Semiconductor Devices and Circuits

Unit 3

Junction and other Diodes

Dr. Pramod Kumar Tiwari

Associate Professor
EE, IIT Patna
 Unit Content

• Junction and other Diodes: Physical description of p-n junction,

Forward and reverse bias, depletion region, depletion and diffusion
capacitance, transport equations, current voltage characteristics and
temperature dependence, tunnelling current, Diode breakdown:
Avalanche and Zener, Metal Semiconductor Junction, Varactor Diodes,
Tunnel Diode;

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 2

 References

• S. M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, Wiley

• S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Wiley
• D. A. Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices, Mc Graw Hill
• Streetman, and Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices, Pearson

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 3

 p-n Junction (Diode)
• In a p-type substrate, a small n-type
region is created, or vice versa
A K
p n

Applications of PN Junction: Rectification, switching,

waveform shaping, other devices like BJT, thyristors,
and MOSFETs

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari H1 4

https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2018/12/types-of-diodes-their-applications.html
Slide 4

H1 HP, 9/25/2021
 Fabrication Steps
N-type Si Substrate with required crystal
orientation and resistivity

Wet/Dry Oxidation

Application of resist

Resist Exposure through Mask (Transferring

of Pattern)
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 5
 Fabrication Steps
Etching of the weaker Diffusion (Junction
portion (Pattern Transfer) Formation)

Metallization
SiO2 Removal for Contacts
Creation

P-n Junction
Resist Removal Complete View
after processes
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 6
 p-n Junction Current Voltage Characteristics
Forward Bias: Current increases rapidly
with applied voltage. The applied voltage
under forward bias is usually less than 1V

Reverse Bias:
Current is very small and does not
increase significantly with bias voltage

Breakdown: When the reverse bias

voltage becomes equal to some critical
voltage, the current increases at
significant rate, the break down voltage
can vary from few volts to thousands of
volt depending upon material and device
design

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 7

 Band Bending (Revisit)
p n Band bending is the variation in band energies with position
E when an electric field exist inside the material
E

KE
Potential Energy (PE) of an Electron
EC
PE −𝑞𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐸

EV where, V is the electrostatic potential

Eref
1
𝑉=− 𝐸 −𝐸
V 𝑞

As, 𝐸 = − , the electric field can be written as

x
E 1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸
𝐸= = =
x 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 8
 p-n Junction under Thermal Equilibrium
 At the physical junction, space charge regions are
Band Diagram created on each side of the junction as a result of
diffusion of the carriers across the junction

 In space charge region, also called as depletion region,

the mobile carrier concentration will be low

 Towards the p-side there will uncompensated negatively

charged acceptor ions. Uncompensated positively
charged donors ions will be present towards n-side of the
junction

 Space charge regions create an electric field that will be

directed from n-side to p-side

 The electric field give rise to electron and hole drift

current as per the movement of the carriers shown in
the picture
 In the equilibrium, the drift current will cancel the
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari
diffusion current 9
 p-n Junction under Thermal Equilibrium
Fermi Levels In thermal equilibrium, electron and hole current flowing
across the junction will be zero. For each type of carriers, the
drift current will balance the diffusion current.

The total hole current:

As:

1 𝑑𝐸
𝐸=
𝑞 𝑑𝑥

𝑘𝑇
Now, we know that 𝐷 =
𝑞
𝜇

( ) 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
= −
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 10
 p-n Junction under Thermal Equilibrium

Thus, the total hole current density For zero net current, the Fermi Level has
to be constant.
1 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑝
𝐽 = 𝑞𝜇 𝑝 − 𝑘𝑇𝜇
𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Built in Potential
1 𝑑𝐸 𝑝 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑉
𝐽 = 𝑞𝜇 𝑝 − 𝑘𝑇𝜇 −
𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐸
𝐽 = 𝑝𝜇
𝑑𝑥

Similarly, the total electron current density The total electrostatic potential
difference between p-side and n-side
𝐽 = 𝑛𝜇
𝑑𝐸 neutral regions at thermal equilibrium
𝑑𝑥 is called the built in potential
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 11
 Built in Potential

1
𝜓 =− 𝐸 −𝐸
𝑞 𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
Similarly, 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
( ) 𝑞 𝑛 𝑞 𝑛
𝑘𝑇 𝑁
Using 𝜓 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛

And 𝑝 = 𝑁 Thus, built in voltage 𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑁

𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑉 =𝜓 −𝜓
𝜓 =− 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 12

 Built in Potential
Calculate the built in potential for a Si p-n
junction with and
at 300K.

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 13

 Depletion Region Width (Abrupt Junction)
𝑑 𝜓 𝑞𝑁
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜖

Similarly for 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥

𝑑 𝜓 𝑞𝑁
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
To maintain the charge neutrality, total charge per unit area in p-
The Poisson’s Equation side depletion region must be equal to the total charge per unit
𝑑 𝜓 𝜌 area in n-side, thus
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝑁 𝑥 =𝑁 𝑥
where 𝜌 is charge density and 𝜖 is the material
permittivity Total depletion region width is

For −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 < 0, The above equation can be 𝑊 = 𝑥 +𝑥

written as
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 14
 Electric Field (Abrupt Junction)
For −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 Substituting c in the electric field
equation, gives the following field
𝑑 𝜓 𝑞𝑁 equation in −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
𝑞𝑁
𝐸=− 𝑥+𝑥
Integrating above Equation: 𝜖
𝑑𝜓 𝑞𝑁
= 𝑥+𝑐 The peak of the Electric Field is observed
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
at 𝑥 = 0, which is
Electric Field in −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 < 0

𝑑𝜓 𝑞𝑁 𝑞𝑁
𝐸=− =− 𝑥−𝑐 𝐸=− 𝑥 = −𝐸
𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝜖

At 𝑥 = −𝑥 , 𝐸 = 0 Where 𝐸 is the magnitude of peak of

electric field.
Thus , 𝑐 = 𝑥

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 15

 Electric Field (Abrupt Junction)
For, 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 Thus, Electric Field in 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥

𝑑 𝜓 𝑞𝑁 𝑞𝑁 𝑞𝑁
=− 𝐸= 𝑥−𝑥 = −𝐸 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝜖 𝜖
Integrating the above equation
𝑑𝜓 𝑞𝑁
=− 𝑥+𝑐 Now, built in voltage can be also determined
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
by Electric Field Equation as
Electric Field in 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥

𝑑𝜓 𝑞𝑁 𝑉 =− 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸 𝑑𝑥
𝐸=− = 𝑥−𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝐸 = −𝐸 , 𝑞𝑁 𝑞𝑁
𝑉 =− − 𝑥+𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜖 𝜖
Thus 𝑐 = 𝐸
𝑞𝑁 𝑥 𝑞𝑁 𝑥
Further at 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑉 =− −𝑥 −− −𝑥
𝜖 2 𝜖 2
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 16
 Depletion Region Width (Abrupt Junction)
𝑞𝑁 𝑥 𝑞𝑁 𝑥 Using Charge neutrality equation
𝑉 = + 𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑁 𝑥 in the above
2𝜖 2𝜖
equation
Area under the electric field curve is
also equal to built in voltage, thus 1 𝑞𝑁 𝑁
𝐸 𝑊= +1 𝑥
2 2𝜖 𝑁
1
𝐸 𝑊=𝑉
2
Now, using 𝑥 = 𝐸 to eliminate 𝑥
Thus the depletion width
1 𝑞𝑁 𝑁 𝜖 𝐸
𝐸 𝑊= +1
2𝑉 2 2𝜖 𝑁 𝑞𝑁
𝑊=
𝐸
Further, Solving the above equation, we get
𝑁 𝜖 𝐸
1 𝑞𝑁 𝑥 𝑞𝑁 𝑥 𝑊= +1
𝐸 𝑊= + 𝑁 𝑞𝑁
2 2𝜖 2𝜖
Now eliminating 𝐸 using 𝑊 =
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 17
 Depletion Region Width (Abrupt Junction)
Electric Field in one-sided
Now eliminating 𝐸 , using 𝑊 = , we get junction is
𝑞𝑁 𝑞𝑁
𝐸= 𝑥 − 𝑊 = −𝐸 + 𝑥
2𝜖 1 1 𝜖 𝜖
𝑊= + 𝑉 where, 𝑊=𝐸
𝑞 𝑁 𝑁
𝑥
Thus, 𝐸 = −𝐸 1−
𝑊
One sided Junction
Now, the potential profile
If 𝑁 ≫ 𝑁 , 𝑥 ≪ 𝑥 , The total
𝜓 𝑥 =− 𝐸 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
depletion width can be given as
𝑥
=𝐸 𝑥− +𝑐
2𝜖 1 2𝑊
𝑊≅𝑥 = 𝑉 Iet us consider that potential is zero in neutral p region
𝑞 𝑁
𝑉 𝑥 𝑥
𝜓 𝑥 = 2−
𝑊 𝑊
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 18
 Impact of the Bias Voltage
The depletion width in one sided p-n junction,
under bias voltage

2𝜖 1 𝑉 = 0, in Equilibrium
𝑊= (𝑉 −𝑉) 𝑉=𝑉 in Forward Bias
𝑞 𝑁
𝑉=𝑉 in Reverse Bias

 In Forward Bias, the voltage drop across the

depletion region decreases, therefore the
band bending and the width of the depletion
region also decreases

 In reverse bias, the voltage drop across

depletion, band banding, and the depletion
width increases with increasing bias voltage
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 19
 Depletion Capacitance p Na Nd n V

• Depletion layer capacitance per unit area

𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
p n
Considering an abrupt one-sided junction
Charge Density

𝑑𝑄

Position
-𝑑𝑄

Vs. V produces a strait line. The slope provides impurity concentration

of n side, and the intercept on voltage axis gives
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 20
 Depletion Capacitance

• For one sided abrupt junction with ,

calculate the junction capacitance at zero bias and reversed bias of 4V (T=300K).
The built in voltage: 𝐶 = = 2.78 × 10 F/cm
|

2 × 10 × 8 × 10 Similarly,
𝑉 = 0.0259 × 𝑙𝑛
9.65 × 10
= 0.906𝑉 2𝜀 (𝑉 −𝑉)
𝑊 =
𝑞𝑁
2𝜀 𝑉
𝑊 =
𝑞𝑁 2 × 11.9 × 8.85 × 10 × 4.906
=
1.6 × 10 × 8 × 10
2 × 11.9 × 8.85 × 10 × 0.906
= = 0.899µm
1.6 × 10 × 8 × 10
= 0.386µm 𝜀
𝐶 = = 1.172 × 10 F/cm
𝑊|
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 21
 Varactor Diode
Many circuits utilize voltage variable property of
reverse bias p-n junction

For a reverse Biased p-n junction:

𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 +𝑉

or, 𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 for 𝑉 ≫ 𝑉

𝑛 = for lineally graded Junction

𝑛= is used for an abrupt junction

𝑛> is used for an hyperabrupt junction

Voltage sensitivity is greater for an abrupt junction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicap#/media/File:AMFMM_01.jpg
https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/268970/using-a-varactor-diode-to-tune-a-resonance-frequency
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 22
 Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics
Modeling of I-V Characteristics:
A
Assumptions:
RL

V Depletion region has abrupt boundaries, outside the

boundaries semiconductor is neutral

Carrier density at the boundaries of depletion region depend

upon the potential difference across the depletion region

Low carrier injection condition

 Carrier generation and recombination is negligible in the

depletion region

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 23

 Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics
Under equilibrium
p - 𝑉 +
Built in voltage n
Depletion Region

Carrier Concentration
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑁
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑝
𝑛
𝑘𝑇 𝑝 𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑝
𝑛

This can be re-written as Position

𝑘𝑇 𝑛 𝑘𝑇 𝑝 𝑛 =𝑛 𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞 𝑝
𝑝 =𝑝 𝑒
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 24
 Current-Voltage (I-V)
Characteristics
Charges under non-equilibrium

𝑛 =𝑛 𝑒

𝑝 =𝑝 𝑒

Using the equations of equilibrium and non-equilibrium

𝑛 𝑛 𝑒
=
𝑛 𝑛
𝑒
Under low level injection 𝑛 = 𝑛 , thus
FB RB
𝑛 =𝑛 𝑒
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 25
 Current-Voltage (I-V)
Characteristics
Thus excess minority carrier concentration at 𝑥 = −𝑥 is

∆𝑛 = 𝑛 − 𝑛 =𝑛 𝑒 −1

Similarly excess minority carrier concentration at 𝑥 = 𝑥

∆𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝑝 =𝑝 𝑒 −1

Now, the excess carriers will diffuse in n and p regions as

per following equations (one-sided carrier injection)

∆𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑒 −1 𝑒

∆𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑒 −1 𝑒

where, 𝐿 = 𝐷 𝜏 and 𝐿 = 𝐷 𝜏

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 26

Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics
Now, the diffusion current at 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑥 = −𝑥 , respectively is

𝑑𝑝 𝑞𝐷 𝑝
𝐽 𝑥=𝑥 = −𝑞𝐷 = 𝑒 −1
𝑑𝑥 𝐿

𝑑𝑛 𝑞𝐷 𝑛
𝐽 𝑥 = −𝑥 = −𝑞𝐷 = 𝑒 −1
𝑑𝑥 𝐿

Total current in the depletion as well as in other regions of the

device

𝐽 = 𝐽 (𝑥 = −𝑥 ) + 𝐽 (𝑥 = 𝑥 )

𝐽=𝐽 𝑒 −1

where, 𝐽 = + : Saturation current density or Scale current

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 27
 Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics

𝐽=𝐽 𝑒 −1

For 𝑉 ≥ , the rate of current increase is constant

At T=300K, for every 1 decade change in the current, the voltage change is 60mV.

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 28

 Effects of Non-Idealities
The total device current

𝐼=𝐼 𝑒 −1 +𝐼 𝑒 −1

𝐼≅𝐼 𝑒 −1
Under low forward bias voltage, generation
recombination current dominates, thus

Under medium forward bias condition, diffusion

current dominates, thus

At very high forward bias voltage, low level injection condition is violated and diode
behaves like a resistor. Voltage drop across the neutral regions are significant and injected
carriers will also drift. Total current will be determined by resistance of p and n regions as
well 10/18/2021
as contacts. Dr. P. K. Tiwari 29
 Diffusion Capacitance
Under forward bias condition, minority charges
accumulated in the neural regions, next to depletion
region, give rise to the diffusion capacitance ( . The
diffusion capacitance in one-sided junction (p+-n) can be
given as
𝑑𝑄
𝐶 =
𝑑𝑉

Where, 𝑄 = 𝑞 ∫ 𝑝 −𝑝 𝑑𝑥

𝑄 = 𝑞∫ 𝑝 𝑒 −1 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝐿 𝑝 𝑒 −1 =𝜏 𝐽 𝑥

Now, 𝑑𝑄 𝑞 𝐿 𝑝
𝐶 = = 𝑒
𝑑𝑉 𝑘𝑇
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 30
 Small-Signal Model

To account for the current through the device, we use a conductance G

𝑑𝐼 𝐴𝑑𝐽 𝑞𝐴 𝑞𝐼 𝐼
𝐺= = = 𝐽 𝑒 = =
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 Φ

10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 31

 Transient Behavior
Under forward bias, the total stored
minority charges in neutral n-region of
a p+-n junction is

Turn-off time ( ) is the length of

time required to remove the total
charge

𝑄 =
𝜏 𝐼
=
𝑡 𝐼 : Average Current Flowing during the
𝐴 𝐴
turn-off period
𝐼
𝑡 =𝜏
𝐼
10/18/2021 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 32