G
Gravity Anomalies
Georges Balmino1,2 and Sylvain Bonvalot1,3
1
Bureau Gravimétrique International (BGI), Toulouse, France
2
CNES/Geosciences Environnement Toulouse (GET),
Toulouse, France
3
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD)/
Geosciences Environnement Toulouse (GET), Toulouse,
France
Definition
Gravity anomaly. Difference between the measured gravity
and the theoretical gravity derived from a reference body,
after some corrections.
Introduction: Basic Quantities of Physical Geodesy
The shape of the Earth is well approximated by an ellipsoid of
revolution, and similarly its gravity field is close to the field of
such an ellipsoid. This reference body being precisely defined
as we will see below is therefore natural to describe the Earth
gravity field (and any related quantity) as departures, or
anomalies, with respect to the ellipsoid.
The reference ellipsoid is defined from geometrical and
dynamical quantities. Centered at the Earth’s center of mass, it
has the mass, M, of the Earth (including the atmosphere); a
semimajor axis, a, equal to the (conventional) Earth’s equa-
torial radius; a flattening f equal to the Earth’s flattening
(or equivalently the polar radius b); and the same (mean)
angular rotation rate o. The surface of the ellipsoid is an
equipotential of its gravity potential U (the sum of the grav-
itational and centrifugal potentials, U* and G, respectively).
On the other hand, we have the Earth’s true gravity potential
W and sum of the true gravitational potential V and of the
(same) centrifugal potential G. The difference of the gravity
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
E.W. Grafarend (ed.), Encyclopedia of Geodesy,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-02370-0_45-1
potentials, T = W
U, is obviously the difference of the grav-
itational potentials; it is called the disturbing potential.
Next, we consider the different equipotential surfaces of
W and among them the surface which approximates best the
mean surface of the oceans at rest (with no tides, no currents)
and which is called the geoid. It is this surface which is
generally used to define the altitudes. Over continental
areas, the geoid lies below the Earth’s surface (except in a
few places, e.g., the Dead Sea). We assigned the same
(conventional) value W0 = U0 to the potential values on the
geoid and on the ellipsoid surfaces. The separation of the two
surfaces is denoted by N, the geoid height, counted along the
outward normal to the ellipsoid. The determination of N is a
fundamental problem of geodesy. It mostly uses gravity mea-
surements on (or close to) the Earth’s surface and measure-
ments of quantities related to gravity onboard satellites
(including precise observation of their orbits).
Now let us consider Fig. 1 which is basic to the definitions
to come and to the understanding of the quantities to be
defined. P is any point on the Earth’s surface (S). The ellipsoid
surface is (E); the geoid is (G).
The Earth equipotential surface (GP) passing through P is
defined by W = W(P); it is the geopotential surface at P. The
field line of W passing through P intersects (G) at P0. The field
line of U passing also through P intersects (E) at Q0; then Q is
a point on this line defined by the condition U(Q) = W(P).
The ensemble of all Q points defines the telluroid (Y). The
separation between the telluroid and the Earth’s surface is the
height anomaly z = QP, similarly to N. The distance P0P
counted along the field line of W is the orthometric height
H, and the distance Q0Q counted along the field line of U is
called the normal height H*.
Different Types of Gravity Anomalies
The Earth’s gravity vector is:
2 Gravity Anomalies

Gravity Anomalies, a b
Fig. 1 The different
surfaces used in physical
Field (plumb) line of W (Earth)
geodesy. On the left are the
true surfaces and field lines. topo. surf. P P
On the right, they are drawn (S)
W =WP
in spherical
(GP) ζ
gP UQ = WP
approximations: the field (Θ) Q
lines and normals all telluroid Q
n H
coincide, and the ellipsoidal H (ortho.) = P0P
height h is such that H* (norm.) = Q0Q ≈ H* h
h = H + N = H* + z gQ
n*
P0 W =W0=U0 P0
geoid
(G) N= Q0P0
ellipsoid Q0 U = U0
(E) Q0
field line of U (ellipsoid)

! ! Dg ¼ gðPÞ
gðQÞ (5)

g ðPÞ ¼
@W=@ n (1)
!
where n defines the plumb line, tangent to the field line at P; it which is used in the theory of Molodensky (see Hofmann-
is the outward normal to the geopotential surface (GP). Its Wellenhof and Moritz, 2005) to compute the height anomaly
norm is the true gravity at P: g(P). Similarly, the reference from surface gravity measurements. Note that g(P), and con-
ellipsoid gravity vector is: sequently g(P0), must be corrected for the attraction of the
atmospheric layer above point P before computing dg, Dg,
!
g ðPÞ ¼
@U=@n 
!
(2) and Dg0 since the mass of the reference ellipsoid includes the
mass of the atmosphere (by convention). Other corrections
! which correspond to gravity time variations must also be
where n * is tangent to the ellipsoid field line at P, its norm g
(P) is called normal gravity, and its value can be computed applied.
from the constants defining the reference ellipsoid and from The quantities we have introduced verify fundamental
the position of P (altitude above the ellipsoid and geodetic equations. The geoid height N is related to T by Bruns
latitude). formula:
The difference in norms (magnitudes):
N ¼ T ðP0 Þ=gðQ0 Þ  T ðQ0 Þ=gðQ0 Þ (6)
dgðPÞ ¼ gðPÞ
gðPÞ (3)
and the height anomaly is given by the same formula but
with gðPÞ ¼
@W=@H and gðPÞ ¼
@U=@H is called the  applied at Q:
gravity disturbance, whereas the conventional gravity anom-
aly is the difference: z ¼ T ðQÞ=gðQÞ (7)

Dg0 ¼ gðP0 Þ
gðQ0 Þ (4) The geometry may be simplified in spherical approximation
(right side of Fig. 1): the normals coincide; therefore, deriv-
Dg0 is also called gravity anomaly at sea level. The reason for atives of W and U may be taken with respect to H. We then
having introduced this complicated quantity (difference of have:
functions at two different points) lies in its use for determining
@T
the disturbing potential T outside the Earth (and the geoid dg ¼
(8)
height) from gravity measurements reduced to the geoid @H
surface. g(P0) may be derived from g(P) by a simple formula
@T 1 @g
(Equation 12). Dg ¼
þ T (9)
@H g @H
In modern theory, Dg0 is replaced by the surface gravity
anomaly:
Equation 8 can be written at any point outside the Earth.
Equation 9 applies to gravity anomalies at sea level Dg0 (the
right-hand side being expressed at Q0) and to surface gravity
Gravity Anomalies 3

a b
LAND
geoid OCEAN
H<0 geoid
H>0
rw H<0
rc rc

Gravity Anomalies, Fig. 2 The computational process of Bouguer subtract Hrc if H > 0 and we add (
H)rc if H < 0; in (b) water is
anomalies. H is counted positive along the outward normal to the replaced by crust; therefore, we add (
H) (rc
rw)
surface, rc is the crust density, and rw is the density of water. In (a) we

 
anomalies Dg as well (with the right-hand side computed at @T 2
Dg ¼

T þ eproj þ eH þ eg (13)
Q). @r r ðQÞ
Further simplification can be made in this approximation
in assuming that derivatives with respect to H are taken with where the e terms, evaluated at Q (or Q0), are corrections to
respect to r, the radius vector, and by taking the normal field account for the approximations made on the right part of
equal to g  GM=r 2 , where G is the constant of gravitation. Fig. 1. eproj, eH, and eg (respectively named isozenithal pro-
Equation 9 becomes: jection correction and first and second ellipsoidal corrections)
are small, long-wavelength correcting terms – not exceeding
@T T 3, 3, and 100 mGal, respectively (see Pavlis, 1988).
Dg ¼

2 (10)
@r r Other types of anomalies are used, which are related to the
changes of the Earth’s gravitational potential, or gravity field
This is one of the most important formulas of physical geod-
when: (i) the Earth is stripped of all masses above the geoid
esy, from which one can derive the disturbing potential (and
and (ii) mass deficiencies below the geoid are restored to a
the geoid height N or the height anomaly z) from gravity data.
given density. The reason to do so is to try to obtain values of
It is a boundary value problem whose solution is given by
gravity anomalies which are significantly smaller in order to
Stokes’ integral:
apply approximation methods in, e.g., the determination of
ðð the geoid from these anomalies. In geophysics the purpose is
R
T ð PÞ ¼ Dg SðcÞ ds (11) to model the Earth’s crust and what is below, to infer proper-
4p s ties of the lithosphere and upper mantle.
The Bouguer gravity anomalies result from (Fig. 2):
Here R is the mean radius of the Earth, c is the angular
distance between point P and the running point at which Dg
– The complete removal of the topographic masses above
is given (both points being on the Earth’s surface), and ds is
the geoid (condition to render T harmonic)
the surface element on the unit sphere; S(c) is the Stokes
– The filling by crust material at places where land is below
function. This is the solution in spherical approximation,
the geoid
which assumes that T is harmonic outside the geoid; this
– The replacement of water by crust material over the oceans
means that the effect of the masses above the geoid must be
removed by some gravity reduction.
For a theoretically correct reduction of gravity to the geoid, The last two operations in principle should yield a
one needs: (i) to remove all masses above the geoid and (ii) to smoother residual gravity field. Other cases (lakes, ice caps,
compute g(P0) from g(P) by a Taylor expansion. It is in ice sheet) may be subject to a similar reduction process (see
practice sufficient to write: Balmino et al., 2012).
The surface Bouguer gravity is computed by subtracting
gðP0 Þ ¼ gðPÞ
H @g=@H . . . (12) the total effect of the topography, ATotal, from the surface
(measured) gravity (Fig. 3a):
where @g=@H is the vertical gradient of gravity. Step (ii) of the
process is indeed done “in free air,” thus the name free-air gB ðPÞ ¼ gðPÞ
ATotal (14)
gravity anomalies which is given to Dg0. For many applica-
tions, it is sufficient to replace @g=@H by @g=@H  0:3086 and the surface Bouguer gravity anomaly is therefore:
mGal/m.
In Molodensky theory, the surface gravity anomaly may be
computed accurately by:
4 Gravity Anomalies
a b
P H
Earth’s surface
D Q
telluroid
HP
[r]
P0
geoid
Q0 ellipsoid
Gravity Anomalies, Fig. 3 The computation of Bouguer anomalies. r
is the density of topography (or its normalization). (a) Principle; (b)
splitting the attraction in two parts: the Bouguer plate effect AB and the
terrain effect At due to material (or missing one) over H
HP. The mass
DgB ¼ gðPÞ
ATotal
gðQÞ ¼ Dg
ATotal
On the other hand, the Bouguer gravity anomaly at sea
level is defined by:
@g
Dg0, B ¼ gðPÞ
ATotal
H
gðQ0 Þ
@H
The effect of the topography (or of its substitute according to
normalization conventions) may be split in two components,
as illustrated by Fig. 3b in the case of land above the geoid:
– The plateau term which is the attraction AB of an infinite
cylinder, the Bouguer plate
– The residual attraction, or terrain correction, At, due to
additional or missing masses with respect to the Bouguer
plate
so that:
ATotal ¼ AB
At
with (G being again the constant of gravitation):
AB ¼ 2p G r H
It is worth noting that ATotal is analogous to a gravity
disturbance, dgtopo, computed at the Earth’s surface (surface
of lands, lakes, oceans, and seas).
The problem of computing At or ATotal has for a very long
time received several solutions, especially by regional or local
approximation. Considering the attraction of neighboring
topographic masses, mostly in planar geometry (local flat
Earth) with some spherical correction, the computations
were based on numerical integration over finite mass elements
with more or less sophistication. The basics are described in
C
H - Hp
D Bouguer plate P
Δm− Δm+
Earth’s surface Hp H
[r]
P0
geoid
Q0 ellipsoid
surplus Dm + at C is removed so g increases, the mass deficiency Dm

at D is made up, and g increases too; therefore, the correction (At) is
always positive
(15) several textbooks (see, for instance, Heiskanen and Moritz,
1967; Torge, 2001).
The concept of Bouguer anomalies has recently changed
by taking into account the topographic masses not only in the
vicinity of a point P (typically up to about 150 km distance)
but all over the Earth. This is mathematically more satisfac-
(16)
tory than the regional viewpoint. The anomaly is then called
complete spherical Bouguer gravity anomaly, or DgCSB.
Kuhn et al. (2009) derive DgCSB by using spherical terrain
corrections with respect to a local (passing through P) but full
spherical Bouguer shell. Their procedure involves: (i) the
gravitational effect of the shell of constant thickness H and
density r, that is, 4pGr H (twice the value of the usual plateau
term), and (ii) the spherical terrain correction with respect to
the shell, computed over the whole sphere by numerical
integration over spherical volume elements (tesseroids) hav-
ing a size which increases with the distance to point P.
Another approach (Balmino et al., 2012) makes use of the
representation of the Earth’s topography in spherical har-
(17) monics (SH): firstly, the altitudes (and depths) of the different
topography parts (lands, oceans, inner seas, lakes, polar caps)
are analyzed from regular grid values hij (digital terrain
model) and represented as SH series of very high degree
(18) and order (several tens of thousands for current global topog-
raphy data sets); the values of the powers [hij]k are also
analyzed up to a suitable limit k = K (for the relationship
between topography harmonics and gravity harmonics is not
linear). The coefficients of all these series are then converted
into SH coefficients which take account of different geomet-
rical situations and different densities. The final series enable
the computation of the gravity perturbations dgtopo induced by
the different parts and their normalized counterparts when
appropriate (i.e., the replacement by material of conventional
density).
Gravity Anomalies
constant
a density rc
H H
rw H*
Hc
t*
rm > rc
Airy-Heiskanen model
Gravity Anomalies, Fig. 4 The principles of isostasy, a mechanism to
compensate the topographic masses. rc, rw, and rm are the densities of
the crust, water, and upper mantle, respectively. (a) In the Airy-
Heiskanen model, the topography floats on the denser upper mantle.
Another type of gravity anomaly, mostly useful today in
geophysics, is the isostatic anomaly. Historically, the concept
originated from the observation that Bouguer anomalies in
mountainous areas are always negative and have large values,
about 100 mGal per 1000 m of elevation on average. This
means that some mechanism compensates topographic
masses. Two different models have been proposed:
– The first one (see Fig. 4a) according to Airy (in 1855) and
Heiskanen (around 1950) assumes that topographic
masses of density rc float on a denser layer (the Earth’s
upper mantle) of density rm; therefore, roots of height
t exist under the continents and anti-roots of height t*
under the oceans. From the condition of floating equilib-
rium, one gets:
rc
t¼ H (19)
rm
rc
rc
rw 
t ¼ H (20)
rm
rc
where H, H*, t, and t* are here all positive and rw is the
density of water.
– The second one (Fig. 4b) is due to Pratt (1854) and
Hayford (circa 1860); it assumes that there exists a level
of compensation at depth Dc, at which the pressure is
constant.
The density of a given column of material is therefore
variable and depends on the elevation. Over the continents,
it is, in planar approximation:
5
variable
b density r
rw
r H*
rc
Dc
r*
Pratt-Hayford model
(b) In the Pratt-Hayford system, the mass of each column down to a
surface of compensation at depth Dc is the same, which is equivalent, in
planar geometry, to having a constant pressure at depth Dc
Dc
r¼ r (21)
H þ Dc c
which is slightly smaller than its normal value rc. Over the
oceans, it is:
H
r ¼ rc þ ðr
r w Þ (22)
Dc
H  c
which corresponds to a mass surplus.
Other formulas exist for other situations (lakes, ice caps,
etc.) and may be found in Balmino et al. (2012). Besides,
some refinements must be introduced in spherical geometry
since the columns converge slightly toward the Earth’s center.
In particular, terms involving Hc appear in Equations 19 and
20. Finally, the gravitational attraction dgISO of the anomalous
mass distribution under the topography can be computed
according to the adopted model, and the isostatic anomaly
DgISO is the sum of the Bouguer anomaly DgB (or DgCSB) and
of the isostatic correction dgISO.
The same methods developed to estimate the Bouguer
anomalies can be applied to the computation of isostatic
anomalies: numerical quadratures, or use of spherical har-
monic expansions (Balmino et al., 2012), in the spirit of the
complete spherical Bouguer gravity anomalies.
Spherical Harmonic Expansions
The gravitational potential of the Earth, V, can be expanded as
a spherical harmonic series:
6 Gravity Anomalies

1  l X  l X
GM X GM X
l  1
R  R l  
V¼ Clm cos ml þ Slm sin ml Plm ð sin fÞ dg ¼ ð l þ 1Þ d Clm cos ml þ Slm sin ml Plm ð sin ’Þ
r l¼0 r m¼0 r2 l¼0 r m¼0

(23) (26)
 l X
with G as gravitational constant, M mass of the Earth, GM X1
R l  
Dg ¼ 2
ðl
1Þ d Clm cos ml þ Slm sin ml Plm ð sin’Þ
R reference length (usually close to the Earth mean equatorial r l¼0 r m¼0
radius), Clm and Slm the dimensionless harmonic coefficients (27)
of degree l and order m, and r, f, and l the spherical coordi-
nates of the point P in a reference system fixed in the Earth. where d Clm ¼ Clm if m > 0 or if m = 0 with l odd;
The Plm are the Legendre polynomials (m = 0) and associated 
d Cl, 0 ¼ Cl, 0
Cl, 0 in other cases.
functions (m > 0) of the first kind, with the usual geodetic For the gravity perturbation dgtopo (identical to Atotal), the
normalization (Heiskanen and Moritz, 1967). This series is in topo topo
SH gravity coefficients Clm , Slm are those derived from the
principle infinite; if R is the radius of a sphere (S) which SH coefficients of the topography function and its powers, as
encompasses all masses, it converges uniformly outside it: outlined in the previous section. Therefore:
(S) is the Brillouin sphere. But in practice, it is truncated at a
maximum degree L, and it is used to represent the potential  l X
l  
GM X 1
R topo topo
outside the Earth, the domain where V is harmonic. The d gtopo ¼ ðl þ 1 Þ C cos ml þ Slm sin ml Plm ð sin ’Þ
r2 l¼0 r m¼0 lm
normalized coefficients Clm , Slm are in general determined
(28)
from satellite observations and surface data.
The gravitational potential of the reference ellipsoid, U*,
The same holds for the isostatic corrections, or anomalies:
can also be represented as:
topo topo
1  l
– In the case of the Airy-Heiskanen model, the Clm , Slm
GM X R  root root
are replaced by the coefficients Clm , Slm derived from the
U ¼ Cl, 0 Pl, 0 ð sin fÞ (24)
r l¼0
r shape of the crust-upper mantle interface at mean depth Hc,
and dgISO is computed from Equation 28.
Due to rotational symmetry, this series has no longitude- – For the Pratt-Hayford model, the SH coefficients
dependant terms (so m = 0); then equatorial symmetry PH PH
Clm , Slm of the topography and of its columns of variable
implies that the odd-degree zonal harmonic coefficients are density below it (down to a depth Dc) can be derived in a
null; the remaining even-degree zonal coefficients are: single step; these coefficients are then used in Equation 28
to compute the total gravity perturbations dgtopo + dgISO.
 ð
1Þl
C2l, 0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4l þ 1 It must be noted that the evaluation of the SH series above
2l
  
3e 2l 1 O e0 is usually done at the Earth’s surface, i.e., at points of variable
 1
1þ (25) altitude. If done by brute force, this requires a large compu-
ð2l þ 1Þð2l þ 3Þ 3 3 q
tational effort; this can be drastically reduced, especially over
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
with e ¼ a2
b2 =a , e0 ¼ a2
b2 =b , O = o2a2b/GM, equiangular grids, by means of Taylor expansions (up to
 
orders as high as 20 or 30 in mountainous areas) which may
q ¼ 12 1 þ e302 tan
1 ðe0 Þ
e30 , a and b being the semimajor
be performed in parallel (see Balmino et al., 2012).
(equatorial) and semiminor (polar) axes of the ellipsoid,
respectively, and o the mean angular rotation rate of the
Earth.
From the definition of T, the disturbing potential, and from
Global Gravity Anomalies
Equations 8, 10, and 13 (omitting the e terms in the latter), it is
The global gravity anomalies presented here are derived from
easy to derive dg and Dg:
the 20 20 resolution WGM2012 gravity anomaly model
(Bonvalot et al., 2012) realized by the International Gravi-
metric Bureau (2012) in the context of the “World Gravity
Gravity Anomalies 7

Gravity Anomalies,
Fig. 5 Global surface free-
air gravity anomalies (Dg in
the text) computed from the
EGM2008 model using
Molodensky theory

Gravity Anomalies,
Fig. 6 Global spherical
gravity perturbations (dgtopo
in the text) computed from
the ETOPO1 Digital Terrain
Model and the ILEC World
Lake Database. All of the
Earth’s surface component
masses are computed from
their SH representation
(to degree and order 10,800)

Gravity Anomalies,
Fig. 7 Global spherical
Bouguer gravity anomalies
derived from the EGM2008
surface anomaly (Figure 5)
and from the gravity
perturbations (Figure 6).
Quantity obtained by
subtracting dgtopo from Dg.
The densities used are
(in kg/m3) 2670 (crustal
rock), 3270 (mantle rock),
1027 (ocean water), 1000
(freshwater), and 917 (ice)
8 Gravity Anomalies

Gravity Anomalies,
Fig. 8 Global spherical
isostatic gravity anomalies
derived from the surface
free-air gravity anomalies,
the gravity perturbations
due to the topography and
its compensation using the
Airy-Heiskanen model with
a mean crustal thickness of
30 km (compensation level)

Map” produced for the Commission for the Geological Map Summary
of the World (CGMW, 2010) and UNESCO. This global
anomaly model, computed using the reference global gravity Gravity anomalies are differences between the true Earth’s
(EGM2008) and terrain (ETOPO1) models as described in the gravity field and the theoretical gravity of a reference body: an
previous section, includes: the Molodensky surface free-air ellipsoid with given characteristics with or without topo-
anomaly (Fig. 5), the spherical gravity perturbation (Fig. 6) graphic masses as derived from terrain and density models.
produced by the contribution of most surface masses Such anomalies have been used for a long time in physical
(atmosphere, land, oceans, inland seas, lakes, ice caps, and geodesy, for instance, to determine the surface of the geoid
ice shelves), the spherical complete Bouguer anomaly and in geophysics for local to regional and global applica-
(Fig. 7), and the spherical complete isostatic anomaly tions. Concepts are explained and recent world gravity anom-
(Fig. 8) computed for a local Airy-Heiskanen compensation. aly maps of different types are presented.
These different quantities, all computed in spherical geometry
at the physical Earth’s surface (lower limit of the atmosphere),
provide homogeneous information on the Earth’s static grav- Cross-References
ity field at regional and global scales useful in various appli-
cations for the understanding of the Earth’s structure and ▶ Atmospheric Modelling
dynamics. ▶ Attitude Determination
The basic data used to generate these maps were (for more ▶ Bruns Formula
details, see Bonvalot et al., 2012 and Balmino et al., 2012): ▶ Conventions and Correction Models
▶ Digital Terrain Models
(i) The global Earth gravity field model EGM2008 (Pavlis ▶ Global Models
et al., 2008), which is a set of SH coefficients complete to ▶ Gravity Forward Modelling
degree and order 2160 (with some higher terms up to ▶ Gravity Reductions
2190). It has a spatial resolution of 50 . ▶ Height Datum
(ii) The elevations and depths (and thickness when appropri- ▶ International Gravimetric Bureau (Bureau Gravimétrique
ate) of the main components of the Earth’s surface: lands, International – BGI)
ice caps, and oceans, from the ETOPO1 database ▶ International Gravity Field Service (IGFS)
(Amante and Eakins, 2009) corrected from some errors, ▶ International Gravity Formula – Geodesy
and closed seas and lakes from the ILEC database (http:// ▶ Interrelation Geodesy-Geophysics
wldb.ilec.or.jp/). The data were taken or generated on 10 ▶ Isostasy – Geodesy
by 10 equiangular grids. ▶ Molodensky Potential Telluroid
▶ Normal Gravity
▶ Regional Gravity Field Determination
▶ Somigliana – Pizzetti Field and its Time Variation
▶ Spherical Harmonic Models
▶ Topographic Effects
Gravity Anomalies
References and Reading
Amante, C., and Eakins, B. W., 2009. ETOPO1,1 Arc-Minute Global
Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. Boulder, CO:
NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24.
Balmino, G., Vales, N., Bonvalot, S., and Briais, A., 2012. Spherical
harmonic modelling to ultra-high degree of Bouguer and isostatic
anomalies. Journal of Geodesy, 86, 499–520, doi:10.1007/s00190-
011-0533-4.
Bonvalot, S., Balmino, G., Briais, A., Kuhn, M., Peyrefitte, A., Vales, N.,
Biancale, R., Gabalda, G., Reinquin, F., and Sarrailh, M., 2012.
World Gravity Map. 1:50000000 map, Eds. Paris: BGI-CGMW-
CNES-IRD. Complete Bouguer anomaly (ISBN 978-2-2917310-
08-3); Isostatic anomaly (ISBN 978-2-2917310-09-0); Surface free-
air anomaly (ISBN 978-2-2917310-07-6).
Commission for the Geological Map of the World – CGMW, 2010.
Resolutions of the CGMW General Assembly. Paris: UNESCO.
Heiskanen, W. A., and Moritz, H., 1967. Physical Geodesy. San
Francisco: Freeman.
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Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., and Moritz, H., 2005. Physical Geodesy. Wien
& New York: Springer.
International Gravimetric Bureau - BGI, 2012. In Drewes, H., Hornik,
H., Adam, J., and Rozsa, S. (eds.), The Geodesist’s Handbook 2012.
(International Association of Geodesy). Journal of Geodesy, 86(10),
doi:10.1007/s00190-012-0584-1.
Kuhn, M., Featherstone, W. E., and Kirby, J. F., 2009. Complete spher-
ical Bouguer gravity anomalies over Australia. Australian Journal of
Earth Sciences, 56, 213–223.
Pavlis, N. K., 1988. Modeling and estimation of a low degree
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