ASSIGNMENT

Name: Mueez Ullah

Class: BScs 1st
Teacher: Dr
Farman Ullah
Topic :
forward and reverse
biasing
Date:19/12/2022
Forward Biasing
Forward bias or biasing is where the external voltage is delivered
across the P-N junction diode. In a forward bias setup, the P-side of
the diode is attached to the positive terminal and N-side is fixed to
the negative side of the battery.

1. The number of holes and electrons are combined with

each other once the junction is crosserd.
2. Each hole in P side combines with an electron that is from
the N side. Due to this reason, a covalent bond will break,
and an electron generated from the covalent bond move
towards the positive terminal.
3. There is a formation of electron-hole pair.
4. Holes carry current in the P region
5. Electrons carry current in the N region.
1.1 P-N Junction Diode
A P-N junction diode is a two-electrode semiconductor where the
electric current flows only in one direction. The device does not
allow the electric current to flow in the opposite direction. If a P-N
junction diode facilitates the flow of electric current when the
applied voltage is present it is a forward bias P-N junction diode.
Different types of semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium
arsenide, and germanium are used to construct P-N junction diode.

1.2 Properties of P-N Junction in Forward Bias

1. When any type of P-N junction is in forward bias, a resistor
Rs must be connected in series with the diode.
2. The function of the limiting resistance is to limit the forward
current into the diode.
3. When a P-N junction is forward biased the majority carrier of
the P and N region will be moving toward the junction and this
will reduce the region of immobile charges and therefore the
width of the depletion layer is reduced
4. Under forward bias, the field because of the space charge
region and forward voltage Vd will be opposing each other.
Hence, the resultant electric field is very small and it is
experimentally found that the field is always directed from N to
P
5. When P-N junction is forward bias, the barrier height reduces
by |V0| ( magnitude of VD).

1.3 Different Cases

Case 1: If VD< V0 is applied.
Barrier voltage (V0) is dominating. Hence no majority carrier will be
crossing the junction. Hence, the forward current is Zero (practically
forward current is 10-12 to 10-15A), the diode is now forward biased
and non-conducting i.e., it is in OFF state.
Case 2: If VD =V0 is applied
The effect of the barrier is nullified i.e., the barrier hereafter will not
oppose any majority carriers in crossing the junction. Both the
majority and minority carriers will be crossing the junction. Hence,
forward current is small or fwd. current just passes into the diode.
Case 3: If VD > V0
Since the forward voltage of the diode, VD is greater than Vo, more
majority carrier will be crossing the junction and the forward current
exponentially increases with the forward voltage VD. The diode is in
conducting state or we can say the diode is in ON state.

1.4 Important Consideration for solving

numerical:
If Ge or Si is not specified in the question, take n = 1
· Is : Reverse saturation current and it is in the range of 10-10 to 10-15 A
.
· Is is highly sensitive to temperature.
· Is doubles for every 50C rise in temperature, but we always apply
the thumb rule that this current Is also doubles for 100C rise in
temperature.
· The forward current exponentially increases with the forward
voltage across the diode (If = IseVo/nVt)
· When PN junction is forward biased, holes are injected from P to N
and e– are injected from N to P.
· This majority carriers of p and n regions are entering a carrier or
excess minority carrier.
· Forward current is injected minority carrier current or excess
minority carrier current.
In a forward bias p-n junction, the sequence of the events are as
follows:
1. Injection
2. Diffusion
3. Recombination
· Forward current is a diffusion current because this current is
passing through the junction from higher concentration to lower
concentration.
· Forward current flows from p-n and is in mA
· In a forward-biased p-n junction, the current up to the edge of the
depletion layer is due to drift of majority carrier.
Considering a p+n junction operating under forward bias, the
minority carrier concentration distribution is as follows.
As the minority carrier of p and n regions croevess into the opposite
regions, they become injected minority carriers. The injected
minority carrier concentration will be maximum at the edge of the
depletion layer on the opposite side and then they diffuse into the
region. Hence, forward current is diffusion current and also it is a
minority carrier current.

1.5 Forward Current Equation of PN Junction

Diode
The diode equation is given as
ID = IS(eqVD/NkT – 1)
Here,
ID = diode current in amps
IS = Saturation current in amps (1 x 10-12 amps)
e = Euler’s constant (∼ 2.718281828)
q = charge of electron (1.6 x 10-19 coulombs)
VD = Voltage applied across diode in volts
N = emission coefficient ( between 1 and 2)
k = Boltzmann,s constant (1.38 x 10-23)
T = Junction Temperature
The term kT/q is the voltage produced within the PN junction due to
the temperature and this temperature is called the thermal voltage.
The value of kT/q is equal to 26 millivolts at room temperature. Let
us assume N to be equal to 1. Then the diode equation can be
written as
ID = IS(eVD/0.026 – 1)

Reverse Biasing
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and
the n-type is connected to the positive side, the P-N junction is
reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied
electric field are in the same direction.
 When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the
same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more resistive,
thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more
resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

2.1 P-N Junction Formula

The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in
potential difference created by the electric field is given as:
E0=VTln[ND.NA/ni2]
Where,

1. E0 is the zero bias junction voltage.

2. VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
3. ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
4. ni is the intrinsic concentration.

2.2 current flow in the PN junction diode

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the
junction takes place when there is an increase in the voltage.
Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the
junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This
results in the concentration gradient between both sides of the
terminals. Due to the concentration gradient formation, charge
carriers will flow from higher-concentration regions to lower-
concentration regions. The movement of charge carriers inside the P-
N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the circuit.

2.3 V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the
voltage and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-
axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above graph is
the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help
of the curve, we can understand that there are three regions in
which the diode works, and they are:

1. Zero bias 
2. Forward bias
3. Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no
external voltage applied and this means that the potential barrier at
the junction does not allow the flow of current.
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type
is connected to the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to
the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the diode is
arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier.
For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium
diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease,
and there is a flow of current. 
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and
the curve obtained is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode
overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode overcomes the
potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises
sharply as the external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is
linear.
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type
is connected to the negative terminal while the n-type is connected
to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in an
increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in
the beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction. 
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have
increased kinetic energy which affects the majority charges. This is
the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also destroy the
diode. 

2.4 Applications of P-N Junction Diode

1. P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the
diode is sensitive to the light when the configuration of
the diode is reverse-biased.
2. It can be used as a solar cell.
3. When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED
lighting applications.
4. It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a
voltage-controlled oscillator in varactors.