Cobb, 2001).
Gender Differences in Identity Information
Gender-biased behaviors are influenced by both biological and psychological
factors. The behavior patterns associated with gender can be explained
psychologically in four ways:
1. Freudian Theory – Process of Identification
2. Cognitive Social Learning Theory
3. Gender – Schema Theory
4. Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing
The process by which children acquire the motives, values and behaviors
viewed as appropriate for males and females within a culture is called gender
typing. Children developed gender-based beliefs, largely on the basis of
gender stereotypes; the latter are reflected in gender roles. Children adopt a
gender identity early in life and develop gender role preferences as well.
Gender based beliefs are ideas and expectations about what is
appropriate behavior for males and females.
Gender stereotypes are beliefs and characteristics typified in the behavior
of males and females and which are deemed appropriate and therefore
acceptable.
 Gender roles are the composites of behaviors typical of the male or female
in a given culture.
Gender identity is the perception of oneself as either masculine or feminine.
There are differences evident in males and females however, it should be
remembered that the overlap between the distribution is always greater than
the differences between them. Such differences have no direct explanation
why they exist. What is clear is that boys and girls have different opportunities
and experiences as they grow older, which are responsible for diverse
outcomes in terms of behavior patterns.
Lateralization of brain function including hormones are the biological
factors that shape gender differences. Hormones provide a biological
predisposition. Further, social experiences or interactions with others may
also alter the hormonal level.
Men’s edge over women in the accomplishment of spatial and math tasks
is attributed to the greater lateralization of brain function. In the same way,
this also explains the female tendency to be more flexible than males. There
are differences in the brain organization.
Androgenized female fetuses may become girls whose behavior and
interests are traditionally male. On one hand, exceptionally high prenatal
androgens level in females may be correlated with greater visuo-spatial skills.
Development of both sexes traditional and non-traditional is influenced by
environmental factors.
Androgynous persons are those with both masculine and feminine
psychological characteristics. They can be caring and loving in nurturing
children, successful in their endeavors but can be fiercely competitive and
firmly decisive. They are also better adjusted and more creative (Norlander
et.al., 2000 as cited by Hetherington et.al., 2006).
The gender-oriented interests and concerns change as individuals age.
Women may become ultra-feminine and men more androgynous. The
increase in femininity in later life may also reflect the increased dependency
both genders may experience as they continue to age (Hyde et.al., 1991 as
cited by Hetherington et.al., 2006).
Siblings influence the brother’s gender socialization. A child who has
siblings of the opposite gender may likely model his sisters’ behavior. Usually,
the younger siblings model their older siblings’ behaviors, regardless of
gender. The sex of the older sibling may determine the character of his or her
play with a younger sibling. Such can result in the younger sibling’s
development of less stereotypical gender-role concepts.
 The development theory of Kohlberg states that gender-typed behavior is
not seen until a child is able to achieve gender constancy. Usually, it comes at
around age six (6). Children, however, show signs of gender-typed toy and
activity preference at s much earlier stage. The preference for same-sex
playmates comes at a latter age. Findings suggest that the relation between
the acquisition of gender concepts and the resulting behavior depends on
gender understanding the kind of behavior.
Gender-schema theory suggests that children need only basic information
about gender in order to develop naive mental schemas that help them
organize their experiences and form rules concerning gender. Research
finding to date give the nod to gender-schema theory, which has show that
gender labeling is enough to affect gender-typed preferences well before a
child has achieved gender constancy.