SPE 94427

Northern Sahara Aquifers Protection: Casing Corrosion Problems and Defining

New Well Construction Performance Objectives—Case Study: Hassi Messaoud
Oilfield in Algeria
O. Dhina, M.S. Aissat and K. Belkheir, Sonatrach

Copyright 2005, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Sonatrach oil and gas Company subscribes its drilling
Corrosion held in Aberdeen, United Kingdom, 13 May 2005.
objectives within this frame. Well construction has been
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However, another aspect of performance is still being
integrated: durability and integrity. Actually, well construction
Abstract
is facing imposing problems of casing corrosion and/or
Well construction reliability is always of great importance
collapse. The number of workovers due to such problems
especially when it is about drilling in an arid region that
increased significantly in the mid 1990’s. To a large extent, it
contains strategic groundwater reserves. This is the case of
is true this is related to monitoring accuracy advances but it is
Hassi Messaoud and satellite oilfields (HMDs) in Algeria
an actual problem all the same.
where aquifers of the Northern Sahara System (NSAS) Spread
out. Problems closely related to well construction such as
Drilling days, footage and direct costs shouldn’t be considered
casing corrosion, cementing lack and also those of post-
anymore as the exclusive performance indicators. It becomes
abandonment are encountered by Sonatrach and partners there.
clear that construction quality and well integrity requirements
must be covered by the performance concept. As topical
The main environmental concern becomes, then, how to
concerns, we can cite non-exhaustively: Casing durability,
ensure a reliable and highly safe well design and structure by
aquifers protection risk analysis, as well as the regularity of
improving drilling practices and introducing innovative
the openhole profile.
architecture technologies aiming at significantly reducing
aquifers contamination risks.
This paper describes how Sonatrach is dealing with well
quality and integrity requirements, focusing on casing
This paper describes how Sonatrach has been able to deal with
corrosion, aquifers protection and post – abandonment
such problems. Besides, it points out how risks are assessed
problems.
according to an appropriate method that was fitted for purpose.
On the other hand, field data are used to analyze the occurring
Aquifers and Aquifers protection
phenomena and lessons learned from what is considered as the
Non renewable groundwater gains its capital value particularly
most tragic disaster related to well construction in Algeria -
in North Africa, region of severe water shortage. This is why it
that occurred in Berkaoui satellite field in 1986 -are stressed.
is considered as the most valuable natural resource to be
preserved. To figure out the importance of groundwater
Furthermore, the paper summarizes the steps and the approach
preservation for Algeria it is helpful to point out the actual
taken along the way in stating new drilling performance
water situation in the country where less than 450 m3 per
objectives for HMDs to meet world-class standards and fulfil
capita is annually provided 1.
NSAS protection commitment.
Aquifers in Hassi Messaoud (HMD) oilfield belong to the
Introduction
Northern Sahara Aquifers System (NSAS) that is composed of
The world of oil and gas drilling achieves every year
two major complexes 1:
important progresses, guided by quality and competition
requirements, and delimited by HSE requests more and more
1- The Continental Intercalaire (CI) aquifer: It is about
strict and standardized.
cretaceous formations at the base of the basin. The aquifer
2 SPE 94427

is artesian and may come, in places, in the form of a free
watertable. The Albian in Hassi Messaoud is the upper
formation of the CI.
2- The Complexe Terminal (CT) aquifer: A very important
source of fresh water. It is generally a water table aquifer
and the mio-pliocene is the main formation of the
complex. Mio-pliocene is believed to be probably
interconnected with the lower senonian aquifer. In HMD,
the watertable is at 110 m AMSL and is, so, 30 to 60
meters deep.
is more corrosive because of the bacterial action. Moreover, it
is believed to be behind 30% of the workovers.
On the other hand, there is an actual risk of communication
between aquifers cross a salt formation. The loss of an
effective seal between those formations can endanger the
albian aquifer and leach the upper salt formations resulting, in
the worst case, in a subsidence as the one that happened in
Berkaoui HMD’s Satellite field and which is discussed later in
this paper.

The albian and the mio-pliocene aquifers constitute the two Table 2. Workovers due to LD2 in HMD [1996 - 2002]
major sources of water for both industrial and domestic needs Year Percentage (%)
in HMD and satellite fields. 1996 9%
1997 17%
1998 8%
Thus, the challenge comes down to achieving our goals 1999 15%
consisting in increasing well productivity and cost 2000 20%
effectiveness without jeopardizing our strategic water 2001 11%
resources. It is about a sustainable development challenge. 2002 16%

Paradoxically, this valuable groundwater resource is one of the Long-term zonal isolation concept. To ensure the durability
serious potential causes that might endanger well integrity - of the well, efforts should focus on casing protection and
especially casing durability - and subsequently, the resource subsequently on cement isolation as the first barrier and the
itself. Actually, many of these aquifers are corrosive in such a primary tool to consider.
way that financial consequences constitute a major concern.
Cement. Traditionally, the quality of cement is chosen on the
The chemical composition of the most important of those basis of its short term mechanical properties, especially the
aquifers is as shown in Table (1). compressive strength developed after 24 hours in bottomhole
conditions. The slurry is chosen according to the environment
Table 1. Chemical composition of HMD’s aquifers (nature, temperature, corrosivity...) in which it's going to be
Mio-pliocene Albian LD2 placed, and also according to the geological nature of the
Aquifer Complexe T Continental I
Horizon B strata to be covered (salt, shale...). Rheological properties are
NSAS NSAS determined to ensure hierarchy of densities and rheologies
-
Cl (mg/l) 1000 420 250000
HCO3- (mg/l) 150 170 1400 among the slurry, the mud, and the spacer. Of course with
2-
SO4 (mg/l) 650 550 570 considering any risk of fracturing the weakest formation.
2+
Ca (mg/l) 300 210 115000
2+
Mg (mg/l)
+
100 70 10000 Nowadays, a geomechanical approach using Finite Element
Na (mg/l) 450 220 45000 Method (FEM) is adopted. In addition to the parameters taken
CO2 (mg/l) 0 0 N/A
H2S (mg/l) 0 0 0
into consideration in the classical approach for slurry design,
pH (25°) 7,3 7,3 6 this approach based on geomachanical models integrates
Conductivity (µs/cm) 2800 1350 N/A diverse mechanical actions that the cement might undergo, by
simulating the sequence of events that could happen during its
Well integrity vs casing corrosion in HMD oilfield existence.
To this date, more than 1100 wells of 3350m average vertical
depth have been drilled in HMD oilfield. The number of wells Therefore, conditions of drilling (hole quality, mud...),
on which integrity problems has been reported during the last hydration, fracturing, injection and production that punctuate
six years has exceeded hundred wells. Actually, between 1996 the lifetime of a well have to be considered in the design of a
and 2002, 20% of the entire producer wells in HMD were cement slurry. The quality of the cement sheath is no more
subjected to workover intervention due essentially to corrosion exclusively its compressive strength. It has been proved that
problems. cements having high ratio of tensile strength over Young's
modulus with smaller Young's modulus than that of the rock to
Financial losses resulting from workover costs and production be covered are more efficient and more convenient in term of
interruption (oil barrel estimated at 20$/bbl) exceeds, by far, mechanical durability 2. This enables them to resist better to
10 million $ per year. different mechanical solicitations.

Dolomite Lias (LD2) aquifer brine - rich in CaCl2 - is one of
the most important sources of casing corrosion in HMD. 13%
of the workovers performed between 1996 and 2002 are due to
LD2 corrosive action (See Table 2). The upper Albian aquifer
It should be noted that nowadays new types of cement have
been experienced in HMD. They really brought tangible
contribution to solve encountered problems. This concerns
particularly light cement panoply, flexible and/or expansible
cement, very low permeability cement. Their use is highly
SPE 94427
recommended according to the obtained results, even though
they are still more costly than classical cement.
Casing Design. Average casing cost represents 10 to 15% of
the global well cost. However, the durability of the casing
facing mechanical solicitations and chemical attacks govern,
to a large extent, the lifetime of the well. This is to show the
importance of the impact of an optimal casing design.
The main objective of casing design is to find the tubular
element that will resist to a variety of internal and external
mechanical solicitations, individually or combined.
Furthermore, the casing is assumed to undergo secondary
effects due essentially to temperature, wear and/or corrosion.
These actions and effects can occur during the well
construction or during the production phase.
Casing design will be more appropriate and better achieved if
all solicitations are well defined and properly integrated. This
is not always easy to do, and the only alternative is the use of
approximations. Furthermore, it should be noted, for instance,
that 1 mm wear on the casing diameter causes a reduction of
50% of the burst resistance, and an ovalisation of 1 to 2% can
affect the collapse resistance of about 25%. This justifies the
need for using safety factors.
Casing design is optimised through the following criteria:
• Mechanical solicitations that the casing will undergo
during both drilling and production phases.
• The damage that might happen to the casing (corrosion,
wear …) and its consequences on the mechanical
properties.
• Properties of the formations to be cased (type of pore
fluid, corrosive fluid, fracture pressure, temperature,
mechanical properties…)
• Casing grade
The choice of the grade and the type of casing has direct
repercussions on its durability facing all the actions imposed
by the environment. For a long term purposes, the cathodic
protection can be economically and technically very suitable
to mitigate corrosion problems.
Cathodic Protection of Casings
Review on corrosion. Corrosion is a phenomenon of metal
degradation by the surrounding medium. This is because of the
natural tendency of metals to return to their stable state as
natural minerals: oxides, sulphates…The corrosion reaction
induces the release of metal atoms as ions. This is associated
with electron motion, thus the creation of electrical current.
Surface atoms of a metal have the tendency to pass into
solution in ion form as soon as the metal is put into an
electrolyte (Solution in which electrical conduction is
achieved by means of ions). This leads to the establishment of
a balance, characterized by the potential taken by the metal in
these conditions with respect to many endogenous and
exogenous factors. Endogenous factors are the metal type and
the nature and concentration of the solution. Exogenous
3
factors are essentially temperature and pressure. Once the
balance reached, there will be no more metal dissolution, thus
no more corrosion.
It should be noted that corrosion will resume if for any reason
a factor happens to disturb the balance.
Cathodic Protection in HMD. The objective of the cathodic
protection is to bring electrons in excess to the interface metal-
electrolyte, which will reduce the potential of the metal in this
electrolyte (surrounding environment). Practically, this is
achieved by letting an electrical current circulate between the
two electrodes (anode and cathode) 3. The protected structure
is the cathode and the sacrificed structure will be the anode
(see Figure 1). -850 mV is the admitted limit value under
which steel couldn’t be corroded in a medium with 4 to 9 pH.
This limit is measured with respect to the electrode that could
not be polarized with copper sulphate in a saturated solution.
Cathodic protection of oil gathering networks is being applied
gradually since a couple of years on HMD oilfield. The
number of recorded cases subjected to leakage due to
corrosion has tangibly reduced.
For exploitation surface facilities, the same process is used and
effectively contributes in reducing leakage problems. From
2000 to 2003 such problems have been lessen to 25%.
On the other hand, casing protection effectiveness is expected
to exceed 90%. It is believed that the abundance of
electrolytes such as HCO3-, Mg2+ and Ca2+ in the LD2 aquifer
will help the manmade protection action by forming a Ca - Mg
deposit. The deposit, so formed, will cover the free surface of
the casing and reduce, by the same way, electron demand.
Post abandonment problems. Case Study:
Berkaoui Field
Berkaoui field is located in the “Oued Mya” basin, at about 80
Km west of HMD. The main reservoir is in the Triassic. But
lately, the field is being explored for its Ordovician reservoirs.
The stratification shows two main Cretaceous aquifers. The
first aquifer is located in the Senonian formation called
“senonian carbonaté” at a depth of 80m to 200m. The second
aquifer is the Albian, in the interval from 850m to 1700m.
Figure (2) shows the lithology of Berkaoui field, and their
estimated UCS (Unconfined Compressive Strength).
Facts description. An oil well drilled in the late seventies in
Berkaoui field by the French Company Total – mandated by
Sonatrach - was abandoned due to a problem of mud losses,
after an unintentional sidetrack. The first hole was lost leaving
the interval from 500 m to 2500m uncased. The “trousers”
profile left was plugged only on one side and the rig was
skidded to drill well-bis not far from the first location (80 m
away).
The second well was a good producer. But after two years
time the production stopped abruptly. This initiated the
investigation which led to the conclusion that a big cave was
4 SPE 94427
formed in the salt formation of the Cretaceous and that the
casing in front of this formation was cut.
Cave formation is a direct consequence of the upward flow of
water from the Albian aquifer to the “Senonian carbonate”
aquifer, dissolving by the same way the salty intermediate
rocks. It’s to be noted that the piezometric head difference
between the two sets of aquifers is around 250m which is
equivalent to 350 psi. The flow rate was estimated at about
2500 m3/hr. The upward movement of this huge amount of
water caused the dissolution of the thick salt formation
“Senonian Salifere” from 450m to 600m depth. The cave
reached the location of the well-bis and cut the casings. This
explains the noticed production interruption.
The cave formed was growing very large, so that formations
above could no more withstand the overburden. They failed in
1986 leading to an impressive subsidence and the creation of a
crater of 200m of diameter and 80m deep. Furthermore, the
upper fresh water aquifer was contaminated. The salt
contamination is continuously spreading in the aquifer to
cover an area several square kilometers wide 4.
From a geomechanical standpoint, the creation of the cave in
the salt formation caused the bending of the upper layers.
Therefore tensile stresses developed at the center of the cave
for the layers just above (anhydrite senonian), and at the edges
of the subsidence bowl on the upper part of the surface layer.
Also, high shear stresses developed at the periphery of the
cave.
The limestone of the “Senonian Carbonaté” can be sheared
vertically for a 50m cave formed underneath. The lateral
extension of the cave generates continuous modification in the
stress state of the strata above, till the failure. After occurrence
of the failure some vacuoles could have remained, which may
lead to further extension of the crater.
A means to estimate the larger cave diameter reached before
failure can be achieved using Finite Element Method (FEM).
This method enables the calculation of stress and strain
distributions within the formations above the cave. Then two
kinds of failure should be considered, shear failure and tensile
failure 5. They are governed by the equations below:
• Shear failure (after Mohr Coulomb criterion)
σ n .tg (ϕ ) + C ≥ τ
• Tensile failure σ n ≤ −T
Where,
σn : Normal stress on a considered plane.
τ : Shear stress on the same plane
ϕ : Internal friction angle of the rock
C: Cohesion of the rock.
T : Tensile strength of the rock.
Because of the difference in the mechanical behavior of the
layers above the cave, each formation could have had its own
failure mode, resulting in a more complex failure
configuration.
During the evolution of the cave, the salinity of the water
contained in the crater varied substantially. The initial salinity
was 350g/l. However, as time passes this level of salinity
decreased as the major water flow moved away from the
water-salt contact. Actually, it has decreased to levels as low
as 7g/l.
If the cave is assumed of a cylindrical shape, its diameter can
be approximated based on waterflow rate and its leaching
effect on the salt layer. This method gives an approximation of
the cave diameter of about 500m. This size is believed
stationary due to the decrease of the dissolution rate. However,
the crater dimensions are still growing to reach an estimated
ultimate diameter of about 1200m.
On another hand, a study based on a seismic survey carried out
after the subsidence, revealed that the salt formation cave has
an extension in the range [480m to 740m] in NW-SE
direction, and in the range [360m to 620m] in NE-SW
direction.
Huge human and financial resources were deployed to carry
out emergency actions. Two main issues were considered,
monitoring of the crater extension and looking for the best
way to stop the leaching process.
If we look back, we find out that the communication of
aquifers and salt formations was the original cause of this
disaster. Consequently, the hydraulic isolation of the geologic
strata is a major issue to consider.
Therefore, temporary or permanent well abandonment must be
planned rigorously to ensure good isolation of reservoirs and
aquifers. The casing and cement specifications must be in
accordance with the formation fluids acidity.
In the case of Berkaoui field, the water flow was powered by
the piezometric head difference between lower and upper
aquifers. Therefore, two issues should be considered when the
well abandonment is decided:
• Ensure good and efficient seal at the top of the Albian if
no water flow is permitted
• Ensure good and efficient isolation of the salt formations
if the water flow is permitted.
Besides, leaving the first profile of the abandoned well
uncased and unplugged was quite risky. Since this profile was
lost, the location at the join of the initial profile of the well and
the second one should have been well cemented and plugged.
The nearest point to this location could have approximately
been determined by the depth at which reaming/drilling started
when running in the hole just before the generation of the side
track.
To sum up, the plug-and-abandon procedure must be drawn up
to fit the well conditions and actual profile.
Risk analysis – Application of Design FMEA
Business is inconceivable without taking a bit of risk. “Zero
SPE 94427
risk” is nothing more than a utopia. However, reducing risks
within a continuously improved management system is the
actual objective. In oil and gas wells design and construction,
the point is to identify potential risks, classify them according
to their priority and take appropriate measures to prevent the
events and provide for protection. One of the most helpful
methods is FMEA (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis)
FMEA is an “a priori” method. It consists to define
subsystems (ex. Casings, tubing, wellhead, packers …) -
within the whole system –then to identify the potential failure
modes whose risk impairs the function of the subsystem.
Based upon these identified failure modes, the design team
draw up an exhaustive list of the potential effects.
For example, if we consider the 7’’ casing within the HMD
well architecture, it has to provide a reliable pressure and
stress containment. This function might be impaired by a
potential loss of the casing mechanical properties. This is the
failure mode. Henceforth, effects are systematically identified:
▪ Aquifers communication
▪ NSAS Aquifers contamination
▪ Production interruption
▪ Reservoir plugging
▪ Borehole stability problems
Subsequently, their potential causes are systematically
investigated too. The method points out two major causes:
▪ Lack in casing design specification (collapse)
▪ Corrosion
And by far, corrosion is the most frequent cause.
On the other hand, effects are not at the same priority. The
priority is driven by considering three parameters:
▪ Severity (see Table 3.)
▪ Occurrence (See Table 4.)
▪ Detectability (See Table 5.)
Table 3. FMEA Severity Ranking
Severity ranking
5 Very high, Loss of the function
4 High, noncompliance with regulations, costly problems
3 Medium, reduce production performances
2 Low, Manageable
1 Very Low
Table 4. FMEA Occurrence Ranking
Occurrence Ranking
5 Very high, recorded in the considered field each 5 wells
4 High, Recorded in the considered field at least 1/20 years
3 Medium, Recorded in Sonatrach oilfields at least 1/20 years
2 Low, Recorded before in oilfield sector at least 1/20 years
1 Very low, never recorded before, < 1/20 years
Table 5. FMEA Detectability Ranking
Detectability Ranking
5 Very High Uncertainty + very low control frequency
4 High uncertainty + low control frequency
3 Medium uncertainty + medium control frequency
2 Low uncertainty + High control frequency
Very low uncertainty + very high control frequency
1
(very accurate and permanent monitoring)
5
Combination of these factors provide a priority index (PI)
PI = Severity X Occurrence X Detectability
Table (6) illustrates how to implement FMEA for the 7’’
casing as a subsystem of HMD well architecture.
FMEA Analysis shows that casing corrosion is the most
important threat that actually endangers well integrity.
Nevertheless, cathodic protection is believed to considerably
reduce this risk, by acting on both occurrence and
detectability, as a preventive measure.
Besides, concentric casings and formation packers are
recommanded aiming at reducing severity, as a protection
barrier.
Conclusion
Well construction performance can not be restricted to footage
and direct costs anymore. Well integrity during the whole
lifecycle from construction to post – abandonment is to be
integrated to the performance concept.
Actually, well architecture and construction expenses are not
likely to end only by starting production. Further potential
expenses are to be taken into account and might eventually be
estimated. Hence, the need to include - into the performance
concept - targets aiming at significantly reducing the margin
of these potential expenses by acting on design and
construction quality.
Facts show that casing corrosion is one of the most crucial
causes that impair oil wells integrity in Hassi Messaoud field.
Paradoxically, the protected aquifers, that are likely to undergo
the repercussions of well integrity failures, constitute the main
source of corrosive water.
Application of FMEA – Design risk analysis method
contributes qualitatively in defining new performance
objectives such as corrosion protection, post – abandonment
monitoring and zonal isolation. Achieving these new
objectives is believed to enable a cost saving of about 15 $
millions per year only for Hassi Messaoud field.
Cathodic protection has already been introduced as an
effective means of protection. New cement systems are also
being experienced and already show satisfying results. LD2
aquifer is systematically covered by two casings and a new
architecture was designed for Berkaoui oilfield acting on
lessons learnt.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Sonatrach for permission to publish
this paper.
6 SPE 94427

References

1. Dhina, O. and Aroun, M.C. “Environement preservation

in Oil and Gas Upstream activities in Algeria. Difficulties
and sustainable development Challenge” presented at the
19th World Energy Congress held in Sydney, Sept. 5-9,
2004.
2. Le Roy-Delage S., Baumgarte C., Thiercelin M. and
Vidick B. “New Cement Systems for Durable Zonal
Isolation,“ IADC/SPE 59132 presented at the 2000
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in New Orleans,
Louisiana, 23-25 Feb. 2000.
3. Bich N., Bauman J. "Protection of Well Casings by
Pulsed Cathodic Currents" Limited Calgary Research
Centre. 1991.
4. Morisseau J.M., “Uncontrolled leaching of salt layer in an
oil field in Algeria” In Proceedings of S.M.R.I. Fall
Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, 2000. Pages
330-333
5. Charlez Ph. A. “Rock Mechanics”, volumes 1 Technip,
1991

Table 6. FMEA implementation for the 7’’ casing in HMD well architecture
Severity

Occurence

Detectability

Priority index
Potential Failure
Subsystem

mode

Potential Potential Contrôle / Recommended

effects causes Monitoring actions

02 sections to drill 02 aquifers across a

Production Corrosion 5 5 125
3
02 concentric casings covering LD2
interruption
loss of Mechanical Properties

NSAS
Use of formation packers

5
Production paramètres

Aquifers Collapse 2 4 40
7’’ Casing

contamination
Cathodic protection
Annular pressure
Corrosion logs

salt formation

Borehole
stability 4 Cement
problems 3 5 75
seal loss
•
•
•

•
•
•

•
SPE 94427 7

Figure 1. Casing cathodic protection scheme

+
-
Generator
Générateur

Puits d’anode
Anod well

Wells
Puitstoàbe protected
protéger

Figure 2. Berkaoui cave creation

Age Depth Stage Lithology

UCS [ 0 – 120 ] MPa (m) Well Profile after Abandonment
Mio- Sand
Tertiary
77 Pliocene

Limestone,
Sénonien
dolomite,
carbonate
(aquifer)
227
Anhydrite,
Sénonien
Dolomite
anhydritique
441

Sénonien
Salt
salifère
643

712 Turonien Limestone

Shale,
Anhydrite,
Cenomanien
Dolomite
872
Cretaceous

Sandstone
(aquifer)
Albien

1325
1354 Aptien Dolomite

Sandstone
(aquifer)
Barremien

1699
Limestone,
shale
Neocomien

1889