Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App

Biology Project on Ultraviolet Rays

PGCert Artificial Intelligence

Designed for professionals who

recognise the importance of Artificial

Intelligence.
Ad MastersPortal Learn More

Submit t ed by  Edit or

Ultraviolet Rays
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT IN BIOLOGY

In partial fulfillment of project in

PGCert Artificial
Intelligence
Designed for professionals who
recognise the importance of
Artificial Intelligence.

MastersPortal

Learn More

Biology

By

………………………………

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

________________________________

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

AL-FAROOK RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

[Affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi]

2009-10
Al Farook Resident ial School

[Affiliat ed t o CBSE, New Delhi]

Farook college-673632
 Laboratory certificate
Self - paced learning

and revision
This on
ify t hat t he project
is t o cert BOOK NOW
work t it led
BYJU'S App
Is a bonafide record done by:

Reg. No. ………………………………

In part ial fulfillment of t he project in Biology during t he year

2009-2010

Mrs. Mercy Abraham                                                                         Mr. K.Kunhoyi

Depart ment of Bot any                                                                                Principal

Mrs. Pravit ha

Depart ment of Zoology

Cert ified t hat t he candidat e was examined by us in t he project work/viva voce examinat ion held
at Al-farook resident ial school on……………………….

Internal examiner                                                                                              external examiner

INTRODUCTION

In t he present 21st cent ury world one does not need t o say about ult ra violet rays, it is t he
most t alked about t opic in t his era. From t he common man t o academicians UV rays hold an
import ant place.

UV rays have been discussed for long around t he world especially aft er t he discovery of t he
hole in t he ozone layer in 1990s.The hole meant t he approaching deat h of our mot her eart h. A
host of st udies have been undert aken by many people and organizat ions such as t he Unit ed
Nat ions, GREENPEACE et c.

Bookings Open

Enjoy a unique drive with

unparalleled fuel efficiency

of the Intelligent Electric

Hybrid

Even when t he world speaks much about t his great calamit y t hat has befallen our mot her eart h,
it would surely be a great injust ice on t he part of t he younger generat ion especially t he st udent
frat ernit y t o be in ut t er ignorance of t his slow killer as t hey are t he fut ure generat ions who
 should live on t his eart h. Thus t aking int o considerat ions t hese point s t his project has been
Self - paced
t aken learning

up not only t o know about UV rays but also how it affect s t he bio diversit y of our planet .
and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App
Here t his project deals wit h t he above ment ioned point s. Also t he project aims t o give a
comprehensive pict ure on t he impending disast er t hat would t ake place if we be ignorant on
t his issue.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many people have t aken great pains t o make t his project a realit y. First of all I convey my deep
t hanks t o Mrs.Pravit ha, Dept . of Zoology wit hout whose guidance t his project would have
become not hing. Also I am deeply indebt ed t o Mrs. Mercy Abraham, Dept of Bot any who t oo
was inst rument al in collect ing t he dat a required for t his project . Last but not t he least I deeply
acknowledge t he help given t o me by my classmat es whose valuable t ips and suggest ions
helped me bring about such a project . I am deeply indebt ed t o t hem for also helping me collect
t he relevant informat ion from many sources and also providing many diagrams required t o
emphasise my point s.

CONTENTS

1 ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

1.1 Sources of UV

1.2 UV-A, UV-B & UV-C

2 EFFECTS OF UV RADIATION ON NATURE AND HUMANS

2.1 Damage to marine life

2.2 Degradation of polymers, pigments and dyes

2.3 HARMFUL EFFECTS ON HUMANS

2.3.1 Effects on Eye

2.3.2 Effects on Skin

2.3.3 Genetic effects

2.3.4 Effects on immune system

2.4 OZONE DEPLETION AND UV RADIATIONS

2.5 VULNERABILITIES DUE TO UV RADIATIONS

1.   ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

In 1801, t he German physicist Johann Wilhelm Rit t er, found t hat t here exist invisible rays
beyond t he violet end of t he visible spect rum of t he Sun t hat darken silver chloride even more
efficient ly t han visible light . This spect ra region bet ween visible light and X-rays was found t o
be more chemically act ive t han visible light , and named as t he ult raviolet region.

Ult raviolet (UV) light is elect romagnet ic radiat ion wit h a wavelengt h short er t han t hat of visible
light , but longer t han x-rays, in t he range 10 nm t o 400 nm, and energies from 3 eV t o 124 eV

The name means "beyond violet " (from Lat in ultra, "beyond"), violet being t he colour of t he
short est wavelengt hs of visible light . UV light has a short er wavelengt h t han t hat of violet light

The elect romagnet ic spect rum of ult raviolet light can be subdivided in a number of ways. The
draft ISO st andard on det ermining solar radiances (ISO-DIS-21348)[3] describes t he following
ranges:

Wavelengt h range in Energy per

Name Abbreviat ion
nanomet ers phot on
Ult raviolet A, long wave, or black
UVA 400 nm–320 nm 3.10–3.94 eV
light
Near NUV 400 nm–300 nm 3.10–4.13 eV
 Ult raviolet B or medium wave UVB 320 nm–280 nm 3.94–4.43 eV
Self - paced learning

Middle MUV 300 nm–200 nm 4.13–6.20 eV

and revision on
BOOK NOW
Ult raviolet
BYJU'S App C, short wave, or
UVC 280 nm–100 nm 4.43–12.4 eV
germicidal
Far FUV 200 nm–122 nm 6.20–10.2 eV
Vacuum VUV 200 nm–10 nm 6.20–124 eV
Ext reme EUV 121 nm–10 nm 10.2–124 eV

Nat ural sources of UV

The Sun emit s ult raviolet radiat ion in t he UVA, UVB, and UVC bands. The Eart h's ozone layer
blocks 98.7% of t his UV radiat ion from penet rat ing t hrough t he at mosphere. 98.7% of t he
ult raviolet radiat ion t hat reaches t he Eart h's surface is UVA.

Ot her sources:  There are also several art ificial met hods t o produce UV rays such as from black
light (Wood's light ), Ult raviolet fluorescent lamps, Ult raviolet LEDs, Ult raviolet lasers,
synchrot ron radiat ion sources, Argon and deut erium discharge lamps et c…

UVA, UVB & UVC

Among t he different t ypes of UV, we consider t he main subdivisions as UV A, UV B & UV C.

UVA (320-400 nm):

Ult raviolet light , t ype A. These are rays of light from t he sun which are not visible but can cause
damage t o t he skin.

UVB (280-320 nm)

Ult raviolet light , t ype B. These are rays of light from t he sun which are not visible but can cause
damage t o t he skin.

The amount of UV-B light received by a locat ion is st rongly dependent on:

Latitude and elevation of the location: At high-lat it ude polar regions t he sun is always
low in t he sky. Because t he sunlight passes t hrough more at mosphere more of t he UV-B is
absorbed. For t his reason average UV-B exposure at t he poles is over a t housand t imes
lower t han at t he equat or.
Cloud cover : t he reduct ion in UV-B exposure depends t he cover's t hickness.
Proximity to an industrial area: Due t o t he prot ect ion offered by phot ochemical smog.
Indust rial processes produce ozone, one of t he more irrit at ing component s of smog,
which absorbs UV-B. This is t hought t o be one of t he main reasons t hat significant ozone
losses in t he sout hern hemisphere have not been mirrored in t he nort hern hemisphere.

UVC (100-280 nm): UVC rays are t he highest energy, most dangerous t ype of ult raviolet light .
Exposure t o it can even lead t o deat h. Lit t le at t ent ion has been given t o UVC rays in t he past
since t hey are filt ered out by t he at mosphere. However, t heir use in equipment such as pond
st erilizat ion unit s may pose an exposure risk, if t he lamp is swit ched on out side of it s enclosed
pond st erilizat ion unit .

EFFECTS OF UV RADIATION ON NATURE AS WELL AS HUMANS

Bookings Open
Enjoy a unique drive with

unparalleled fuel efficiency of

the Intelligent Electric Hybrid

 The effect s of UV radiat ion on eart h's ecosyst ems are not complet ely underst ood. Even
Self - paced
isolat learning

ing t he effect s of UVA versus UVB is somewhat arbit rary. St udies have shown t hat
and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App radiat ion can cause significant damage, part icularly t o small animals and plant s.
increased UV
Phyt oplankt on, fish eggs, and young plant s wit h developing leaves are part icularly suscept ible
t o damage from over exposure t o UV.

Solar UV radiat ion levels are highest during t he middle of t he day. In t ot al, almost half t he
dayt ime t ot al UV radiat ion is received during t he few hours around noont ime. The sunlight
reaching us consist s of only approximat ely 0.5% UV-B radiat ion, in t erms of radiant energy.
Clouds, as well as ozone, have a t remendous affect on UV radiat ion levels. However, cloudy
skies generally do not offer significant prot ect ion from UV. Thin or scat t ered clouds can have
minor impact s on UV and even, for a short t ime, increase UV above what it would be on a blue
sky day by furt her scat t ering t he radiat ion and increasing t he levels t hat reach t he surface.

Damage to marine life: The penet rat ion of increased amount s of UV-B light has caused great
concern over t he healt h of marine plankt on t hat densely populat e t he t op 2 met ers of ocean
wat er. The nat ural prot ect ive-response of most chlorophyll cont aining cells t o increased light -
radiat ion is t o produce more light -absorbing pigment s but t his prot ect ive response is not
t riggered by UV-B light . Anot her possible response of plankt on is t o sink deeper int o t he wat er
but t his reduces t he amount of visible light t hey need for phot osynt hesis, and t hereby reduces
t heir growt h and reproduct ion rat e. In ot her words, t he amount of food and oxygen produced by
plankt on could be reduced by UV exposure wit hout killing individual organisms.

Degradation of polymers, pigments and dyes: Many polymers used in consumer product s are
degraded by UV light . The problem appears as discolorat ion or fading, cracking and somet imes,
t ot al product disint egrat ion if cracking has proceeded sufficient ly. The rat e of at t ack increases
wit h exposure t ime and sunlight int ensit y. It is known as UV degradat ion, and is one form of
polymer degradat ion. Sensit ive polymers include t hermoplast ics, such as polypropylene and
polyet hylene as well as specialit y fibres like aramids.

UV damaged polypropylene rope (left ) and new rope (right )

There are several ot her considerat ions:

Ult raviolet levels are over 1,000 t imes higher at t he equat or t han at t he polar regions so it
is presumed t hat marine life at t he equat or is much bet t er adapt ed t o t he higher
enviroment al UV light t han organisms in t he polar regions. The current concern of marine
biologist s is most ly over t he more sensit ive ant arct ic phyt oplankt on which normally would
recieve very low doses of UV. Only one large-scale field survey of Anarct ic phyt oplankt on
has been carried out so far [Smit h et .al _ Science_ 1992] ; t hey found a 6-12% drop in
phyt oplankt on product ivit y once t heir ship ent ered t he area of t he spring-t ime ozone
hole. Since t he hole only last s from 10-12weeks t his t ranslat es int o a 2-4%loss overall, a
measurable but not yet cat ast rophic loss.
Bot h plant s and phyt oplankt on vary widely in t heir sensit ivit y t o UV-B. When over 200
agricult ural plant s were t est ed, more t han half showed sensit ivit y t o UV-B light . Ot her
plant s showed neglible effect s or even a small increase in vigor. Even wit hin a species
t here were marked differences; for example one variet y of soybean showed a 16%
decrease in growt h while anot her variet y of t he same soybean showed no effect
[R.Parson]. An increase in UV-B could cause a shift in populat ion rat her t han a large die-off
of plant s
An increase in UV-B will cause increased amount s of Ozone t o be produced at lower
levels in t he at mosphere. While some have hailed t he prot ect ion offered by t his 'pollut ion-
sheild' many plant s have shown t hemselves t o be very sensit ive t o phot ochemical smog.

HARMFUL EFFECTS ON HUMANS

Being t he one which commonly affect s our healt h, we usually discuss t he harmful effect s of
UV-B. The consequences of increased exposure of t he human body t o UV-B radiat ion will in t he
first inst ance be charact erized by t he physical propert ies of t his t ype of radiat ion. UV-B
radiat ion does not penet rat e far int o t he body; most of it is absorbed in t he superficial t issue
layers of 0.1 mm dept h. This limit s t he primary effect s t o t he skin and t he eyes. There are,
however, also syst emic effect s; t hese st art wit h a primary react ion in t he superficial layers, but
have consequences t hroughout t he body. It is t he main cause of sunburn and t anning and it has
influences on t he immune syst em. UV-B radiat ion is also t he main cause of snowblindness and
 an import ant fact or in t he induct ion of cat aract s. UV-B radiat ion cont ribut es significant ly t o t he
Self - paced
aging of t helearning

skin and eyes, and it is t he UV-B range t hat is t he most effect ive in causing skin
and revision on
BOOK NOW
cancer.
BYJU'S App

Genet ic damage:

Ult raviolet phot ons harm t he DNA molecules of living organisms in different ways. DNA absorbs
UV-B light and t he absorbed energy can break bonds in t he DNA. Most of t he DNA breakages
are repaired by prot eins present in t he cells nucleus. These may mend t he damage, or part of
t he damage. The repair syst ems may, however, t hemselves be damaged by increased UV-B
exposure. But unrepaired genet ic damage of t he DNA can lead t o skin cancers. In one common
damage event , adjacent t hymine bases bond wit h each ot her, inst ead of across t he "ladder".
This makes a bulge, and t he dist ort ed DNA molecule does not funct ion properly.

Effect s on Skin:

“ Ult raviolet (UV) irradiat ion present in sunlight is an environment al human carcinogen.
The t oxic effect s of UV from nat ural sunlight and t herapeut ic art ificial lamps are a
major concern for human healt h. The major acut e effect s of UV irradiat ion on normal
human skin comprise sunburn inflammat ion eryt hema, t anning, and local or syst emic
immunosuppression. ”
— Mat sumura and Anant haswamy , (2004)
1. i. Sunburn: One of t he most common effect s of UV exposure is "eryt hema", also known
as sunburn. Sunburn occurs when skin cells are damaged by t he absorpt ion of energy from
UV rays. To compensat e for t his injury, t he skin sends ext ra blood t o t he damaged skin in
an at t empt t o repair it —t hus account ing for t he redness t hat is associat ed wit h sunburn.
The amount of t ime it t akes for a sunburn t o occur is dependent most ly on t he relat ive
amount s of UV rays t hat are hit t ing t he skin, and on a person’s skin t ype. People wit h
nat urally dark skin already have inherent ly high levels of melanin, and so are able t o spend
a longer amount of t ime in t he sun before burning, if t hey burn at all. Fair-skinned people
don’t have it quit e so easy—burning can occur wit hin a relat ively short amount of t ime.
2. ii. Sun tan: As a defense against UV radiat ion, t he amount of t he brown pigment melanin
in t he skin increases when exposed t o moderat e (depending on skin t ype) levels of
radiat ion; t his is commonly known as a sun t an. The purpose of melanin is t o absorb UV
radiat ion and dissipat e t he energy as harmless heat , blocking t he UV from damaging skin
t issue. UVA gives a quick t an t hat last s for days by oxidizing melanin t hat was already
present and t riggers t he release of t he melanin from melanocyt es. UVB yields a t an t hat
t akes roughly 2 days t o develop because it st imulat es t he body t o produce more melanin.
The phot ochemical propert ies of melanin make it an excellent phot oprot ect ant .
3. iii. Photodermatoses: Phot odermat oses are skin diseases where t he skin lesions are
caused by light . Such lesions may be it ching papules, whealing of t he skin, fierce
reddening and peeling, et c. The more sensit ive pat ient s cannot even st and one minut e of
out door daylight . In several of t hese diseases t he UV-B radiat ion in sunlight is t he
predominant causat ive agent . Loss of adapt at ion of t he skin t o light appears t o be a
predominant fact or in t hese diseases.
4. iv. Premature Ageing of Skin: Anot her effect of ult raviolet rays on t he skin is phot o
ageing. Recent st udies have shown t hat many of t he sympt oms commonly associat ed
wit h mere aging (i.e. wrinkles, loosening of t he skin) may inst ead be relat ed t o UV
exposure. Even careful t anning kills skin cells, damages DNA and causes permanent
changes in skin connect ive t issue which leads t o wrinkle format ion in lat er life.  UVA, UVB
and UVC can all damage collagen fibers and t hereby accelerat e aging of t he skin. Bot h
UVA and UVB dest roy vit amin A in skin which may cause furt her damage.
5. v. Skin Cancer:

9 0% of t he skin carcinomas are at t ribut ed t o UV-B exposure [Wayne] and t he chemical

mechanism by which it causes skin cancer has been ident ified [Tevini]. The above named
carcinomas are relat ively easy t o t reat , if det ect ed in t ime, and are rarely fat al.

There are various t ypes of skin cancer. One main class is formed by t he cut aneous melanomas,
t he cancers of t he pigment cells. There appears t o be a correlat ion bet ween brief, high
int ensit y exposures t o UV and event ual appearance (as long as 10-20yrs) of melanoma.
 Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App

Bookings Open
Enjoy a unique drive with

unparalleled fuel efficiency of

the Intelligent Electric Hybrid

The ot her main t ypes are basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas, cancers of t he
epit helial cells. These carcinomas of t he skin are somet imes, collect ively, called "non-
melanoma skin cancers". For t he present example we will deal wit h t hese non-melanoma skin
cancers. In whit e caucasians, t he incidence of t hese cancers ranks high among t he various
t ypes of cancer; in some populat ions it is in fact t he highest of all. The incidence is lower in
more pigment ed populat ions, t ypically by a fact or of 10 or even 100. The mort alit y rat e is low
in comparison wit h t hat for ot her t ypes of cancer: approximat ely 1% in areas wit h good medical
care.

The non-melanoma skin cancers are clearly correlat ed t o sunlight . They occur most ly in light -
skinned people, and t hen predominant ly on skin areas most exposed t o sunlight , such as t he
face. In people of comparable genet ic background, t he incidences are higher in t he sunnier
geographical areas.

Early experiment s showed t hat whit e rat s exposed t o sunlight developed skin cancers, but
similar rat s exposed t o sunlight filt ered t hrough window glass did not . As t he window glass
absorbed mainly UV-B radiat ion, t his result indicat ed t hat t he carcinogenic effect was t o a large
ext ent due t o t he UV-B radiat ion in sunlight .

In t echnical t erms, carcinogenic effect iveness was defined as t he reciprocal value of t he daily
dose of radiat ion at a cert ain wavelengt h required for t he induct ion of t umors of 1 mm
diamet er in 50% of a group of mice in 300 days. The t umors in t hese mice were predominant ly
squamous cell carcinomas.

UVB light can cause direct DNA damage. The radiat ion excit es DNA molecules in skin cells,
causing aberrant covalent bonds t o form bet ween adjacent cyt osine bases, producing a dimer.
When DNA polymerase comes along t o replicat e t his st rand of DNA, it reads t he dimer as "AA"
and not t he original "CC". This causes t he DNA replicat ion mechanism t o add a "TT" on t he
growing st rand. This is a mut at ion, which can result in cancerous growt hs and is known as a
"classical C-T mut at ion". The mut at ions t hat are caused by t he direct DNA damage carry a UV
signat ure mut at ion t hat is commonly seen in skin cancers.

Effect s on Eye:

High int ensit ies of UVB light are hazardous t o t he eyes, and exposure can cause welder's flash
(phot okerat it is or arc eye) and may lead t o cat aract s, pt erygium, and pinguecula format ion.
Anot her Possible eye damage t hat can result from high doses of UV light is part icularly t o t he
cornea which is a good absorber of UV light . High doses of UV light can causes a t emporary
clouding of t he cornea, called 'snow-blindness', and chronic doses has been t enit ively linked t o
t he format ion of cat aract s. Higher incidences of cat aract s are found at high elevat ions,Tibet
and Bolivia; and higher incidences are seen at lower lat it udes(approaching t he equat or).UV light
is absorbed by molecules known as chromophores, which are present in t he eye cells and
t issues. Chromophores absorb light energy from t he various wavelengt hs at different rat es - a
pat t ern known as absorpt ion spect rum. If t oo much UV light is absorbed, eye st ruct ures such
as t he cornea, t he lens and t he ret ina can be damaged.

Effect s on immune syst em:

Prolonged exposure can cause damage t o t he human immune syst em. Cells or t issue
component s which are alt ered by t he radiat ion may be recognized as foreign by t he immune
syst em and removed. Cert ain funct ions of t he immune syst em are, however, suppressed by
 exposure t o UV-B radiat ion. When skin is exposed t o more UV-B radiat ion t han it is accust omed
Self
t o, -itpaced learning

has t he abilit y t o adapt .

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App
OZONE DEPLETION AND UV RADIATIONS

Ozone deplet ion result s in an increase of UV-B radiat ion, but t he short er t he wavelengt h, t he
st ronger t he increase, even wit hin t he UV-B range. A 1%decrease in t he ozone layer will cause a
est imat ed 2%increase in UV-B irradiat ion; it is est imat ed t hat t his will lead t o a 4%increase in
basal carcinomas and 6%increase in squamous-cell carcinomas.[Graedel & Crut zen]. Many
scient ist s t oday believe t hat t his life-prot ect ing st rat ospheric ozone layer is being reduced by
t he chlorofluorocarbon gases released int o t he at mosphere by different sources on t he eart h.
Many environment groups are vehement ly prot est ing against t he use of t hese gases, and t heir
use in many places in t he world has been banned. Pollut ion on t he eart h has already caused a
hole in t he ozone layer above t he Ant arct ic.

VULNIRABILITIES DUE TO UV RADIATIONS

A diagram produced by WHO based on ‘global burden of diseases from solar ult raviolet radiat ion’
in t he year 2006:

An article pointing out the increasing Solar UV & Ozone Depletion:

CONCLUSION

Thus we can conclude t hat UV rays have a disast rous impact on our planet . It will lead t o many
dangers which would affect not only us but also t he ent ire living communit y on t his eart h. UV
rays could lead t o many unforeseen disast ers which could also signal t he end of life on t his
beaut iful planet .

All t he dangers at t ribut ed t o UV rays reaching our eart h reside only on man. Man by his reckless
act ions have dug graves not only for himself but also for t he eart h t oo. It ’s his only
responsibilit y t o rest ore t he eart h back t o it s healt hy mode.

Thus a concert ed effort is needed on t he side of mankind t o quickly address t his danger. St eps
have t o be t aken from individual t o t he int ernat ional level t o prot ect our eart h. From abandoning
plast ics t o decreasing t he dependence on aut omobiles man has t o be careful t o ensure t hat he
does not push eart h t o it s deat h. We also need t o ensure t hat we do not creat e UV rays by
machines and t hat t heir usage is st rongly rest rict ed only t o t he academic field.   Also we need
t o creat e awareness among ourselves on t he need of t he hour t o prot ect life. It ’s a pit y t hat
we t ry t o blame domest ic animals for increasing t he levels of met hane in t he at mosphere. What
we need t o underst and is t hat t heir met hane levels are not hing compared t o our creat ion of a
hole on t he ozone layer. Their act ions are t oo small t o be even compared t o our sins.

As fut ure generat ions t he st udent communit y also needs t o be aware in t his t opic, a primary
reason for me select ing t his project . We t oo should t ake care not t o harm our eart h in any way.
Always we should remember t hat we have not inherited the earth from our fathers but
have leased it from our future generations. This alone will make us responsible and be
st eadfast in our Endeavour t o combat t he penet rat ion of UV rays.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.Parson,  FAQ 111 ,UV and biological effects of UV

FDA Consumer Magazine and publications: FDA#87-8272, #81-8149 and #92-1146
M.Tevini,  UV-B Radiation and Ozone Depletion: Effects on humans, animals, plants,
microorganisms and materials Lewis Pub. Boca Raton, 1993.
R.P.Wayne, Chemistry of the Atmospheres 2nd ed. Oxford 1991
R.Smith , "Ozone depletion: Ultraviolet radiation and phytoplankton biolgy in antarctic
waters"' Science , 255, 952. (1992)
Brien Sparling, UV Radiation
SunSmart publications, UV Rays
Jan C. van der Leun and Frank R. de Gruijl, Influences of Ozone Depletion on Human and
Animal Health









 Self - paced
 Add Yourlearning

Comment - Guidelines

and revision on
BOOK NOW
You can express your opinion or reaction in the form below!
BYJU'S App

Writ e a comment ...

100 characters required

 Login and submit

0 Comments:

Be t he first one t o comment !

You may also want to see:

Project on Communicat ion Facilit ies for Disast er Management

Project on "Pocket Guide on First Aid" for Disast er Management Project

QUOTE OF THE DAY

 The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing. - Edmund Burke
November 14th, 2022 - Monday

...

CBSE Syllabus Stay in Touch About

CBSE © Copyright 2022
CBSE Date Sheet Disclaim er: iCBSE.com is not associated
Facebook Privacy Policy with Central Board of Secondary
Improvement Exam Education, New Delhi. Tradem arks belong
Twitter Terms of Service
to the respective owners.
Youtube Disclaimer
LinkedIn Contact us
Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App
Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App
Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App
 Self - paced learning

and revision on
BOOK NOW
BYJU'S App

Print t his page