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Strategic Branding of Destinations: A Framework

Article  in  European Journal of Marketing · May 2009

DOI: 10.1108/03090560910946954

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COMMENTARY Strategic
branding of
Strategic branding of destinations: destinations
a framework
611
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan
University of Wollongong in Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Abstract
Purpose – Travel and tourism is the second largest global industry with daily international
revenues of approximately US$2 billion, and investments of 12 percent of world GDP. Though this
is a highly competitive industry, there is a paucity of academic research on destination branding.
This paper aims to present a branding framework for designing successful destination strategies.
This exploratory study seeks to determine key factors that affect the strategic branding of
destinations.
Design/methodology/approach – Similar fields like place marketing, destination marketing,
services, product and corporate branding were reviewed along with destination case studies. Based on
this review and its extrapolation to the “destination context”, a framework for strategic branding of
destinations was formulated.
Findings – Successful strategic branding of destinations is dependent on several inter-related
components, which are discussed. The paper highlights key issues in destination branding and
provides a platform for future research.
Originality/value – The value of the paper is high as it provides a practical framework for
governing bodies to consider when investing time, money and effort when creating a global
destination.
Keywords Tourism, Services marketing, Brand image, Travel
Paper type Conceptual paper

Destination branding: need for research

There is a paucity of academic research in this field (Pike, 2005) in an industry with
daily revenue of over US$ 2 billion (Future Brands, 2006). This is a growing industry
with less than 12 percent of the world population flying internationally (IATA, 2007;
WTTC, 2007). In 2006, Travel and Tourism (T&T) contributed 10.3 percent to world
GDP, had 12 percent of global investments and 8 percent of all jobs (WTTC, 2007;
Arnold, 2007). Competition is fierce with 194 nations clamoring for a share of the
tourist’s heart, mind and wallet. This indicates a need for a more strategic approach to
branding as brand position leads to greater economic value (Matear et al., 2004; Davis,
2002), growth and welfare. A study by Fan (2006) found that brand owners
outperformed their OEMs in terms of profits by a ratio of 50:1. A strong international
marketing strategy improves financial and brand performance through identification
and achievement of specific brand values (Wong and Merrilees, 2007; Meenaghan,
1995). European Journal of Marketing
Vol. 43 No. 5/6, 2009
Existing strategy frameworks cannot linearly be applied to the destination context pp. 611-629
(Hosany et al., 2007; Hankinson, 2005) due to its multidisciplinary foundation and q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0309-0566
terminology interpretations (Balmer, 2001). The unique characteristics of destinations DOI 10.1108/03090560910946954
EJM mentioned below which differentiate it from corporate, product and service brands are
43,5/6 some reasons why they need another brand strategy development approach:
(1) Tourism is dependent on macro-environmental factors like politics, terrorism,
disease outbreaks, weather/natural conditions and currency fluctuations.
(2) Geographical constraints affects accessibility, weather, access to resources,
defines infrastructure requirements and people characteristics.
612
(3) Inherited names and past history like heritage, culture and perception of
locations (like country of origin) evolve over time and cannot be easily changed
(Shikoh, 2006).
(4) Stakeholders are diverse and influential. Destinations are run by governing
bodies which are politically motivated, have funding constraints and
answerable to their stakeholders (Stokes, 2006; Hankinson, 2005; Pike, 2005).
Media is becoming a powerful influence.
(5) The diversity of target customers, the complex decision making process and the
multiple choice sets make destination marketing harder (Woodside and
Dubelaar, 2002; González and Bello, 2002).
(6) Destinations are service dependent. Services account for over 65 per cent of
global GDP and are people dependent, employing 40 per cent of the global
workforce (ILO, 2007). Destination success also depends on infrastructure,
technology and communications (IMD, 2005). Investments required are huge
and need to keep global standards in mind.
(7) Feedback and control issues (see Pike, 2005). Destination marketing
organizations do not have top-down implementation control (Pike, 2005).
Perception of destinations is influenced by publicity and promotion (Correira
et al., 2007) which can be distorted by global market events and other
destination images. Since destination brands are complex and are constantly
changing (Trueman et al., 2004; Kates and Goh, 2003) they must be managed.

The research objective of this paper was to develop a branding strategy framework for
destinations. Since destination branding is complex and existing literature is largely
limited to image and logo design (Blain et al., 2005), there was a need to re-approach this
topic. The conceptualization of the model was done by first looking at existing literature
on services, product, product portfolio and corporate branding strategies. Similarities
between existing branding theories and the destination context were found using a wide
variety of published case studies on destination branding to identify key components.
These topics were further researched to find relationships between components.

Destination branding: building on existing theories

“A brand is a consistent group of characters, images, or emotions that consumers recall
or experience when they think of a specific symbol, product, service, organization or
location” Simeon (2006, p. 464). Branding must “attract and keep customers by
promoting value, image, prestige, or lifestyle” (Rooney, 1995, p. 48). It must communicate
information, minimize risk or increase trust (Knox, 2004), help identify or recall key
factors, differentiate from competition and facilitate recommendations (Palumbo and
Herbig, 2000). For destinations this is challenging as they attract a diversity of customers
and the delivered product is often highly customized with the customer in control.
 Destination brands are similar to corporate brands, as they act as umbrella brands Strategic
for a portfolio of leisure, investment and business tourism, and stakeholder and citizen branding of
welfare products (Trueman et al., 2004). Goodwill is created through a unique identity
by considering the diversity of stakeholder needs (Hatch and Schulz, 2003). destinations
Destinations like corporations are subject to increasing market complexity
(globalization, internal and external government policies, foreign exchange
fluctuations and natural environment) and increasing marketing costs, which 613
warrants a corporate branding approach as posited by Xie and Boggs (2006). Hence
corporate branding strategies can be extrapolated to the destination context.
Destination brands are also similar to product and services. They have both
tangible and intangible components, are mostly service dependent, and can be
positioned through the use of slogans (Pike, 2005). Country of origin (COO) applies in
the destination service context (Javalgi et al., 2001). It requires greater emphasis on
factors internal to the organization, especially the role of employees (for destinations,
this refers to citizens) in the brand building process (Harris and de Chernatony, 2001).
This paper is organized as follows. First, based on the identification of key elements
of destination branding, a detailed literature review is given. Next, the relationships
between components is described and presented as a conceptual framework. Finally,
future research directions are discussed.

Key destination branding components: a literature review

The destination branding process revolves around the following five components. See
Table I for a comprehensive literature review. Each of the components is discussed in
detail with respect to their relevance and importance to strategic destination branding:
(1) Vision and stakeholder management.
(2) Target customer and product portfolio matching.
(3) Positioning and differentiation strategies using branding components.
(4) Communication strategies.
(5) Feedback and response management strategies.

Step 1: vision and stakeholder management

Vision is the starting point of any great strategy (Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony and
Riley, 1998). By having clarity in long-term objectives that can range from tourism
quality, business generation, societal welfare (Rangan et al., 2006; Eraqi, 2006; Balmer,
2001) and to political self preservation agendas, vision can lead to performance results
(LaBonte, 2003) by delivering stakeholder expectations (Polonsky and Jevons, 2006). It
also drives brand positioning (de Chernatony, 1999), hence is considered the beginning
of a brand strategy.
Successful policies not only increase economic benefits but also harmonize culture
(who we are), the process (how we know), the content (what we know), infrastructure
requirements (who, how and where) (Dana et al., 2005); the brand (promise to be
communicated), image (what is current perception) and reputation (distinctive
attributes) (Balmer, 2001). For these decisions, the government needs to formulate,
communicate and assimilate vision to all relevant stakeholders, to create a
service-oriented culture that will give it a competitive advantage (Pike, 2005; de
Chernatony and Riley, 1998).
EJM
Component Sub-categories Author
43,5/6
Vision Vision, mission, heritage and Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006;
culture, people and values, Wong et al., 2006; Aaker, 2004; Trueman
philosophy et al., 2004; Davis, 2002; Javalgi and White,
2002; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony, 1999; de
614 Chernatony and Riley, 1998
Country of Balakrishnan, 2008; Eraqi, 2006; Rangan
origin/reputation/credibility of et al., 2006; Trueman et al., 2004; Thakor and
brand (destination) name, tourism Lavack, 2003; Beverland, 2001; de
quality Chernatony, 1999; Herbig and Milewicz,
1997
Stakeholders Perception, position, people, needs Balakrishnan, 2008; Ferguson and Hlavinka,
2006; Phillips, 2006; Rangan et al., 2006;
Merrilees et al., 2005; Pike, 2005; Trueman
et al., 2004; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony,
1999
Strong government support WTTC, 2003
Assessing external environment Davis, 2002
Target market People (customer) Balmer, 2001
Human capital; Employment Wong et al., 2006; WTTC, 2003; Davis, 2002
Marketing mix Marketing Mix – 4P; 7P for Moorthi, 2002; Balmer, 2001
services
Facilities O’Cass and Grace, 2003
Prices (expensive) Pawitra and Tan, 2003
People in service interaction Wong et al., 2006; O’Cass and Grace, 2003;
Grace and O’Cass, 2003
Identify product portfolio Wong et al., 2006; Aaker, 2004; Hankinson,
2004
Anholt_GMI City Brand Index Shikoh, 2006
(Nations branding: tourism;
exports; governance; investment
and immigration)
Licensing Rangan et al., 2006
Positioning Positioning Davis, 2002
Culture and heritage; and people Trueman et al., 2004
Matching consumer mind – de Chernatony and Riley, 1998
confidence; rational performance
and emotional/psycho-social
Experience with the brand and O’Cass and Grace, 2003
image of the user
Usage occasions de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003; Grace
and O’Cass, 2003
Differentiation Differentiation – needs; attributes Balakrishnan, 2008; Correira et al., 2007;
Hankinson, 2005; 2004; Pawitra and Tan,
2003; González and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001;
Gamage and King, 1999
Table I. Image Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2002
Important component of Color White, 2005
existing frameworks and Logo design and development Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006;
destination branding Blain et al., 2005
cases (continued)
Component Sub-categories Author
Strategic
branding of
Personality de Chernatony and Riley, 1998
Feelings and self-image O’Cass and Grace, 2003; Jamal and Goode,
destinations
congruence 2001
Visual identity Trueman et al., 2004
Image Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2002; de 615
Chernatony and Riley, 1998
Personality Hosany et al., 2007
Brand alliances, ingredient Balakrishnan, 2008; McCarthy and Norris,
branding, halo effect 1999; Herbig and Milewicz, 1997; Javalgi
and Moberg, 1997
Communication Communication mix – Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006; Law
consistency and honesty et al., 2004; Trueman et al., 2004; Davis,
2002; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony and
Riley, 1998
Emotional advertising Hankinson, 2005; Grace and O’Cass, 2003;
Mattila, 1999; Pritchard and Morgan, 1998
Tangibilizing Balakrishnan, 2008; Bang et al., 2005;
Hankinson, 2005
Sevicescape O’Cass and Grace, 2003
Experience or flavor Wood, 2007; Roberts, 2005; O’Cass and
Grace, 2003; Trueman et al., 2004
Word of mouth Nielsen Media, 2007; Future Brands, 2006;
O’Cass and Grace, 2003; 2004; Wangenheim
and Bayón, 2004; Grace and O’Cass, 2002
Slogans and licensing Rangan et al., 2006
Feedback Marketing intelligence; Martin et al., 2007; Simeon, 2006
netnography Table I.

An examination of various destination case studies and academic articles shows vision
to be motivated by six key drivers, which can be inter-related (see Table II):
(1) Economic considerations. This ranges from economic prosperity of individual
citizens, to businesses or the overall destination prosperity itself (Wong et al.,
2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005).
(2) Services. The T&T industry has a strong dependency on services which can be
personal, consumer, business and government (Wong et al., 2006; McDougall
and Levesque, 2000).
(3) Transit Hub. Infrastructure investments are required to become a transit hub
(Hankinson, 2004), but it results in greater visibility, revenues and investment
opportunities through the transiting of goods, information and people
(Balakrishnan, 2008).
(4) Retail. Retail focuses on both domestic and international tourists (Wong et al.,
2006; Rangan et al., 2006). Shopping is becoming the number 1 leisure activity
(Euromonitor, 2007) with T&T accounting for 12 percent of global exports as
expenditure by visitors on goods and services (WTTC, 2007). A 2006 Travel
Industry Association study shows that leisure travelers prefer shopping (53
percent) to sightseeing (48 percent) (Vora, 2007).
EJM
Vision drivers Subsets Author
43,5/6
Economic GDP/revenues Balakrishnan, 2008; Wong et al., 2006; IMD,
2005; Rangan et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2004
Business/FDI Balakrishnan, 2008; Hankinson, 2005; IMD,
2005; Trueman et al., 2004
616 Infrastructure investments; Balakrishnan, 2008; Hankinson, 2005; IMD,
globalization and networking 2005; Taylor, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004;
Chen and Gursoy, 2001
Welfare, security, human capital, Balakrishnan, 2008; Wong et al., 2006;
employment Rangan et al., 2006; Trueman et al., 2004;
WTTC, 2003; Chen and Gursoy, 2001
Services Government – policies; operation WTTC, 2007; Rangan et al., 2006; IMD, 2005;
Trueman et al., 2004; McDougall and
Levesque, 2000
Business opportunities Future Brands, 2006; Rangan et al., 2006;
IMD, 2005; McDougall and Levesque, 2000
Consumer/personal – intellectual, Rangan et al., 2006; IMD, 2005; McDougall
social etc. and Levesque, 2000
Transit Hub Passengers and cargo Hankinson, 2004; Chan, 2000; Siddiqi, 1999
Immigration Shikoh, 2006; Bontis, 2004
Retail Tourists (domestic, international) Wong et al., 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Davis,
2006; Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002
Expatriate King, 1999
Locals/national citizens Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2006
Real estate Zahid, 2006
Trade Logistics Hankinson, 2005; Siddiqi, 1999
Transportation Balakrishnan, 2008
Table II. Tourism Destination promotion Balakrishnan, 2008; Eraqi, 2006; Rangan
Drivers of strategic vision (internal/external) et al., 2006; WTTC, 2003; González and
for destination branding Bello, 2002; Gamage and King, 1999

(5) Trade. Trade is linked to economic growth (Johansson and Nilsson, 1997). Over
1/5th of world GDP in 2006 (US$12 trillion) is derived from trade. (World Bank,
2007a, b). This has led to government investments in logistics (Hankinson, 2005),
transportation and global policies (Balakrishnan, 2008) and free trade zones,
which globally number more than 600 (Papadopoulos and Malhotra, 2007).
(6) Tourism. This is the second largest global industry after agriculture,
contributing 10.3 percent to global GDP and as much as 80 percent of some
nation’s economy (WTTC, 2007; Eraqi, 2006).

Stakeholder management. Branding complexity increases with the diversity of

stakeholder’s and target customer’s needs (Hatch and Schulz, 2003) and their
conflicting objectives (Trueman et al., 2004). An important part of vision is knowing:
Who we are (Dana et al., 2005) – looking at both internal stakeholder needs and external
stakeholders perceptions of the destination (Rangan et al., 2006; Pike, 2005; Spithoven,
2000). Starting with an inward focus, governments must ensure that their aspirations are
in harmony with local community needs and expectations (Trueman et al., 2004; Pike,
2005). Vision assimilation is important as the delivery of brand promises depends on Strategic
how residents (an intangible asset) can translate vision and deliver that customer branding of
experience (Eastgate, 2000; Low, 2000). When brands are related to the national culture,
there is greater synergy in the marketing strategy (Simeon, 2006). destinations
Externally, destination names have a past history (heritage, values, culture or
perceived image) similar to country of origin effect (COO), which can be positive or
negative (Aaker, 2004; Thakor and Lavack, 2003). Existing conditions determine the 617
adoption of brand up to 33-65 percent of the time (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000). Negative
COO acts as a deterrent for visitors (Hankinson, 2004) focusing on poor infrastructure,
accessibility, security and lack of convenience. Positive COO creates a differential
advantage (Beverland, 2001), becoming an intangible asset (Phillips, 2006) especially
when differentiation is low (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000; Knox, 2004). Destinations must
counter negative COO by identifying factors that contribute to it (Trueman et al., 2004).
As most destinations are confronted with limited budgets, they should focus on
positive and neutral destination images (Leisen, 2001) to enhance branding strategies.

Step 2: target customer and product portfolio matching

A destination’s product and service portfolio must be integrated with the overall
branding strategy and based on existing assets (Hankinson, 2004) and the assets they
are capable of developing (see Table III for a taxonomy of products destinations can

Product Author

History heritage Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Law et al., 2004;
Leisen, 2001
Culture, ambience and experience, entertainment, Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Law et al., 2004;
dining González and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001
Business tourism Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; IMD, 2005
Main economic activity, economic development and Hankinson, 2004; 2005; IMD, 2005
industrial environment
External profile Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005; Rangan et al.,
2006
Accessibility Hankinson, 2004, 2005
Affordability; pricing Future Brands, 2006; Anholt, 2006
People characteristics Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005
Social/quality of life/welfare IMD, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004
International reputation Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005; Spithoven,
2000
Health Tan, 2007; González and Bello, 2002; WTTC, 2003
Education Marklein, 2006; Anholt, 2006
Visiting family and friends Law et al., 2004; King, 1999
Retail, local handicrafts Law et al., 2004; González and Bello, 2002; Leisen,
2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997
Rest and recreation González and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001
Sports Fan, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; Woodside et al., 2002;
González and Bello, 2002
Special occasions; events Hunter, 2006
Religious tourism Deloitte HB, 2006 Table III.
Experience, and exploration, natural wonders, Future Brands, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; González and Destination product
climate Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001; Law et al., 2004 taxonomy
EJM offer). Products require strategic location (Siddiqi, 1999); investments in infrastructure
43,5/6 (airlines, ports, roads, technology); exploitation of natural resources (like safe port,
access to oil) and adaptation of ideas like open skies policies and other economic
policies (tax free, economic free zones and credit facilities) (Balakrishnan, 2008).
Destinations that diversify their portfolio reduce their risk; increase their target base
and encourage loyalty (see Rangan et al., 2006). More destinations are looking at
618 combinations of business based or vacation based portfolios (Hankinson, 2005, 2004).
Places are re-inventing themselves by moving away from historical branding. Some
successful re-branding strategies for destinations are recreational, sports, culture and
eco-tourism (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005).
A brand portfolio strategy is one where “the goals are to create synergy, leverage
and clarity within the portfolio and relevant, differentiated, and energized brands . . .
[and this] includes brands external to the organization whose link to internal brands
are actively managed” (Aaker, 2004, pp. 13, 16). The value, competitive position, and
ability to increase purchase intension of a brand can be leveraged by using any
ingredient brand of greater value through the halo effect and external validation
(McCarthy and Norris, 1999; Javalgi and Moberg, 1997). Since brand equity is linked to
association with global consumer culture (Aaker, 2004), a destination’s association
with global brands can increase comfort level and reduce dissonance for a tourist.
Destinations are perceived differently by different segments (Leisen, 2001).
Positioning improves when the destination image is matched with the customer
psychographic profile (Yankelovich and Meer, 2006; Ronkainen and Woodside, 1978).
It can also be matched with lifestyle variables (González and Bello, 2002); activities and
experiences (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002) and usage occasions (Grace and O’Cass,
2003; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003). There must be consistency of brand image
and attitude with the customer perception of themselves and the other users (Grace and
O’Cass, 2003; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003). Focused marketing for specific
segments increases the chances of success in a crowded marketplace; for example the
“Nawart Masr – You Light Up Egypt” campaign focused on Arabs (Deloitte HB, 2006).
By matching product portfolios to a few dominant target segments (Woodside and
Dubelaar, 2002), reach, effective spend and loyalty can be increased.

Step 3: positioning and differentiation: using brand components

Brand identity is an image that creates a sustainable advantage by differentiating the
brand from other competitors through the positioning statement (Runyan and
Huddleston, 2006). A good positioning:
.
helps rationalize the decision making process by letting the customer link key
attributes to that place (Ries and Trout, 1981);
.
is a simple and truthful message with limited association (Trueman et al., 2004;
de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003); and
.
preferably is based on visitor’s experiences (Foley and Fahy, 2004).
Positioning is achieved through brand components, which can be tangible or intangible
attributes; and functional or symbolic (de Chernatony and Riley, 1998, p. 1076; Bhat
and Reddy, 1998). See Figure 1 and Table IV, for details of brand components. Effective
positioning moves customers up the brand value pyramid from attributes and
functional benefits to emotional and self-expressive benefits (Davis, 2002, p. 505).
 Which brand component – symbolic or functional?. Studies show that when Strategic
consumers are confronted with a choice set, they decide which product to choose based branding of
on their perceptions of the images of the brands (see Leisen, 2001, p. 50; Gartner, 1989).
According to Hosany et al. (2007), the emotional component of the destination image is destinations
responsible for the majority of the variance of the personality of the destination.
Images associated with history, heritage and culture are most important when
differentiating between destinations though they were the second most salient 619
category after attributes associated with activities and facilities which are functional in
nature (Hankinson, 2004). Another study showed that consumers prefer brands on the
basis of their symbolic properties rather than functional qualities (Jamal and Goode,
2001). Symbolic values give a more sustainable competitive advantage (Mowle and
Merrilees, 2005). Destinations should focus on a unique constellation of few (three to
seven) tangible and functional destination attributes rather than a “having it all”
strategy (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002; Woodside and Trappey, 2001).

Step 4: communication strategy

Destinations do not own vertical or horizontal components of their product delivery
which makes it difficult for them to be different from other destinations and yet have a
clear, consistent image and communication across media and products portfolios (Kay,
2006; Simeon, 2006; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003; Grace and O’Cass, 2003).
Newspapers, televisions, magazines and radios are considered more trustworthy than
on-line forms of advertising (Neilson Media, 2007). The Internet is growing in
usefulness as it attracts new users and if used to satisfaction, increases destination
enjoyment (Castañeda et al., 2007). Tourists prefer word-of-mouth (WOM) to choose
destinations, but once chosen, web-based resources are used to narrow itinerary
(Future Brands, 2006). Virtual sites must allow easy interactivity between all other
destination product offer sites to allow the customer to get a holistic view of the
destination (Palmer and McCole, 2000). Table V presents a list of communication
preferences for attracting customers, converting them and for creating loyalty.

Step 5: managing the response

When managing the destination brand, the gap between communicated, conceived
ideal and desired identities must be reduced using market research (Rangan et al., 2006;
Javalgi et al., 2006; Balmer, 2001). Destinations must be sold with correct information
and not hype (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000), as this increases loyalty and WOM. Brand
netnography helps understand a tourist’s interpretation of the place (Martin et al.,
2007). Another important strategy to build brand image is harnessing the power of

Figure 1.
Destination band
components
EJM
Authors
43,5/6
Tangible; visual; functional elements
Name, logo, trade mark, graphics Rowley, 2004; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998
Symbols Moorthi, 2002
Slogan, adjectives Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi, 2002
620 Colors White, 2005
Service delivery process/servicescape Robledo, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997
Postcards, pictures, movies, ads – images; Trueman et al., 2004; O’Cass and Grace, 2003;
information Woodside et al., 2002; Human, 1999
Buildings architecture, facilities, places of interest, Correira et al., 2007; Hankinson, 2004; 2005;
scenery; attributes O’Cass and Grace, 2003; Pawitra and Tan, 2003;
Leisen, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997
Souvenirs, shopping items Leisen, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997; Gordon,
1986
Heroes and heroines Reichheld, 2001
Functionality, Hankinson, 2005; Warnaby and Davies, 1997;
Pearce, 1991
Ingredient/associated brands, sponsorships, Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi, 2002; Woodside
events et al., 2002.
Intangible and symbolic elements
Perceptions of image Hosany et al., 2007; Runyan and Huddleston, 2006;
Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Knox, 2004; Pawitra and
Tan, 2003; Palumbo and Herbig, 2000
Service satisfaction McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Warnaby and
Davies, 1997
Personality of place, culture, heritage, ambience Hosany et al., 2007; Runyan and Huddleston, 2006;
Hankinson, 2004; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi,
2002; Leisen, 2001; Chen and Gursoy, 2001
Relationship, bond, familiarity, interaction and Kayaman and Arasli, 2007; Bang et al., 2005;
empathy Moorthi, 2002
Relevance, representational; self-image Jamal and Goode, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1997
congruence
Personal and social values, self-personality; González and Bello, 2002; Jamal and Goode, 2001;
lifestyle, self-expression Davis, 2002
Needs (physiological; safety; relationship; Chen and Gursoy, 2001; Pearce, 1991 – see travel
self-esteem and fulfillment needs) career ladder
Emotions/mood/senses Wood, 2007; Roberts, 2005; O’Cass and Grace,
2003; Davis, 2002; Jamal and Goode, 2001;
Pritchard and Morgan, 1998
Legends Reichheld, 2001
Image/roles of people associated with service Ball et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005; Grace and
delivery or destination O’Cass, 2003; Katzenbach, 2003; Moorthi, 2002;
O’Cass and Grace, 2003; Pawitra and Tan, 2003;
Warnaby and Davies, 1997
Occasion association, experiences, ambience Hankinson, 2005; O’Cass and Grace, 2004; 2003;
Chen and Gursoy, 2001; Schreuer, 2000; de
Chernatony and Riley, 1998
Perception of others perception (WOM, public Hankinson, 2004; Wangenheim and Bayón, 2004;
relations, publicity) O’Cass and Grace, 2003; Bansal and Voyer, 2000
Value/expense perceptions Cunningham et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005;
Table IV. Pawitra and Tan, 2003
Branding components Association with other brands Rangan et al., 2006
 Strategic
Initial destination selection Post-destination selection (activity
(information, selection) planning, experience generation) Trust (loyalty) branding of
Family and friend
destinations
recommendations – 29% Web – 66% Recommendations (78%)
Web – 19% Travel agents – 13% Newspapers (63%)
TV/movie – 13% Family/friend recommendations – 9% Online opinions (61%) 621
Newspaper/magazine – 10% Brand web sites (60%)
Special deals – 9% TV, magazines (56%)
Travel agents – 6% Radio (54%)
Brand sponsorship, e-mails
Advertisements – 4% signed up for (49%)
Ads before movies (38%)
Search engine ads (34%)
Online banner ads (26%)
Text ads on mobiles (18%)
Other forms of communication PR, Education, Movies, Documentaries, Travelogues, Corporate and
Brand sponsorships and associations, Event Sponsorships, Books;
Architecture, Art and Landscaping (street furniture, objects,
equipment, feasibilities), infrastructure development; virtual
communities
Table V.
Source: Balakrishnan (2008); AC Neilson (2007); Correira et al. (2007); Cova and Pace (2006); Future Communication mix for
Brands (2006); Rangan et al. (2006); Hankinson (2004); Woodside et al. (2002) destination objectives

word of mouth (Wangenheim and Bayón, 2004; Grace and O’Cass, 2002; Ennew et al.,
2000; Gremler and Brown, 1999). Traveling for social reasons is impacted by WOM
because normative influences/peers have a greater perceived reliability and this is also
the case for business travel where customers are looking for expert sources with
similarities to them (Wangenheim and Bayón, 2004). An AC Neilson survey on internet
users from 47 markets found 78 percent of consumers felt recommendations from other
consumers were most trustworthy (Nielsen Media, 2007). Another response
management strategy is using souvenirs, which are conversations starters.
Destinations must manage their licensing strategy to maintain standardization and
correct representation of the brand (Rangan et al., 2006).

Relationship between branding elements

Vision is the starting point of designing a branding strategy. Governing bodies must
take into consideration the relationships they want to develop with both internal and
external customers, the networks they have alliances with or can develop to help
reinforce branding strategies, and the basket of products they want and can offer.
Governing bodies must identify key target customers in terms of where they come
from, their potential to spend and mindset. Vision must embrace existing culture and
work to balance any negative effects associated with the country of origin.
The differentiation strategy must be designed to leave a clear and unique image in
the target customer’s mind having consistency in all media choices. Destinations must
choose combinations of brand components for attracting customers, helping customers
take a decision to visit and to create loyalty. It begins in the tourist’s country of origin,
is reinforced on arrival, and duration of stay, and managed during exit and post-visit.
EJM Image branding and the experience itself must raise some emotion associated with the
43,5/6 destination.
By tangibilizing the experience, destinations can promote word of mouth and
reinforce the image. Too many images associated with a destination can create
confusion, making it harder to take a decision to visit. During the visit, the quality of
the experience and service must live up to the promised level or it will lead to
622 dissatisfaction. The relationships between elements are depicted in Figure 2. A
destination brand name is an intangible asset with unique attributes and must be
protected and managed strategically to maximize value.

Discussions and future research directions

Destination branding requires focus and commitment of time, people, resources and
changes in policies, culture and mindset. The purpose of this paper is to create a
framework that will help governing bodies plan their destination branding strategies
and encourage more research in this area. There are many independent surveys and
rankings, which provide a holistic view on repeat tourism and investment but the
academic literature on processes involved for successful destination branding is
limited. This paper moves away from conventional brand elements of design by
integrating branding at the strategy level.
Future research can test through cases whether a clarity in vision leads to better
destination performance especially in new destinations with little historical context.

Figure 2.
Branding strategy for a
destination
Another area of research is to find the ideal composition of brand components Strategic
necessary for different stages of the consumer decision making process and to find the branding of
effect of various types of media for various consumer decision making stages.
This paper provides a constructive guideline in the development of destination destinations
branding. As T&T economy continues to grow, the distinction between one destination
and another blurs. Governments are investing over US$ 1480 billion on attracting
tourism (WTTC, 2007) and hence a more strategic approach to branding would 623
increase investment returns. Destinations must start focusing on the service experience
and all customer touch points; especially the people as they help deliver the experience.

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About the author

Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan is an Assistant Professor in the University of Wollongong in
Dubai. She has lived in India, Taiwan, USA and Dubai. She has over six years of corporate
experience in marketing prior to her transition to academics. Her corporate experience spanned
from product management, setting up a new product group, facilitating joint ventures and
organizational training. Her areas of research are destination branding, service marketing,
customer relationship management and social management. She teaches marketing for both
post-graduate and undergraduate levels. Subjects she has taught range from marketing strategy,
competitive analysis, service marketing, retail marketing, international marketing and
organizational analysis for undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Melodena Stephens
Balakrishnan can be contacted at: melodenabalakrishnan@uowdubai.ac.ae

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