Module 1

PN Junction Diode
PN junction is a significant building block and it is one among the indispensable structures
offered by the semiconductor technology in electronics. Electronic components such as bipolar
junction transistors, junction FETs and MOSFETs, or diodes such as light-emitting diodes
(LEDs), and analog or digital integrated circuits (ICs) are all supported in semiconductor
technology.
It permits the current to flow solely in forward direction and effectively blocks the current in
the reverse direction. It is vital to recognize that the semiconductor is entirely a single-crystal
material, made from two separate blocks of semiconductor opposite kind.
One block is doped with trivalent impurity atoms to create the P region that acts as acceptors
with holes as majority charge carriers and the adjacent block is doped with pentavalent impurity
atoms to create the N region that acts as donors with electrons as majority charge carriers.

The boundary splitting the n and p region is referred to as the metaphysical junction. The
concentration of doping is same all over in every block and there will be an abrupt modification
in doping at the junction. When the two blocks are placed nearer to each other, the electrons
and holes diffuse towards the region of lower concentration from the region of higher
concentration. In the process of diffusion, electrons from N region diffuse towards the P region
whereas holes from P region diffuse towards the N region. Once holes enter the N region, they
will recombine with donor atoms. At the same time, donor atoms admit additional holes and
become positively charged stationary donor atoms.

The electrons spreading from N region to P region recombine with the acceptor atoms in P
region. At the same time, acceptor atoms admit additional electrons and become negatively
charged immobile acceptor atoms. As a result, a large number of positively charged ions are
produced at the junction on the N side and a large number of negatively charged ions are
produced at the junction on P side.
The net positively and negatively charged ions within the N and P regions induce an electric
field in the space near to the metaphysical junction. Merging these two regions wherever the
electric field is small and wherever the free carrier density is equivalent to the net doping
density can be named as the space charge region. It can also be referred as a quasi-neutral
region. Fundamentally, all electrons and holes are swept out of the free space charge region by
the electric field. The tapered region in which depletion of free mobile charge carriers takes
place is called as Depletion Region.

Working of PN Junction Diode

If an external potential is applied to the terminals of PN junction, it will alter the potential
between the P and N-regions. This potential difference can alter the flow of majority carriers,
so that the PN junction can be used as an opportunity for the diffusion of electrons and holes.
If the voltage applied decreases the width of the depletion layer, then the diode is assumed to
be in forward bias and if the applied voltage increases the depletion layer width, then the diode
is assumed to be in reverse bias.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is altered between the P and N
regions. When positive terminal of the source is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal is connected to N side then the junction diode is said to be connected in forward bias
condition. Forward bias lowers the potential across the PN junction.

The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are attracted towards the PN junction and the
width of the depletion layer decreases with diffusion of the majority charge carriers. The
external biasing causes a departure from the state of equilibrium and a misalignment of Fermi
levels in the P and N regions, and also in the depletion layer.

So, an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that of the incorporated field. The
presence of two different Fermi levels in the depletion layer represents a state of quasi-
equilibrium. The amount of charge Q stored in the diode is proportional to the current I flowing
in the diode.

With the increase in forward bias greater than the built-in potential, at a particular value the
depletion region becomes very much thinner so that a large number of majority charge carriers
can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric current. The current flowing up to built-in
potential is called as ZERO current or KNEE current.
Forward Biased Diode Characteristics:

With the increase in applied external forward bias, the width of the depletion layer becomes
thin and forward current in a PN junction diode starts to increase abruptly after the KNEE point
of forward I-V characteristic curve. Firstly, a small amount of current called as reverse
saturation current exists due to the presence of the contact potential and the related electric
field. While the electrons and holes are freely crossing the junction and causes diffusion current
that flows in the opposite direction to the reverse saturation current.

The net result of applying forward bias is to reduce the height of the potential barrier by an
amount of eV. The majority carrier current in the PN junction diode increases by an exponential
factor of eV/kT. As result the total amount of current becomes I = Is * exp(eV/kT), where Is is
constant. The excess free majority charge carrier holes and electrons that enter the N and P
regions respectively, acts as a minority carrier and recombine with the local majority carriers
in N and P regions. This concentration consequently decreases with the distance from the PN
junction and this process is named as minority carrier injection.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side and the negative terminal is
connected to P side, then the junction diode is said to be connected in reverse bias condition.
In this type of connection majority charge carriers are attracted away from the depletion layer
by their respective battery terminals connected to PN junction. The Fermi level on N side is
lower than the Fermi level on P side. Positive terminal attracts the electrons away from the
junction in N side and negative terminal attracts the holes away from the junction in P side. As
a result of it, the width of the potential barrier increases that impedes the flow of majority
carriers in N side and P side.

The width of the free space charge layer increases, thereby electric field at the PN junction
increases and the PN junction diode acts as a resistor. But the time of diode acting as a resistor
is very low. There will be no recombination of majority carriers taken place at the PN junction;
thus, no conduction of electric current.
The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current, due to minority
carriers generated at the depletion layer or minority carriers which drift across the PN junction.
Finally, the result is that the growth in the width of the depletion layer presents a high
impedance path which acts as an insulator.

In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN junction diode with increase in the
amount of applied external voltage. However, leakage current due to minority charge carriers
flows in the PN junction diode that can be measured in micro amperes. As the reverse bias
potential to the PN junction diode increases ultimately leads to PN junction reverse voltage
breakdown and the diode current is controlled by external circuit. Reverse breakdown depends
on the doping levels of the P and N regions.
With the increase in reverse bias further, PN junction diode become short circuited due to
overheat in the circuit and maximum circuit current flows in the PN junction diode.
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In the current–voltage characteristics of junction diode, from the first quadrant in the figure
current in the forward bias is incredibly low if the input voltage applied to the diode is lower
than the threshold voltage (Vr). The threshold voltage is additionally referred to as cut-in
voltage.
Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage (0.3 V for germanium diode,
0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the current spectacularly increases, as a result the diode functions
as short-circuit.
The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth quadrant of the figure
above. The current in the reverse bias is low till breakdown is reached and therefore the diode
looks like as open circuit. When the reverse bias input voltage has reached the breakdown
voltage, reverse current increases spectacularly.
Applications of Diode

Rectifier

The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC power to DC
power. Using diodes, we can construct different types of rectifier circuits. The basic types of
these rectifier circuits are half wave, full wave centre tapped and full bridge rectifiers. A single
or combination of four diodes is used in most of the power conversion applications. Below
figure shows diode operation in a rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier

In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Only one diode is used
which conducts during positive cycle. During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of
the diode is positive compared with the cathode.

Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the diode and positive cycle develops
across the load resistance RL. During negative half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative
with respected to cathode and diode is in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode
hence output voltage is zero.
The maximum voltage which occurs across the diode in the reverse direction is known as the
peak inverse voltage (PIV). This must be less than the breakdown voltage of the diode if it is
not to conduct appreciably in the reverse direction. Thus the peak inverse voltage equals
approximately the peak value of the supply voltage.
Full Wave Rectifier
The bridge rectifier

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the following figure. The
circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two
ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D2
conduct, whereas diodes D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in
series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the
negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D3 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D2
remain OFF. The conducting diodes D3 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL
and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle.
Thus, a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Consider first half-cycle, when source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-)
on bottom. Only top diode is conducting; bottom diode is blocking current, and load “sees”
first half of sine wave. Only top half of transformer's secondary winding carries current during
this half-cycle.
During next half-cycle, AC polarity reverses. Now, other diode and other half of transformer's
secondary winding carry current while portions of circuit formerly carrying current during last
half-cycle sit idle. The load still “sees” half of sine wave, of same polarity as before.

Clipper Circuit
A clipper is a type of diode network that has the ability to “clip off” a portion of the input signal
without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform. The half-wave rectifier is an
example of the simplest form of diode clipper one resistor and a diode. Depending on the
orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is “clipped” off.
There are two general categories of clippers:
1. Series
2. Parallel/Shunt.
Types of Clipper Circuit:
➢ Series clipper
o Series Positive Clipper
o Series Negative Clipper
➢ Shunt Clipper
o Shunt Positive Clipper
o Shunt Negative Clipper
1. Series Positive Clipper Circuit

Here, the diode is connected in series with the output thus it is named so. The positive half
of the input waveform reverse biases the diode. Thus, it acts as an open switch and all the
applied input voltage drops across the diode. Resultantly providing no output voltage for
positive half of the input waveform. For the negative half of the input waveform, the diode
is in the forward biased state. Thus, it acts as a closed switch causing no any voltage drop
at the diode. Hence input voltage will appear across the resistor, ultimately at the output of
the circuit.
2. Series Negative Clipper Circuit

Here, during the positive half cycle of input waveform, the diode becomes forward
biased, thus ensuring a closed circuit. Due to which current appears across the
resistor of the circuit. For negative half of the input waveform, the diode now
becomes reverse biased acting as an open switch. This causes no current to flow through
the circuit. Resultantly providing no output for negative half of the input waveform.
3. Shunt positive Clipper circuits
 Here, the diode is connected in parallel with the load. Hence its working principle is exactly
opposite to that of the shunt clippers. In shunt positive clippers, the output signal is
observed only when the diode is reverse biased.
During the positive half of the input signal, the diode gets forward biased due to which the
current flows through the diode. Hence, due to the parallel combination of diode and load,
no current is observed at the load. Resultantly no output waveform for the positive half is
achieved.
On the contrary, during the negative half of the input signal, the diode gets reverse biased.
Thus, no current flows through it, and the output current is observed at the load. So, for the
negative half of input, the entire negative half appears at the output.
4. Shunt negative Clippers circuits

For negative shunt clippers, during the positive half of input, the diode gets reverse biased.
Thus, no current flows through it, and the output current is observed at the load. Hence
output signal is achieved for positive half of the input signal.
During the negative half of the input signal, the diode gets forward biased and hence no-
load current is achieved. Ultimately no output is observed for negative half of the input
signal.

Clamper Circuits
Clamper circuits are the electronic circuits that shift the dc level of the AC signal. Clampers
are also known as DC voltage restorers or level shifter. Clampers are basically classified
as positive and negative that includes both biased and unbiased conditions individually.

These circuits are used to clamp an input signal to a different dc level. It basically adds dc
component to the applied input signal in order to push the signal to either the positive or
negative side. Clamper circuit is a combination of a resistor along with a diode and capacitor.
It sometimes also employs dc battery so as to have an additional shift in the signal level.
Clamper circuits are constructed in a similar manner as that of clipper circuits. However,
clamper includes an extra charging element that is the capacitor in its circuitry. The
combination of resistor and capacitor in the clamper circuit is used to maintain different dc
level at the output of the clamper.
The working of clamper circuits depends on the variation in the time constant of the
capacitor. This variation is the outcome of changing the current path of the diode with the
change in input signal polarity.

Here, the magnitude of the time constant is,

T= RC, T is the Time Constant

This is chosen large enough in order to assure that voltage across the capacitor does not
discharge consequently at the non-conducting interval of the diode. But such a discharge takes
place only when the load resistance is very large. This permits the capacitor to take larger
discharge time. Conversely, a smaller value of the capacitor is chosen so that it will charge
rapidly at the time of conduction of the diode.

Classification of Clamper Circuits

Positive Clamper circuit:

• The diode is in parallel connection with the load. So we can say reverse biasing of the diode
will provide the output at the load.
• Initially, the positive half of the applied input signal reverse biases the diode but the
capacitor is not still charged. So, at this period of time output will not be considered.
• For, the negative half of the AC signal, the capacitor now gets fully charged up to the peak
of the AC signal but with inverse polarity.
• This negative half forward biases the diode that results in the flow of the forward current
through the diode.
• The next positive half then reverse biases the diode due to which signal will appear at the
output.
• At the beginning of the positive half of the AC signal, the diode is in the non-conducting
state that results in discharging of capacitor charge.
• So, at the output, we will have the summation of the voltage stored across the capacitor and
applied the AC input signal. This is given by

Vo = Vm + Vm = 2Vm

• The signal level is shifted upward or positive side. Hence it is named as positive clamper.
Negative Clamper circuit:

• At the time when positive half of the AC input is applied, the diode comes to forward
bias condition that results in no-load current at the output.
• A forward current flows through the diode that charges the capacitor to the peak of the ac
signal but again with inverse polarity. The capacitor here is charged up to the forward
biased condition of the diode.
• When negative half of the AC signal is applied, the diode now becomes reverse biased.
This allows load current to appear at the output of the circuit.
• Now, this non-conducting state of the diode discharges the capacitor. So, at the output, a
summation of capacitor voltage along with the input voltage is achieved.
• Hence at the output, we have,

Vo = – Vm – Vm = -2Vm

• This results in the downward shift of the signal. Therefore, it is termed as negative clamper
circuit.

Zener Diode
A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device
that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals of a
Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction
breaks down and the current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener
Effect.

The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts conducting
current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias mode without getting
damaged. Additionally, the voltage drop across the diode remains constant over a wide range
of voltages, a feature that makes Zener diodes suitable for use in voltage regulation.

A Zener diode operates just like a normal diode when it is forward-biased. However, when
connected in reverse biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As the
reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current starts flowing
through the diode. The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series
resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.
There are two types of Breakdown in Zener Diode:

• Avalanche Breakdown
• Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

• Avalanche breakdown occurs both in normal diode and Zener Diode at high reverse
voltage. When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free
electrons gain sufficient energy and accelerate at high velocities.
• These free electrons moving at high velocity collides other atoms and knocks off more
electrons. Due to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are
generated as a result of electric current in the diode rapidly increases.
• This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the normal diode,
however, a Zener diode is designed to operate under avalanche breakdown and can
sustain the sudden spike of current.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

• When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener voltage, the electric
field in the depletion region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their valence
band.
• The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the
depletion region break free from the parent atom. At the Zener breakdown region, a
small increase in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric current.

VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
• The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the
graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of any other P-N
junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
• When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, initially a small reverse saturation current Io
flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers.

• As the reverse voltage is increased, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current
increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred.
• We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz.