Symbiosis between Slavery and Feminism in Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda's "Sab"?

Author(s): Brigida Pastor

Source: Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol. 16, No. 2, (1997), pp. 187-196
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Society for Latin American Studies
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3339106
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 Bull. Latin Am. Res., Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 187-196, 1997
Pergamon 1997Society for Latin AmericanStudies
Publishedby ElsevierScienceLtd. Printedin Great Britain
0261-3050/97$17.00 + 0.00

PII: S0261-3050(96)00024-1

SymbiosisBetweenSlaveryand Feminismin Gertrudis

Gomez de Avellaneda'sSab?
BRIGIDA PASTOR
Department of Hispanic Studies, Hetherington Building,
Universityof Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK

Abstract-Gertrudis G6mez de Avellaneda's novel Sab (1841) has been subject to

many interpretations.Early criticism considered it as little more than a sentimental
and shocking romanticstory: the impossiblyunconventionallove of a black slave for
a white woman. Later critics'have sought to establish Sab as a pioneering anti-
slavery novel. This article will attempt to demonstrate that Avellaneda's main
purposewas not to narratea doomed love, nor to presenta denunciationof slavery,
but to express her feminist ideology, establishing the parallelism between the
situation of black slaves and the oppressionof white women in the bourgeois society
of her time. However, we cannot say that Avellaneda created a symbiosis between
slavery and feminism; the theme of slavery is only a metaphor, doubly shocking
because it exposes her own emancipatingideas in an oppressivesociety that did not
forgive those voices which dared to transgressits norms. ? 1997 Society for Latin
AmericanStudies
Key words-slavery, feminism,Cuba, Gomez de Avellaneda,Sab, culturalstudies

Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda's novel Sab has been subject to many interpretations.1
Earlycriticismconsideredit as little more than a sentimental,if shockingromanticstory:
the impossiblyunconventionallove of a blackslavefor a whitewoman.Latercriticshave
concludedthat Sab had all the necessaryingredientsfor beingcataloguedas a pioneering
anti-slaverynovel. This articleattemptsto demonstratethat Avellaneda'smain purpose
was not to narratea conflictivelove story,nor to presenta denunciationof slavery,but to
expressher feministideology,establishingthe parallelismbetweenthe situationof black
slavesand the oppressionof whitewomenin the bourgeoissocietyof hertime.However,it
would not be valid to say that Avellanedacreated a symbiosis between slavery and
feminism;for her, slaverywas nothingmore thana metaphorto conveyher feminism,her
primeand sole messagein Sab.
Differentapproachesto Sabhaveresultedin diverseopinionsamongcritics,who, by and
large,havenot praisedthis 'novelita',whichaccordingto the authorhad beenwritten'por
distraersede momentosde ocio y melancolia' [for amusement during moments of leisure and
of melancholy]2(Gomez de Avellaneda,1841:127).The fact that Avellanedadecidedto
place these words in her prologueto Sab ('Dos palabrasal lector') clearlyindicatesher
intentionto counteractsomeof the apparentlysubversiveaspectsof this novel,and to face
the publiccensorshipwhichshe alreadyanticipatedbeforepublication.3Someof the critics
have consideredthat Sab lacks sufficientmoral consciousnessto belong to anti-slavery
literature.EvenMaryCruz,a tirelessresearcheron Avellaneda,takesthe 'Dospalabrasal
lector' as an honest revelation: 'En Sab elfin propuesto [...] es puramenteartistico. No tenia
 188 Brigida Pastor

otrafinalidad que nofuese la de entretenersus propios ratos de ocio y el ocio de sus lectores'
[InSab,the purposeis purelyartistic.It didnot haveanyaimotherthanto whileawayher
leisureandthatof herreaders'](Cruz,1973:120).GuillermoDiaz-Plajaconsidersthat'Sab
es la novela-tipode la exaltacion del hombrede la Naturaleza, el salvaje, el hombrede color,
convertidoen heroe sentimental.[...] La raza blanca esta representadapor elfrio raciocinio;
la negra por el sentimiento.Esta es la leccion que se extrae de su lectura' [Sab is the typical
novel that exaltsthe naturalman, the savage,the colouredman turnedinto a sentimental
hero[...]. Thewhiteraceis representedby cold reason,the blackone by feeling.Thisis the
lessonthatcan be extractedfromthis novel](1936:127).As NicomedesPastorDiaz notes,
the abolitionistcontentof the novel is secondaryand not essentialto the plot, whichhe
believesis centredon the dramaticconflictof the mulattoprotagonist(cited by Barreda
Tomas,1978:615-616).However,somelatercriticshaveemphasisedtheabolitionistnature
of Sab.StaceySchlauinsistson the anti-slaverycharacterof the novel:'Publishedin 1841,
when oppositionto slaveryinfluencedwritersin both Europeand America,the novel is
clearlyand irrevocablyabolitionist'(1986:495).On the otherhand, EmilioPifieyrodoes
not believethat Avellaneda'sbook wentso far as to mirrorthe tragiccharacterof Harriet
Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1940:253).
Thisarticlearguesthatneithertheromanticnortheabolitionistargumentmanagesto see
clearly the novel's main purpose:to expressAvellaneda'sfeministthought. Thus, the
allusions to black slaveryonly constitutethe author'svehicle for communicatingher
frustrationsas a womanin a societywherethe femalerolewas unquestionably inferior.In
Sab, Avellaneda to a
attempts express biographicalcomplaint since she herselfhad to face
many of the obstaclesthat wereimposedon her gender.Thus,she with
identifies the slave
because their respective destinies 'no [les] [abrian]ningunasenda, [y] [... ] el mundono [les]
derecho'(Sab:312) [leftno paths open to them,and the worldconceded
concedianinguzn
themno rights](p. 142).Colour,for slaves,and gender,for women'era[n]el sello de una
fatalidad eterna, una sentencia de muerte morar (Sab: 312) [[were]the mark of an eternal
fate,a sentenceof moraldeath](p. 142).Althoughthe authorhadexperiencedtheinjustices
thatwomensufferedin society,she realisedthatsucha situationwasrootedin themorality
of the time,and thatit wasverydangerousto rebelopenlyagainstsocialnorms.However,
she knewthat the servitudeof slaveswas a socialinjusticerecognisedby manyand was in
the processof beingabolished;accordinglyshe daredto exposeherdisagreement with this
social institutionas an erroneousand unbearablereality in order to present,though
seeminglyas a form of sub-theme,the similarlyunjustservitudeof women. As Susan
Kirkpatrickobserves:'In the imaginedexpressionof a slave'soutragespeaks,in fact, the
angerof a youngcolonialwomanwho aspiredto pour out herown subjectivityin writing
capableof captivatingthe greatwritersof civilisationand culture,but who was told to be
silent and resign herself to the self-abnegatingvirtues of the angel of the hearth'
(1989: 157).4
Nevertheless,as we shallsee,an examinationof Sabrevealsseveralanti-slaverypassages.
But the fact that none of Avellaneda'slaterworksshows any referenceto black slavery
makes us think that she was not an author obsessed by abolition. Furthermore,her
obsessioncould be definedby the analogymarriage-slavery, a themewhichis constructed
moreexplicitlyin herotherearlynovelDos mujeres.5 UnlikeSab,Dos mujereshas not been
the objectof muchdebateand has beenclearlydefinedas a critiqueof the institutionof
marriage,disguisedunder a traditionalform (Guerra, 1985:716).But this novel goes
furtherthan that. In fact, it constitutesan attack against all those social values that
 Symbiosisbetweenslaveryand feminism 189

underminedwomenas individuals.As withSab,the authordecidesto add someapologetic

wordsin the prologueof the novel,foreseeingthe unpopularityof someof the liberalideas
expressed in it. Thus, Avellaneda declares that 'ningunobjeto moral ni social se ha propuesto
al escribirl[a][y] [...] no se cree en la precision de profesar una doctrina'[she did not have any
moralor socialpurposein writingit and does not have the needto professa doctrine]and
that she has written it as 'a meropasatiempo'[mere pastime](Gomez de Avellaneda,
1842:I, 6).
Onceagainthroughthe fictionalcharactersof Dos mujeres,she expressesthemessuchas
the oppressionand limitededucationof women. Throughthe main characterCatalina,
Avellanedaprotestsagainstthe oppressivesocialrulesthatwereassignedto womenandthe
strictcondemnationappliedto themif they did not follow those rules.Catalinastatesher
rejection of censorious social norms, thus: 'Huyamos de esta sociedad que hace un crimende
los sentimientos que ella no autoriza' [Let's escape from this society that makes a crime of
any feelingthat it does not authorise](1842:III,75). Avellanedaknew that both Sab and
Dos mujereswerefar fromconformingto the tastesand canonsof the societyof her time,
preciselybecauseboth worksattemptedto advanceher ideology.Thereis no doubt that
Avellanedawas a progressivewomanfor hertime.In 1843she wrote:'Mifamiliapertenece
a la clase llamada nobleza,pero yo no pertenezco a ninguna. Trato al duquecomo al buf6n. No
reconozco otra aristocracia que la del talento' [My family belongs to the class called the
nobility,but I do not belongto anyclass.I treatthe dukethe sameas the buffoon.I do not
recogniseany aristocracyotherthan that of talent](Portuondo,1968:3). Thusin Sab, the
problemof slaveryallowedthe authorto affirmthe rightsof women and her desire for
social equality.
The slave Sab, protagonistof the novel that carrieshis name,does not representin any
sense the mistreatedslave of nineteenth-century Cuba. He confesses:'Jamashe sufridoel
trato duro que se da generalmente a los negros, ni he sido condenado a largos y fatigosos
trabajos'(Sab:139)[I haveneversufferedthe harshtreatmentwhichis generallymetedout
to slaves,nor haveI beencondemnedto long andarduouslabour](p. 31). Sabis foremanof
the sugar mill: 'Su suerte [era]menos digna de ldstima que la de otros esclavos' (Sab: 139) [He
seem[ed]less deservingof pity than the other slaves](p. 31). Furthermore,'nopareciaun
criollo blanco, tampoco era negro ni podia creersele descendientede los primeros habitadores
de las Antillas. Su rostropresentabaun compuestosingular en que se descubriael cruzamiento
de dos razas diversas,y en que se amalgamaban,por decirlo asi, los rasgos de la casta africana
con los de la europea,sin ser no obstante un mulatoperfecto' (Sab: 133) [he did not appear to
be a white criollo;neitherwas he black nor could one take him for a descendantof the
indigenousinhabitantsof the Antilles.His facewas a singularcompositewhichrevealedthe
minglingof two distinctraces,an amalgam,it could be said, of the featuresof the African
and the Europeanyet withoutbeing a perfectmulatto](p. 28). Schlausays that Sab is a
symbiosisof what we could call 'the noble blackand the romantichero' (1986:619).The
slavealso had an educationsimilarto a whiteman'sand seemsto be a blood relationof his
masters. Carlota, his owner, says: 'Mi padre le ha tratado siemprecon particulardistincion,y
aun ha dejado traslucira lafamilia que tiene motivospoderosospara creerlo hijo de su difunto
hermanodonLuis'(Sab:159)[Myfatherhas alwaystreatedhim with specialconsideration
and has let on to the familythathe has compellingreasonsto believehimthe son of his late
brother Don Luis] (p.45). Even for Carlota, Sab is like a brother:'Sab no ha estado
confundidocon los otros esclavos [...], se ha criado conmigo como un hermano, tiene suma
aficion a la lecturay su talento naturales admirable'(Sab: 158) [Sab has never mixed with the
190 Brigida Pastor

other slaves[...], for he has beenraisedwith me like a brother,has an immenselove of

reading,and his naturaltalentis astonishing](pp.44-45). The protagonistof the novel is
thus differentfromotherblacksin birth,appearance,educationand behaviour.
However,Sab describeshimselfand feels like both a 'mulatoy esclavo'[mulattoand
slave] who belongs to 'aquellaraza desventuradasin derechosde hombres.. .'(Sab: 137) [that
unhappy race deprivedof human rights...] (p. 30). Paradoxically,this mulatto slave
proclaimshimselfto be a championof freedom,but he does not rebel and he is only
subjugated to the slavery of his love for Carlota: 'Desde mi infanciafui escrituradoa la
senforitaCarlota:soy esclavosuyo, y quieroviviry morira su servicio'(Sab: 140) [As a child I
was signedover to Miss Carlota;I am her slave,and I wish to live and die in herservice]
(p. 32).HereSabseemscloseto beinga femininecharacter,who reflectsthesocialcondition
of womenin a bourgeoissocietythatdeprivesthemof allthe rightsthataregrantedto men,
and leads them to idealisetheirsubordinationto men. Throughthe characterof Teresa,
Carlota's orphan-cousin,the author censuresthe restrictionsto which women were
subjectedand criticisesimplicitlyan upbringingthat permitshappinessonly withinlove
and marriage.Thus,whenSabdecidesto confessto Carlotathe fallacyof herrelationship
with Enrique, Teresa adds: 'iQuien te da el derechode arrancarlasus ilusiones,de privarlade
los momentos de felicidad que ellas pueden proporcionarla?dque habrds logrado cuando
despiertesde ese suenfode amor,que es suunica existencia?ique le darcs en [sic] cambiode las
esperanzasquele robes?'(Sab:256)[Whogivesyou the rightto snatchherdreamsfromher,
to depriveher of the momentsof happinessthat these can give her?Whatwill you have
attainedwhenyou awakenherout of thisdreamof love thatis hersoleexistence?Whatare
you going to give her in exchangefor the hopesof whichyou rob her?](p. 106).
In spite of the fact that Sab does not reflect the stereotypicalimage of the slave,
Avellanedamakeshim a spokesmanfor the injusticeof black slaveryand a vehiclefor
revealingthe 'slavery'of whitewomen.Both blacksand women,'[estan]condenados a ver
hombrescomo ellos, para los cuales lafortuna y la ambicionabrenmil caminosde gloria y de
poder; mientrasque ellos no puedentenerambicion,no puedenesperarunporvenir'(Sab: 258)
[[are]condemnedto see fortuneandambitionfacilitatea thousandwaysto gloryandpower
for men no betterthanthemselves,whiletheymay harbourneitherambitionnor hope for
the future](p. 107).AlthoughAvellanedadid not proposethe abolitionof slavery,shewas
aware of its cruelty. Sab says: 'Bajo este cielo defuego el esclavo casi desnudotrabajatoda la
mafnanasin descanso,y a la hora terribledel mediodia,jadeando,abrumadobajo elpeso de la
lenfay de la cana que conducesobresus espaldas,y abrasadopor los rayos del sol que tuestasu
cutis, llega el infeliz a gozar todos los placeres que tiene para el la vida: dos horas de suenioy
una escasa racion'(Sab:135-136)[Underthis fiery sky the nearlynakedslave works all
morningwithout rest, and at the terriblehour of midday,painting,crushedunderthe
weightof thewood andthesugarcanehe bearson his shoulders,scorchedby the raysof the
sun that burnhis skin, the unhappysoul at last gets a taste of all the pleasureswhichlife
holds for him: two hours of sleep and a frugal meal] (p. 29). This was the degrading
situationof the slave,of thosecolouredhumanbeingswho did not shareSab'sluck.Some
pages later, the mulatto protagonist says: 'Pero jah!, al negro se rehutsalo que es concedidoa
las bestiasferoces, a quienesle igualan;porquea ellas se les deja vivirentre los montes donde
nacierony al negro.se le arranca de los suyos' (Sab: 257) [But, ah! the black is denied that
whichis grantedthe wild beaststo whichhe is compared,for they arepermittedto live in
the placewherethey wereborn,whereasthe blackis torn fromit] (p. 107).
AlthoughSabdoesnot sufferfromthe physicalchainsof servitude,Avellanedadescribes
 Symbiosisbetweenslaveryand feminism 191

hercompassionfor his character,in orderto expressthe feelingthathe experienceswhenhe

realisesthat he will neverwin Carlota'slove becauseof his conditionas mulatto'slave'.In
this way, tornbetweentwo realities,Sab does not belongto either:he is not a slavelike the
others,but neitheris he integratedin the white society.Feelingcompletelyisolatedin that
society, he confesses to Teresa: 'Soy solo en el mundo: nadie llorard mi muerte. No tengo
tampoco unapatria que defender,porque los deberesdel esclavo son los deberesde la bestia de
carga, que anda mientraspuede y se echa en tierra cuandoya no puede mds' (Sab: 257) [I am
alone in the world;no one will weep at my death. I have no homelandto defend,because
slaveshaveno country.I haveno obligationsto perform,becausethe obligationsof a slave
are those of a beastof burdenwho walkswhilehe is able and collapseswhenhe can go no
further](p. 107).
All theseallusionsto blackslaverycan explainthe confusionamongscholarswho have
concluded that Sab is an abolitionist novel. However, as the action moves forward,
Avellaneda,through the protagonistCarlota, balances and reinforcesthe parallelism
betweenthe situationof the black slave and the servitudeof the white woman, allowing
herselfto expressher longingfor freedomin a more explicitway. The authormakesher
charactera defenderof the indigenousrace extinguishedby civilisation;Carlotaidealises
Nature in its primitivestate in contrast to a society that makes human beings enslave
others: 'Lloro si al recordaruna raza desventuradaque habito la tierra que habitamos, [...] y
que ha desaparecido de esta tierra de la que fue pacifica poseedora. Aqui vivian felices e
inocentes aquellos hijos de la naturaleza: este suelo virgen no necesitaba ser regado con el
sudor de los esclavospara producirles'(Sab: 203) [I do cry when I remember an unfortunate
peoplewho once dwelton the landswe live on now, [...] and who have disappearedfrom
this country,of whichtheywerethe peacefulowners.Herethosechildrenof naturelivedin
happinessandinnocence:thisvirginsoil did not needto be wateredwiththe sweatof slaves
to be productive](p.73). And even Sab, the slave, recognisesin Carlota,the woman, the
only being that '[comprende]la vida y lafelicidad de los salvajes' [understands the life and
happinessof the savages].He insinuatesthat the destinyof both wouldhavebeendifferent
if they had been born 'en los abrasados desiertos de Africa o en un confin desconocido de la
America'(Sab:204) [in the burning deserts of Africa or in some unknown corner of
America](p. 74). This quotation carriesan implicitcritiqueof the oppressivevalues of
society, since 'los abrasados desiertos de Africa' like 'un confin desconocido de la America'
represent,accordingto the author,freeand immaculateplaces,farfromthe oppressiveand
materialistbourgeoissociety.Sab,in his conditionas slave,andCarlota,in herconditionas
woman, appear like 'ser[es] degradado[s],proscrito[s]por la sociedad, envilecido[s]por los
hombres...'(Sab:248) [debasedbeing[s],outlawedby society,reviledby men...] (p. 100).
When we considerall theseexamplesof anti-slaverypassages,and examinethe socio-
historicalcontextin whichthe novel appeared,it is not surprisingthat Sab was prohibited
by the authoritiesin Cuba,sinceit was consideredto be 'unasubversion de todoslos valores
sociales y moralesy, en ultima instancia, economicosy politicos, establecidos'[a subversion of
all social, moral and, in the end, all establishedeconomic and political values] (Cruz,
1973:140).But the interpretationof Sab in nineteenth-century Cuba, similarto the later
criticalevaluationswhich consideredit a pioneer of anti-slaveryliterature,ignored the
feministmessagethat the authorattemptedto convey in her book. We should not forget
that Sab was writtenat the sametime as other anti-slaverynovels,such as those of Cirilo
Villaverde,FelixTancoand AnselmoSuarezy Romero,who also addressedthe subjectof
passion as the centraltheme. In all these works a white man loves a black or mulatto
192 BrigidaPastor
woman(Cruz,1973:35). In contrastto theseauthors,Avellaneda,besidesbeingthe only
womanwho wrotea novelof the kindduringthe period,also transgressed the traditionby
reversingtherelationshipin orderto serveherfeministpurpose:a blackmandaresto desire
a whitewoman.The authortriedto createa doubleimpacton heraudienceby presenting
an inversionthatbroketheexistingsocialandliterarycanonsanddiscloseda glimpseof the
liberationistmessageunderlyingsuchan unusualrelationship.6
The authorgoes beyondan attemptto amalgamatethe noble slavewith the admirable
qualitiesof women;shecreatesa characterlikeSab,who,in spiteof the fact thathe is both
male and slave,showstypicallyfemininecharacteristics (see Williams,1993).In this way,
Avellanedachangestheconventionalroleof themalecharacterfor thefemaleone:Sab,like
most womenin novels of the time,is ruledby passionsand emotions,in contrastto the
more rational masculine stereotype.On the other hand, Teresa, the other female
protagonist,appearsas a strongercharacterwho is in controlof her feelings,unlikethe
submissiveand resignedfemaledemandedby patriarchalsociety.Sab says to Teresa:'Es
que en mi hay unafacultad inmensade amar: [...] es que a vos os sostiene la razony a mi me
devorael sentimiento. Vuestrosentimientoes del madspuro oro, el mio es defuego' (Sab: 311)
[It is thatwithinme thereis an immenseabilityto love:you areupheldby reason,and I am
devouredby emotion.Your heartis of the purestgold, mineof fire](p. 141).Avellaneda's
feministviews led her to have the mulattoprotagonistexpresswordsof admirationfor
Teresa: 'Y, sin embargo,vos sois una debil mujer:jcuil es esafuerza que os sostiene y que yo
pido en vano a mi corazon de hombre?(Sab: 209) [And yet, you are a weak woman: what is
this strengthwhichsustainsyou and for whichI vainlyask my virileheart?](p. 140).Doris
Sommer has concluded with regard to the subject:'Aquiel hombrereal es, por supuestoSab
o la A vellanedamisma, tan apasionadoscomo Carlotay tan dadosa principiosaltruistascomo
Teresa. El/ella es el personajemas masculino[...] porque es el masfeminizado' [Here the real
manis, of course,Sabor Avellanedaherself,who areboth as passionateas Carlotaand as
proneto altruisticprinciplesas Teresa.He/sheis themost masculinecharacterbecausehe/
she is the most feminised](Sommer,1987:35).
In thelastchapterof the novel,theflow of theplot clarifiesthemarriage-slavery
analogy
whichwas alreadysuggestedearlierin the book.Carlota,likeSab,realisesherconditionas
a marginalbeing,but she does not rebelagainstthe social oppressionof whichboth are
victims.She decidesto obey the social normswhichare assignedto her, thus becominga
victimof herclass.Herunsuccessfuldestinyrepresentsthe strongestcritiqueof marriagein
the novel. When she discoversthat her husbandis a productof the mercantileworld,
Carlota '[se siente] desgraciada[en su matrimonio]y lo [es] tanto mds cuanto que todos la
creianfeliz'(Sab:301)[feelsunhappyin hermarriage,andthemoretheothersbelieveherto
be happy, the more wretchedshe becomes](p. 135). Society imposes as a norm: '[no]
desaprobarconjusticia la conductade su marido,[no]quejarsede su suerte[a pesar de] todo lo
que tenia de serio y material aquella vida del comercio' (Sab: 302) [do not by rights
disapproveof herhusband'sconductnor complainof herlot, despitefeelingoppressedby
all theharshnessandmaterialismof businesslife](p. 136).Theimageof Carlotais similarto
the slave's;she is renderedincapableof decidingherown destiny.Insteadof acceptingthat
women'shappinessrelieson the passiverole imposedby society,Avellanedaconvertsthis
beliefinto a fallacy.Thus Sab says referringto the destinythat awaitsCarlotawhenshe
marries Enrique Otway: 'iPodrai ser [feliz] cuando despues de algunos dias de error y
entusiasmo vea rasgarse el velo de sus ilusiones,y se halle unida a un hombreque habra de
despreciar? ...' (Sab: 260) [Will she be happy? Can she be when after a few days of
 Symbiosisbetweenslaveryand feminism 193

misconceptionsand raptureshe will see the veil of her illusionsrentand findherselfjoined

to a man that she must come to despise?](p. 109). Under the mask of this feminine
character,the authorpresentsthe image of a trappedwoman in an unhappymarriage,
forcedto acceptherroleas a marginalisedfigurein a societycontrolledby men.Carlotais a
representative of the women of her class: 'Guard[aba]silencio y [parec[ia]resignarse. Para
ella todo habia acabado. Vio a su marido tal cual era: comenzo a comprenderla vida. Sus
sueniosse disiparon,su amor huyo con sufelicidad. Entonces toco toda la desnudez, toda la
pequeniezde las realidades'(Sab:304) [Shekeptsilentand appearedto haveresignedherself
to it. For her everythingwas over. She saw her husbandas he reallywas: she began to
understandlife. Herdreamsfaded;herlove, and with it her happiness,vanished.Thenshe
cameto knowall thestarkness,the pettinessof reality](p. 137).Furthermore,she enviesher
cousin Teresa, who decided to escape from resignationby living in a convent.7Thus,
Carlota, 'la mujer hermosa, rica y lisonjeada, la que tenia esposo y placeres venia a buscar
consuelo en la pobre monja muerta para el mundo' (Sab: 301) [the beautiful, rich, and
admiredwoman,who had a husbandand manycomforts,cameseekingconsolationfrom
the poor nun who had renouncedthe world](p. 135).And in spiteof the fact that 'denada
carecia [...], comodidades, recreaciones y aun lujo, todo lo tenia' [lacked for nothing:
comforts,pleasures,andevenluxury-she hadit all],she couldnot be happywhileknowing
that 'aquellas bellas apariencias, y aun las ventajas reales de la vida, estaban fundadas y
sostenidas por la incesante actividad,por la perenne especulaciony por unfatigante desvelo'
(Sab:302) [thosebeautifulappearancesand even real advantagesof life wereall founded
upon and sustainedby ceaselessactivity,perennialscheming,and an exhaustingwatch-
fulness](p. 136).Thiswomanis immersedin theworldof convention;incapableof violating
social norms,she resignsherselfto oppressionin spite of her unhappiness.
With Sab, Avellanedaseems to be determinedto attack the absurdityof the social
canons that oppressedand subjugatedwomen. She, in her condition as a woman, had
experiencedthis oppression.In a letterof 1845,she confessedthat she felt 'vilipendiada
por
la esclavitudde la sociedad[vilifiedby the slaveryof society](Cotareloy Mori, 1930:130).
This society had formedthe inevitabledestiny of the black race and the white woman,
allowingthemno alternativebut to serveand obey theirmasters.Sab says, referringto the
destinyof black peoplewhichis implicitlyapplicableto women in bourgeoissociety:'En
vano sentirdnen su cabeza unafuerza pensadora, en vano en su pecho un corazon quepalpite.
iEl poder y la voluntad! En vano un instinto, una conviccion que les grite, <levantaos y
marchad>,;porque para ellos todos los caminos estdn cerrados, todas las esperanzas
destruidas'(Sab:258) [In vain will they feel in theirmindsthe capacityfor thought,in vain
in theirbreastsa heartthat beats.Powerand will! In vain an instinct,a convictionwhich
cries out to them 'Rise up and walk!'becausefor them all roads are barred,all hopes
dashed](p. 107). Similarly,Avellanedaconceivesof marriageas a blind alley and a false
dreamthat oppresseswomenand subjugatesthemto the degradingvaluesof a patriarchal
society. Sab says about the marriageof Carlotato EnriqueOtway:'Tantovaldrialigaral
aguila con la serpiente, o a un vivo con un caddver.i Y ella habrdde jurar a ese hombreamor
y obediencia! ile entregard su corazon, su porvenir, su destino entero! ... jella se hard un
deber de respetarle! Y el ... jel la tomardpor mujer, como a un genero de mercancia, por
cdlculo, por conveniencia ... haciendo una especulacion vergonzosa del lazo mds santo, del
empeinomas solemne!, ia ella, que le dard su alma! iy el sera su marido, el poseedor de
Carlota'(Sab:260-261) [It wouldbe likejoiningthe eagle to the serpent,or a livingbeing
to a corpse.And she mustvow love and obedienceto that man!She will make it her duty
 194 BrigidaPastor
to respect him! And he, he will take her as his wife like a piece of merchandise,
calculatingly,for profit,transforminginto shamefulspeculationthe most holy bond, the
most solemnpledge!She,who willgive himher soul!And he will be herhusband,the one
who possessesCarlota](p. 109). Avellanedarebelsagainstthe mercantiletheorywhich
was appliedto marriageat the time. The male character,Jorge Otway, symbol of the
culturalvalues of the period,says concerninghis son's marriageto Carlota:'Un marido
[...], ya te lo he dicho cien veces, se casa con una mujer lo mismo que se asocia con un
companfero,por especulacion,por conveniencia.La hermosura,el talento que un hombrede
nuestra clase busca en la mujer con quien ha de casarse son la riqueza y la economia'
(Sab: 183) [A husband [...], I've told you a hundred times, [...] becomes associated with a
firm:for investment,for profit.The beautyand the talentthat a man of our class looks
for in a woman to marryis wealth and thrift](p.61). Undoubtedly,these quotations
transmitthe author's progressivevoice. It is possible that, as Mary Cruz states: 'las
propias conviccionesde la Avellaneday su inteligenciapara captar los conflictosplanteados
en la sociedad donde se movian sus personajes, la llevaron a pintar un cuadro mucho mds
atrevido de lo que ella misma se propuso, y de lo que fueron capaces de hacer sus
contemporaneos' [Avellaneda'sown convictionsand her ability to capturethe existing
conflictsin the societyin whichhercharacterslived,led her to painta muchmoredaring
picture of what she herselfhad in mind, and of what her own contemporarieswere
capableof doing].8
The culturalvaluesthat undermineboth blackpeopleand womenare reinforcedby the
prevailingrealityof religionin society,which demandsthe abnegationof both groups.
Avellanedacriticisesthe religiousvaluesthat perpetuateboth the abominablerealityof
blackslaveryand thefrustratingsubjugationof women.In the conclusionof thenovel,Sab
exclaims: 'Me acuerdo que cuandomi amo me enviabaa confesar mis culpas a los pies de un
sacerdote, yo preguntabaal ministrode Dios que hariapara alcanzar la virtud.La virtuddel
esclavo, me respondia,es obedecery callar, servir con humildady resignaciona sus legitimos
duenfos,y nojuzgarlosnunca'(Sab:309)[I rememberthatwhenmymastersentme to confess
my sins at the feet of a priest,I askedGod's ministerwhat I shoulddo in orderto attain
virtue.The virtueof the slave,he replied,is to obey and be silent,servehis awfulmasters
withhumilityandresignation,andneverto judgethem](p. 140).Thisquotationrepresents,
once more, an exampleof the clear parallelismbetweenthe author'scensureof black
slaveryand her feministphilosophy.Women,like slaves, have only one missionin life,
which is to listen to '[la voz] de los fuertes que dice a los debiles. Obediencia,humildad,
resignacion ... esta es la virtud' (Sab:316) [[the voice] of the strong who say to the weak:
obedience, humility, resignation ... that is virtue] (p. 145).
The metaphor of black slavery that pervades the novel becomes explicit in the
conclusion,when Sab, alludingto his love for Carlota,writesa letterto Teresa:'iOh,las
mujeres!ipobresy ciegas victimas!Como los esclavos, ellas arrastranpacientementesu cadena
y bajan la cabeza bajo el yugo de las leyes humanas.Sin otra guia que su corazonignorantey
creduloeligen un duenfopara toda la vida' (Sab: 316) [Oh, women! Poor, blind victims! Like
slaves,theypatientlydragtheirchainsand bow theirheadsunderthe yokeof humanlaws.
With no other guidethan an untutoredand trustingheart,they choose a masterfor life]
(p. 144).ButAvellanedagoes beyonda simplecomparisonbetweenwomenandslaves.She
daresto say that woman'sdestinyis worsethanthe slave's,because'ensu calidadde texto
que ilumina retroactivamentetoda la novela, esta carta propone a Sab como un recurso
paradigmdticoque permite reinterpretarla figura de Carlota con el auxilio complementario
 Symbiosis between slavery and feminism 195

delpersonaje negro' [as a text that illuminates the entire novel retroactively, this letter makes
Sab a paradigmatic device that allows us to reinterpret the role of Carlota with the help of
the black character] (Guerra, 1985:714). The letter that Sab writes to Teresa before his
death allows us to realise that his reflections on slavery turn out to be a discourse on the
destiny of women.
In Sab, the concepts of race and gender appear closely linked. Avellaneda, who from a
young age had clashed with the conventional ambience of her time, became conscious of the
marginal role of women within the oppressive patriarchal system. Because of that, she
found a way to express a strong protest against the prejudices and social canons of the
existing male tradition, juxtaposing the parallel theme of black slavery with her embryonic
feminist philosophy. The last lines of the novel underline the author's essential message:
'iHabrd podido olvidarla hija de los Tropicos [Carlota] al esclavo [Sab] que descansa en una
himilde sepultura bajo aquel hermoso cielo?' (Sab: 320) [Will the daughter of the tropics
[Carlota] have been able to forget the slave [Sab] who rests in a simple grave under that
magnificent sky?] (p. 147). This rhetorical question leads us to conclude that Carlota was
only a symbol that the author used to refer to all women 'cualquieraque [fuese] su destino, y
elpais del mundodonde[habitasen]'(Sab: 320) [whatever [might] be their fate and the nation
of the world in which they [were]residing] (p. 147). It is evident that the answer expected by
the author would be a reaction against the prevailing patriarchalvalues which required the
passivity and submissiviness of women. As has been suggested in this article, Gertrudis
Gomez de Avellaneda did not employ a true symbiosis between her desire for abolishing
slavery and her feminism: the theme of slavery is only a metaphor, doubly shocking because
it exposes her own emancipating ideas in an oppressive society that did not forgive those
voices which dared to transgress its norms.

NOTES
1. Avellanedahad an extensiveliteraryoutput as a lyricalpoet, dramatistand novelist. Sab was the first
novel published(1841) following her nostalgic period after leaving Cuba.
2. G6mez de Avellaneda, G. (1993) Sab and Autobiography,translatedand edited by Nina M. Scott,
Universityof Texas Press(Austin),p. 26. All futureEnglishtranslationsof Sab will be from this edition.
3. Myriam Diaz-Diocaretzexplains the popularityof prologues used by women writersto 'justify' their
ideas, which might be interpretedas subversivefor that period, and to ensure that their novels could
enjoy generalacceptance(1993:105).
4. See Cixous' notion of ecritusefemininein Cixous and Clement(1986:xv).
5. In her novel Dos mujeres(1842), considered her most feminist work, Avellaneda reveals a stronger
critiqueof the institutionof marriage.Similarly,the author herselfexcludedboth novels from the final
edition of her works in 1869-1871becauseof her growingconventionalism.Englishtranslationsof Dos
mujeresare mine.
6. Accordingto Antonio M. Lazcano:'La uni6nde negroy blanca[...] estabavedada,sin dudamotivadapor
el sentimientodeprotecci6nqueel espanfolda a la mujer,a la que identificacon la VirgenMaria,por lo que
siendoasi no podriapermitirque en su sociedadse unierael negro inferiorcon la blanca'[The marriage
between a black man and a white woman was banned, undoubtedly motivated by the feeling of
protection that the Spanish man gives women, whom he identifieswith the Virgin Mary. In this way
society would not be able to allow the bond between the degradedblack man with a white woman].
(1978: p. 92)
7. In the nineteenthcentury,those women who wanted to escape from the assigneddisadvantagesof their
sex, could 'opt' to becomenuns. Evenin the seventeenthcentury,the Mexicanwritersor JuanaInesde la
Cruz (1651-1695), feelingfrustratedin a society where the use of the mind was an exclusiveprivilegeof
men, chose to enter a convent to be able to write. See the criticaledition of Electa Arenaland Amanda
Powell (1994).
196 Brigida Pastor
8. Cruz(1972:13).MaryCruzalso points to the possibleinfluenceof VictorHugo'sBug-Jargal,as a direct
antecedentto Sab. Likewise,criticshave noted in Avellaneda'sprose the influencesof differentauthors
like Rousseau, George Sand, Madame de Stael, Lamartine,Byron, Walter Scott and Goethe. The
possibleinfluencesof Chateaubriand,Goethe and Rousseauin Sab are studiedin the articleby Alberto
J. Carlos (1965) Rene, Werthery la NouvelleHeloise en la primeranovela de la Avellaneda.Revista
Iberoamericana 31.

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