PN-Junction

PN-Junction diode and solar cell

Why PN junction diode?
Photon energy to electrical energy....

a. Increase the potential energy of the carrier

generation of electron hole pair

Photo electric effect and semiconductor

b. Separation of the carrier ?????
need asymmetry in semiconductor device to separate EHP

➢Joining n-type material with p-type material causes excess electrons in the n-type
material to diffuse to the p-type side and excess holes from the p-type material to
diffuse to the n-type side.

➢Resulting a charge separation which can flown to external circuit and hence
convert light energy to electric energy
 Formation of a PN-Junction

➢Joining n-type material with p-type material causes excess electrons in the n-type
material to diffuse to the p-type side and excess holes from the p-type material to
diffuse to the n-type side.

➢Movement of electrons to the p-type side exposes positive ion cores in the n-type
side while movement of holes to the n-type side exposes negative ion cores in the
p-type side, resulting in an electron field at the junction and forming the depletion
region.

➢A voltage results from the electric field formed at the junction.

➢The PN diode is indispensable for the operation of all electronic devices,

counting on all forms of carrier transport, generation and recombination.

➢In equilibrium, the net current (diffusion and entrainment) is zero for both
electrons and holes, because the diffusion current is equal and opposite to the
drag current for both carriers.

➢Junction diodes pn are the basis not only of solar cells, but many other electronic
devices, such as LEDs, laser diodes and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).
 Interesting things happen when you put an N-type material in
contact with a P-type material.
Before making the contact:

P-type (neutral) N-type (neutral)

Ping Hsu 4
 P-type boundary N-type
(Negatively charged!) layer (Positively charged!)
In the boundary layer, the free electrons in the N-type materials
combine with the holes in the P-type. Consequently, the P-type
side of the boundary layer is negatively charged and N-type side
is positively charged.

Negative charge in P-type material prevents the free electrons in the

rest of the N-type material to continue to migrate into the P-type.
(Negative charge repels negative charged free electrons.)

5
The
Ping Hsuboundary lay is called PN-junction or depletion region.
n-type and p-type materials brought together.

Diffusion establishes “built-in” electric field.

Ken Youssefi Introduction to Engineering – E10 6
 p-n Junctions
• p-n junctions are created from
the contact of p-type and n-
type semiconductors.

• Prior to contact, EF is higher on

the n side.

• Upon contact, electrons flow

from the n side to the p side,
until EF is constant across the
interface.

• An electric potential (ΔV)

develops across the interface,
and raises the energy on the p
side as higher energy orbitals
are filled (ΔE = -eΔV).
(J.W. Morris)
7
E
P-N Junction Potential:

V0 depends on...????

V0 = (KT/q) ln(NAND/ni2)
E
Semiconductor devices have three modes of operation:

➢1. Thermal Equilibrium

At thermal equilibrium there are no external inputs such as light or applied

voltage. The currents balance each other out so there is no net current within the
device.

➢2. Steady State

Under steady state there are external inputs such as light or applied voltage, but
the conditions do not change with time. Devices typically operate in steady state
and are either in forward or reverse bias.

➢3. Transient

If the applied voltage changes rapidly, there will be a short delay before the solar
cell responds. As solar cells are not used for high speed operation there are few
extra transient effects that need to be taken into account.
 Bias of PN Junctions
• electron in conduction band at
N side decrease exp with high E
• holes in V band at P side decreases
exp with lower E level
• Due to concentration diff, electrons
from n side should move to p side, but
faces potential barrier as C band at p
is higher than n side.
•Only few e can diffuse to p side,
giving diffusion current of e from p-n
•E at p side are minorities but at highr
energy level, can easily drift to n side
due to E field in depletion region
•This gives electron drift current from
n-p
•Same things happens for holes of p
side diffusion and holes from n side
drift
 Forward Bias PN Junctions
➢Forward bias occurs when a voltage is applied across the solar cell such that the
electric field formed by the P-N junction is decreased. It eases carrier diffusion across
the depletion region, and leads to increased diffusion current.

➢In the presence of an

external circuit that
continually provides
majority carriers,
recombination increases
which constantly depletes
the influx of carriers into
the solar cell. This
increases diffusion and
ultimately increases
current across the
depletion region.
Applied potential VA modify the
junction potential
V0 – VA in forward bias
V0 + VA in reverse bias
 Forward Bias PN Junctions
Potential energy of electrons is –qVA at p side
and qVA at n side.

PE decreases of p side e and increases on n side

Potential difference b/w e of both side is q (V0-VA)

Fermi level also changes in junction

As potential barrier is less, more n more e

from n side diffuse to p .(exponentially increase)

Electron diff current from p to n increases exp.

 Forward Bias PN Junctions
Minority charge carriers???

Minority e drift from p to n does not depends

on applied V, it depends on generation rate

e drift current remains same

Same for holes. Diffusion from P to n increases exp

hole diff current increases exponentially frpm p to n

Hole drift current from n to p remains same

V0 – VA in forward bias
Both electron diff and hole diff current flow from p to n in forward biasing
Net current is known forward bias current
 Reversed Bias PN Junctions
➢Reverse bias occurs when a voltage is applied across the solar cell such that
the electric field formed by the P-N junction is increased. Diffusion current
decreases.

Potential energy of electron at n side

decreases by –qV and increases by qV
of p side electrons

Potential barrier increases V0 + VA

Very few e can diffuse from n to p

Diffusion current is neglable

Drift current remains un change

Net current is drift current and is known as reverse saturation current

or generation current
 Diode Equation

Ideal Diodes
The diode equation gives an expression for the current through a diode as a
function of voltage. The Ideal Diode Law, expressed as:

where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = "dark saturation current", the diode
leakage current density in the absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q = absolute value of electron charge;
k = Boltzmann's constant; and
T = absolute temperature (K).
The "dark saturation current" (I0) is an extremely important parameter which
differentiates one diode from another. I0 is a measure of the recombination in a
device. A diode with a larger recombination will have a larger I0.

Note that:
I0 increases as T increases; and
I0 decreases as material quality increases.
At 300K, kT/q = 25.85 mV, the "thermal voltage".

Non-Ideal Diodes
For actual diodes, the expression becomes:

where:
n = ideality factor, a number between 1 and 2 which typically
increases as the current decreases.
PN Junction under illumination: Solar cell
 PN Junction under illumination: Solar cell

Under uniform illumination:

carrier generation in space charge
as well as quasi neutral region

Charge particles, generated in space charge

Region swept away due to E field

e to N side, holes to P side:

Charge particles in quasi neutral region

Moves randomly as no E field

But some charge particle comes near to depletion

Layer, cross the barrier due to E force
Only minority charge carriers drift due to E
Electrons from P to N leaving + charged holes in P
And holes from N side to P..leaving negative e in N

net charge increase + at P and – at N build up a potential difference across P-N junction
This photo voltage due to light is photovoltaic effect
 PN Junction under illumination: Solar cell
Role of diffusion length?

Charge carriers generated in quasi neutral

Region can travel average distance: diffusion
length Ln or Lp Before recombination.

Charge carriers generated within Ln and Lp

Can reach depletion region hence to other side

Contribution of minority carriers to photovoltage

Is due to generated within the width (Ln +W+Lp)

Minority charge carriers generated beyond this region

Do not contribute to photovoltage as the recombine
Before reaching at junction

Rate of minority charge carrier generation depend on

Intensity of light
 PN Junction under illumination: Solar cell
Light generated current:

Light generated minority carriers provide

A large drift current:

Electrons from P to N and holes from N to P

Light generated current IL from N to P

Photovoltage dueto light is in forward bias

It reduces the potential barrier at junction

It increases the diffusion current, electron from

N to P and holes from P to N

Diffusion current P to N opposite to IL

IL > Idiff so net current is from N to P

Now voltage positive and current negative

Power negative: means power can extract from solar cell
 Solar Cell Structure

The basic steps in the operation of a

solar cell are:

➢the generation of light-generated

carriers;

➢the collection of the light-generated

carries to generate a current;

➢the generation of a large voltage

across the solar cell; and

➢the dissipation of power in the load

and in parasitic resistances.
The ideal flow at short circuit is shown in the animation below.
The ideal short circuit flow of electrons and holes at a p-n junction. Minority
carriers cannot cross a semiconductor-metal boundary and to prevent
recombination they must be collected by the junction if they are to contribute to
current flow.
 I-V Curve
The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV curve of the solar cell diode
in the dark with the light-generated current. The light has the effect of shifting the IV
curve down into the fourth quadrant where power can be extracted from the diode.
Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark" currents in the diode so that the diode
law becomes:

where IL = light generated current.

The equation for the IV curve in the first quadrant is:

The -1 term in the above equation can usually be neglected. The exponential term
is usually >> 1 except for voltages below 100 mV. Further, at low voltages the light
generated current IL dominates the I0 (...) term so the -1 term is not needed under
illumination.
The short-circuit current (ISC), the open-circuit voltage (VOC), the fill factor (FF) and
the efficiency are all parameters determined from the IV curve.
Solar cell I-V curve
Solar cell I-V curve
Solar Cell Parameters
The current from the solar cell is the difference between IL and the forward bias
current. Under open circuit conditions, the forward bias of the junction increases to a
point where the light-generated current is exactly balanced by the forward bias
diffusion current, and the net current is zero. The voltage required to cause these two
currents to balance is called the "open-circuit voltage".
 Short-Circuit Current
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across
the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited). Usually written as ISC,
the short-circuit current is shown on the IV curve below.

Isc = -IL
The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-generated
carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the
short-circuit current and the light-generated current are identical. Therefore, the
short-circuit current is the largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.
The short-circuit current depends on a number of factors which are described
below:

➢the area of the solar cell. To remove the dependence of the solar cell area, it is
more common to list the short-circuit current density (Jsc in mA/cm2) rather than
the short-circuit current;

➢the number of photons (i.e., the power of the incident light source). Isc from a
solar cell is directly dependant on the light intensity;

➢the spectrum of the incident light. For most solar cell measurement, the
spectrum is standardised to the AM1.5 spectrum;

➢the optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar cell (discussed
in Optical Losses); and

➢the collection probability of the solar cell, which depends chiefly on the
surface passivation and the minority carrier lifetime in the base.
When comparing solar cells of the same material type, the most critical material
parameter is the diffusion length and surface passivation. In a cell with perfectly
passivated surface and uniform generation, the equation for the short-circuit current
can be approximated as:

where G is the generation rate, and Ln and Lp are the electron and hole diffusion
lengths respectively. Although this equation makes several assumptions which are
not true for the conditions encountered in most solar cells, the above equation
nevertheless indicates that the short-circuit current depends strongly on the
generation rate and the diffusion length.
 Illuminated Current and Short Circuit Current (IL or Isc ?)

IL is the light generated current inside the solar cell and is the correct term to use in
the solar cell equation.

At short circuit conditions the externally measured current is Isc. Since Isc is usually
equal to IL, the two are used interchangeably and for simplicity and the solar cell
equation is written with Isc in place of IL.

In the case of very high series resistance (> 10 Ωcm2) Isc is less than IL and writing the
solar cell equation with Isc is incorrect.

Another assumption is that the illumination current IL is solely dependent on the

incoming light and is independent of voltage across the cell. However, IL varies with
voltage in the case of drift-field solar cells and where carrier lifetime is a function of
injection level such as defected multicrystalline materials.
 Open-Circuit Voltage

The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell,
and this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount
of forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the
light-generated current. The open-circuit voltage is shown on the IV curve below.

An equation for Voc is found by setting the net current equal to zero in the solar
cell equation to give:
➢The above equation shows that Voc depends on the saturation current of the solar
cell and the light-generated current.

➢While Isc typically has a small variation, the key effect is the saturation current,
since this may vary by orders of magnitude.

➢The saturation current, I0 depends on recombination in the solar cell. Open-circuit

voltage is then a measure of the amount of recombination in the device.

➢Silicon solar cells on high quality single crystalline material have open-circuit
voltages of up to 730 mV under one sun and AM1.5 conditions, while commercial
devices on multicrystalline silicon typically have open-circuit voltages around 600
mV.
 The VOC can also be determined from the carrier concentration

where kT/q is the thermal voltage, NA is the doping concentration, Δn is the

excess carrier concentration and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. The
determination of VOC from the carrier concentration is also termed Implied VOC.
 Voc as a Function of Band gap, EG

Where the short-circuit current (ISC) decreases with increasing bandgap, the open-
circuit voltage increases as the band gap increases. In an ideal device the VOC is
limited by radiative recombination and the analysis uses the principle of detailed
balance to determine the minimum possible value for J0.

The minimum value of the diode saturation current is given by

where q is the electronic charge, σ is the Stefan–Boltzman constant, k is Boltmann

constant, T is the temperature and
 Fill Factor
The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation "FF", is a parameter which,
in conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the maximum power from a solar cell.

The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product
of Voc and Isc. Graphically, the FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the solar cell I-
V curve and is also the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in the IV curve.
As FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the IV curve, a solar cell with a higher
voltage has a larger possible FF since the "rounded" portion of the IV curve takes up
less area. The maximum theoretical FF from a solar cell can be determined by
differentiating the power from a solar cell with respect to voltage and finding where
this is equal to zero. Hence:

However, the above technique does not yield a simple or closed form equation,
and extra equations are needed to find Imp and FF.

A more commonly used expression for the FF can be determined empirically as

where voc is defined as a "normalized Voc":

➢A key limitation in the equations described above is that they represent a maximum
possible FF, although in practice the FF will be lower due to the presence of parasitic
resistive losses.

➢Therefore, the FF is most commonly determined from measurement of the IV curve

and is defined as the maximum power divided by the product of Isc*Voc, i.e.:
 Solar Cell Efficiency

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which
is converted to electricity and is defined as:

Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.

The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the
input power for a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm2 cell is
24.3 W
 Efficiency as a function of band gap
To find the efficiency as a function of band gap, the above procedure is repeated
for each band gap. There is a range of bandgaps for the optimum cell efficiency
as shown in the graph below.
 Collection Probability

The "collection probability" describes the probability that a carrier generated by

light absorption in a certain region of the device will be collected by the p-n junction
and therefore contribute to the light-generated current, but probability depends on
the distance that a light-generated carrier must travel compared to the diffusion
length.
The collection probability in conjunction with the generation rate in the solar cell
determine the light-generated current from the solar cell.

The light-generated current is the integration over the entire device thickness of the
generation rate at a particular point in the device, multiplied by the collection
probability at that point.

The equation for the light-generated current density (JL), with an arbitrary
generation rate (G(x))and collection probability (CP(x)), is shown below, as is the
generation rate in silicon due to the AM1.5 solar spectrum:

where:
q is the electronic charge;
W is the thickness of the device;
α(λ) is the absorption coefficient;
H0 is the number of photons at each wavelength.
 Quantum Efficiency
➢The "quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the number of carriers collected by
the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the solar cell.

➢The quantum efficiency may be given either as a function of wavelength or as

energy. If all photons of a certain wavelength are absorbed and the resulting
minority carriers are collected, then the quantum efficiency at that particular
wavelength is unity.

➢The quantum efficiency for photons with energy below the band gap is zero. A
quantum efficiency curve for an ideal solar cell is shown below.
 Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
The photocurrent generated by a solar cell under illumination at short circuit is
dependent On the incident light. To relate the photocurrent density, Jsc, to the incident
spectrum we need the cell’s quantum efficiency (QE).

QE (E) is the probability that an incident photon of energy E will deliver one electron to
the external circuit.

J sc = q  bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE

Where bs(E) is the incident spectral photon flux density, i.e., the number of photon of
energy in the range E and E+dE which are incident on unit area in unit time and q is
electronic charge.

QE depends upon the absorption coefficient of the solar cell material, the efficiency of
charge separation and the efficiency of charge collection in the device but does not
depend on the incident spectrum.
Two types of QE are used:

➢External quantum efficiency (EQE): Loss of photons due to reflection and

transmission is not considered.

➢Internal quantum efficiency (IQE): Only absorbed photons are considered.

The difference between EQE and IQE is that loss of photons due to reflection and
transmission is not considered in EQE.

However, only those photons which are absorbed (excluding reflected and transmitted)
contribute to the solar cell current. Due to this IQE is most commonly used to study cell
performance.

EQE
IQE =
1 − R ( ) − T ( )
current density collected
QE ( E ) = EQE =
q x incident photon flux density
 Spectral Response

The spectral response is conceptually similar to the quantum efficiency. The quantum
efficiency gives the number of electrons output by the solar cell compared to the number
of photons incident on the device, while the spectral response is the ratio of the current
generated by the solar cell to the power incident on the solar cell. A spectral response
curve is shown below.
Spectral response is important since it is the spectral response that is measured
from a solar cell, and from this the quantum efficiency is calculated.

The quantum efficiency can be determined from the spectral response by replacing
the power of the light at a particular wavelength with the photon flux for that
wavelength. This gives:

QE .  ( nm)
SR ( A / W ) =
1239.8
 The photovoltaic effect
➢The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise to power
generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be generated as well as a
current.

➢Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known as the "photovoltaic effect".

The collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a movement of
electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction.

➢Under short circuit conditions, there is no build up of charge, as the carriers exit the
device as light-generated current.

➢However, if the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar cell,
then the collection of light-generated carriers causes an increase in the number of
electrons on the n-type side of the p-n junction and a similar increase in holes in
the p-type material.

➢This separation of charge creates an electric field at the junction which is in

opposition to that already existing at the junction, thereby reducing the net electric
field. Since the electric field represents a barrier to the flow of the forward bias
diffusion current, the reduction of the electric field increases the diffusion current. A
new equilibrium is reached in which a voltage exists across the p-n junction.
 Tandem Cells
One method to increase the efficiency of a solar cell is to split the spectrum and use
a solar cell that is optimised to each section of the spectrum.

Tandem solar cells can either be individual cells or connected in series. Series
connected cells are simpler to fabricate but the current is the same though each cell
so this contrains the band gaps that can be used. The most common arrangement for
tandem cells is to grow them monolithically so that all the cells are grown as layers on
the on substrate and tunnel junctions connect the individual cells.
As the number of bandgaps increases the efficiency of the stack also potentially
increases. In reality, the semiconductor materials do not exist to allow for arbitrary
materials with a specific bandgap and of high quality.
Solar cell I-V curve

Isc = -IL
 Efficiency as a function of band gap
To find the efficiency as a function of band gap, the above procedure is repeated for
each band gap. There is a range of bandgaps for the optimum cell efficiency as shown in
the graph below.
 Collection Probability

The "collection probability" describes the probability that a carrier generated by light
absorption in a certain region of the device will be collected by the p-n junction and
therefore contribute to the light-generated current, but probability depends on the
distance that a light-generated carrier must travel compared to the diffusion length.
The collection probability in conjunction with the generation rate in the solar cell
determine the light-generated current from the solar cell.

The light-generated current is the integration over the entire device thickness of the
generation rate at a particular point in the device, multiplied by the collection probability
at that point.

The equation for the light-generated current density (JL), with an arbitrary generation rate
(G(x))and collection probability (CP(x)), is shown below, as is the generation rate in silicon
due to the AM1.5 solar spectrum:

where:
q is the electronic charge;
W is the thickness of the device;
α(λ) is the absorption coefficient;
H0 is the number of photons at each wavelength.
 Quantum Efficiency
➢The "quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the number of carriers collected by the
solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the solar cell.

➢The quantum efficiency may be given either as a function of wavelength or as energy. If

all photons of a certain wavelength are absorbed and the resulting minority carriers are
collected, then the quantum efficiency at that particular wavelength is unity.

➢The quantum efficiency for photons with energy below the band gap is zero. A quantum
efficiency curve for an ideal solar cell is shown below.
 Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
The photocurrent generated by a solar cell under illumination at short circuit is
dependent On the incident light. To relate the photocurrent density, Jsc, to the incident
spectrum we need the cell’s quantum efficiency (QE).

QE (E) is the probability that an incident photon of energy E will deliver one electron to
the external circuit.

J sc = q  bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE

Where bs(E) is the incident spectral photon flux density, i.e., the number of photon of
energy in the range E and E+dE which are incident on unit area in unit time and q is
electronic charge.

QE depends upon the absorption coefficient of the solar cell material, the efficiency of
charge separation and the efficiency of charge collection in the device but does not
depend on the incident spectrum.
Two types of QE are used:

➢External quantum efficiency (EQE): Loss of photons due to reflection and

transmission is not considered.

➢Internal quantum efficiency (IQE): Only absorbed photons are considered.

The difference between EQE and IQE is that loss of photons due to reflection and
transmission is not considered in EQE.

However, only those photons which are absorbed (excluding reflected and transmitted)
contribute to the solar cell current. Due to this IQE is most commonly used to study cell
performance.

EQE
IQE =
1 − R ( ) − T ( )
current density collected
QE ( E ) = EQE =
q x incident photon flux density
 Spectral Response

The spectral response is conceptually similar to the quantum efficiency. The quantum
efficiency gives the number of electrons output by the solar cell compared to the number
of photons incident on the device, while the spectral response is the ratio of the current
generated by the solar cell to the power incident on the solar cell. A spectral response
curve is shown below.
Spectral response is important since it is the spectral response that is measured from a
solar cell, and from this the quantum efficiency is calculated.

The quantum efficiency can be determined from the spectral response by replacing the
power of the light at a particular wavelength with the photon flux for that wavelength.
This gives:

QE .  ( nm)
SR ( A / W ) =
1239.8
 The photovoltaic effect
➢The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise to power generation.
In order to generate power, a voltage must be generated as well as a current.

➢Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known as the "photovoltaic effect". The
collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a movement of electrons to
the n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction.

➢Under short circuit conditions, there is no build up of charge, as the carriers exit the device
as light-generated current.

➢However, if the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar cell, then the
collection of light-generated carriers causes an increase in the number of electrons on the n-
type side of the p-n junction and a similar increase in holes in the p-type material.

➢This separation of charge creates an electric field at the junction which is in opposition to
that already existing at the junction, thereby reducing the net electric field. Since the
electric field represents a barrier to the flow of the forward bias diffusion current, the
reduction of the electric field increases the diffusion current. A new equilibrium is reached
in which a voltage exists across the p-n junction.
 Tandem Cells
One method to increase the efficiency of a solar cell is to split the spectrum and use a solar
cell that is optimised to each section of the spectrum.

Tandem solar cells can either be individual cells or connected in series. Series connected cells
are simpler to fabricate but the current is the same though each cell so this contrains the
band gaps that can be used. The most common arrangement for tandem cells is to grow them
monolithically so that all the cells are grown as layers on the on substrate and tunnel
junctions connect the individual cells.
As the number of bandgaps increases the efficiency of the stack also potentially
increases. In reality, the semiconductor materials do not exist to allow for arbitrary
materials with a specific bandgap and of high quality.
 1. low energy photon/High energy photon
Losses in Solar Cell: 2. Reflection loss/incomplete absorption
3. Metal coverage
4. Voltage loss
5. Fill factor loss
6. Recombination losses
 Parasitic Resistances
The parasitic resistance: Sum of all resistance
due to all component through which current is
flowing as well as crustal defect and impurity
Optical Losses:
Light generated current itself proportional to light input

Recombination Losses:
By diode itself, connected to the parallel of current flow in opposite direction
Ohmic Losses:
Series Resistance (Rs): Effect on I sc

Sum of all resistance in the path of current flow

Shunt Resistance (Rsh): Effect on Voc,

Due to leakage across P-N junction/ crystal defect/impurities
 Resistive Losses
Characteristic Resistance
➢The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance of the solar cell at its
maximum power point.
➢ If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic resistance of the solar cell,
then the maximum power is transferred to the load and the solar cell operates at its
maximum power point.

➢It is a useful parameter in solar cell analysis, particularly when examining the impact of
parasitic loss mechanisms.
The characteristic resistance of a solar
cell is the inverse of the slope of the
power line, can be given as:

It can alternately be given as an approximation where:

 Effect of parasitic Resistances
➢Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by dissipating power
in the resistances.

➢The most common parasitic resistances are series resistance and shunt resistance.

Rs: as low as possible

Rsh: as high as possible

➢In most cases and for typical values of shunt and series resistance, the key impact of
parasitic resistance is to reduce the fill factor.

➢Both the magnitude and impact of series and shunt resistance depend on the
geometry of the solar cell, at the operating point of the solar cell.
 Series Resistance

Series resistance in a solar cell has three causes:

➢the movement of current through the emitter and base of the solar cell;

➢the contact resistance between the metal contact and the silicon; and

➢the resistance of the top and rear metal contacts.

The main impact of series resistance is to reduce the fill factor, although excessively high
values may also reduce the short-circuit current.

I = I sc − I o [e q (V + IRs ) / nkT − 1]
 Effect of Series resistance on I-V curve
With increasing series resistance

(a) (c)

(d)
(b)
Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage since the overall
current flow through the solar cell, and therefore through the series resistance is zero.

However, near the open-circuit voltage, the I-V curve is strongly effected by the series
resistance.

A straight-forward method of estimating the series resistance from a solar cell is to find
the slope of the I-V curve at the open-circuit voltage point.

An equation for the FF as a function of series resistance can be determined by noting that
for moderate values of series resistance, the maximum power may be approximated as
the power in the absence of series resistance minus the power lost in the series
resistance. The equation for the maximum power from a solar cell then becomes:

defining a normalized series resistance as;

Assuming that the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current are not affected by the
series resistance which allows the impact of series resistance on FF to be determined;

In the above equation the fill factor which is not affected by series resistance is denoted
by FF0 and FF' is called FFS. The equation then becomes;

An empirical equation, which is slightly more accurate for the relationship between
FF0 and FFS is;

which is valid for rs < 0.4 and voc > 10, where voc is Voc /(kT/q) i.e., Open circuit voltage
normalized to the thermal voltage.
 Shunt Resistance
Significant power losses caused by the
presence of a shunt resistance, RSH, are
typically due to manufacturing defects,
rather than poor solar cell design.

Low shunt resistance causes power losses

in solar cells by providing an alternate
current path for the light-generated
current.
Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar cell junction and
reduces the voltage from the solar cell.
The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light levels, since there will be
less light-generated current. The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger
impact.
In addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of the solar cell is high, the
impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
The equation for a solar cell in presence of a shunt resistance is:

V
I = I sc − I o [e qV / nkT
− 1] −
Rsh
The impact of the shunt resistance on the fill factor can be calculated in a manner similar to
that used to find the impact of series resistance on fill factor. The maximum power may be
approximated as the power in the absence of shunt resistance, minus the power lost in the
shunt resistance. The equation for the maximum power from a solar cell then becomes;

RCH
 = PMP (1 −
PMP )
Rsh

Defining a normalized shunt resistance as;

Assuming that the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current are not affected by
the shunt resistance allows the impact of shunt resistance on FF to be determined
as;
In the above equation of FF, the fill factor which is not affected by shunt resistance is
denoted by FF0 and FF' is called FFSH. The equation then becomes;

An empirical equation, which is slightly more accurate for the relationship between
FF0 and FFSH is;

which is valid for rsh > 0.4.

 Effect of shunt resistance on I-V curve
With decreasing shunt resistance

(c)
(a)

(b) (d)
 Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistances

In the presence of both series and shunt resistances, the IV curve of the solar cell is
given by;

q (V + IRs ) / nkT V + IRs

I = I sc − I o [e − 1] −
Rsh
To combine the effect of both series and shunt resistances, the expression for FFsh can be
used with FF0 replaced by FFs. The overall equation then becomes;

where FFs is given by;

and by combining the above equations, the net equation for FF becomes;

rs2 Voc + 0.7 1 rs2

FF = [ FF0 (1 − 1.1 rs ) + ][1 − FF0 (1 − 1.1 rs ) + ]
5.4 Voc rsh 5.4
 Effect of both series and shunt resistance on I-V curve
With increasing series resistance and decreasing shunt resistance

(a)

(b) (c)

(e)
(d)
 Effect of Temperature
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature.

Increase in temperature reduces the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of
the semiconductor material parameters.

The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be
viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the material.

Lower energy is therefore needed to break the

bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor
band gap, reduction in the bond energy also
reduces the band gap. Therefore increasing the
temperature reduces the band gap.

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by

an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage.
The open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature because of the temperature
dependence of I0. The equation for I0 from one side of a p-n junction is given by;

where: q is the electronic charge; D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier; L is the
diffusion length of the minority carrier; ND is the doping; and ni is the intrinsic carrier
concentration

In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature dependence,
but the most significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier concentration, ni.

The intrinsic carrier concentration depends on the band gap energy (with lower band
gaps giving a higher intrinsic carrier concentration), and on the energy which the carriers
have (with higher temperatures giving higher intrinsic carrier concentrations).
The equation for the intrinsic carrier concentration is;

where: T is the temperature; h and k are constants; me and mh are the effective masses of
electrons and holes respectively; EGO is the band gap linearly extrapolated to absolute zero;
and B is a constant which is essentially independent of temperature.

Substituting these equations back into the expression for I0, and assuming that the
temperature dependencies of the other parameters can be neglected, gives;

where B' is a temperature independent constant. A constant , γ, is used instead of the

number 3 to incorporate the possible temperature dependencies of the other material
parameters. For silicon solar cells near room temperature, I0 approximately doubles for
every 10 °C increase in temperature.
The impact of I0 on the open-circuit voltage can be calculated by substituting the
equation for I0 into the equation for Voc as shown below;

where EG0 = qVG0. Assuming that dVoc/dT does not depend on dIsc/dT, dVoc/dT can be
found as;

The above equation shows that the temperature sensitivity of a solar cell depends on
the open circuit voltage of the solar cell, with higher voltage solar cells being less
affected by temperature. For silicon, EG0 is 1.2, and using γ as 3 gives a reduction in the
open-circuit voltage of about 2.2 mV/°C;
 kT
Voc − VGO = (ln I sc − ln B −  ln T )
q

dVoc k k
Now, = (ln I sc − ln B −  ln T − )
dT q q

dVoc 1 kT k
= (ln I sc − ln B −  ln T ) − 
dT T q q

dVoc Voc − VGO k

= −
dT T q

kT
VGO − Voc + 
dVoc q
=−
dT T
The short-circuit current, Isc, increases slightly with temperature, since the band gap
energy, EG, decreases and more photons have enough energy to create e-h pairs.
However, this is a small effect and the temperature dependence of the short-circuit
current from a silicon solar cell is;

The temperature dependency of FF for silicon is approximated by the following

equation;

The effect of temperature on the maximum power output, Pm, is;

 300 K or 25 °C ?

Most semiconductor modelling is done at 300 K since it is close to room temperature

and a convenient number. However, solar cells are typically measured almost 2 degrees
lower at 25 °C (298.15 K). In most cases the difference is insignificant (only 4 mV of Voc)
and both are referred to as room temperature.
 Questions

Q 1) Calculate the efficiency and peak power of a Si solar cell of

area 100 cm2 operating at 27o C, with short circuit current of 2.2 A
under standard illumination. Given: FF=0.75

Q 2) In above problem if the operating temperature of the solar

cell increases to about 40o C, calculate the efficiency.

Q 3) A p-n junction solar cell has Voc =0.5 V and Jsc =20 mA/cm2 .A
second, of same area, has Voc =0.6 V and Jsc =16 mA/cm2. Assuming
that both cells obey the ideal diode equation, find the values of Voc
and Jsc when the two cells are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in
series.
Q 4) A solar cell has a short circuit current density of 30 mA/cm2 and open circuit
voltage of 0.6 V under one Sun illumination at room temperature. Use the ideal
diode equation to calculate the open circuit voltage which is expected under
illumination by 100 Suns, stating any assumption made. In practice an open-circuit
voltage of 0.66 V is measured. Compare this with your result and suggest reasons
for any discrepancy.

Q 5) A n-p homo-junction solar cell has emitter thickness of xn and a base thickness
of xp. If the front surface reflectivity is R and bulk absorption is α for photons of
energy E,
(a) Find an expression for the photon flux density reaching the base when the
incident flux density is b0(E).
(b) Find an expression for the flux density absorbed in the base.
(c) If each absorbed photon in base delivers exactly one electron to the contacts,
what is the photocurrent density from the cell? You may ignore the emitter
photocurrent, and assume that the space charge width is negligible.
(d) Now find an expression for the Quantum efficiency.
(e) A n-p solar cell has xn=20 μm and R=0.1 for all photon energies. At 800 nm the
absorption of the cell material is 1.0x105 m-1. A student calculates that the QE
is only 60%. What might be the reason for this.
Q 6) A semiconductor has an intrinsic carrier density ni of 2.0x1012 m-3 at 300 K. A thin slab
of this material is exposed to a light pulse of photon energy 2.1 eV and intensity 1000
W/m2 for an interval of 1 ns. If the absorption coefficient is 5x105 m-1 at 2.1 eV, calculate
the concentration of photogenerated electrons and holes immediately after the pulse. You
may neglect recombination during the light pulse. Hence find new concentration of
electrons (n) and holes (p) and the product (np) in the following cases:
(a) If the semiconductor is intrinsic (i.e., n=p in the dark)
(b) If the semiconductor is doped with a concentration of 1x1022 m-3 donor impurities,
which may be considered to be fully ionized?
(c) In which case is the rate of radiative recombination faster?