1. Conduct this experiment with an :CED~U-J!

10 •~•w

VIVA VOCE

QI. How is a p-n junction formed? . ductors together

. in very close contact
d type seID1con
Ans. A p-n junction is formed by joining p-type an n- . ·
. e low temperature approachmg OK?
Q2. What happens to the resistivity of semiconductors at v ry .
. d t s behave as msulators at OK.
Ans. Resistivity tends to become infinite and sem1con uc or
Q3. What is doping? · . .
Ans. The process of deliberate addition of suitable impurity to pure semiconductor, IS called dopmg.
Q4. How does the bias effect the thickness of the depletion layer?
Ans. Forward biasing decreases the thickness of depletion layer and reverse biasing increases the thickness of depletion .

Q5. What is barrier potential?

Ans. Diffusion of electrons from n-region and holes from p-region towards the p-n junction, gives rise to the form
of a potential which opposes further diffusion and is called the barrier potential.
Q6. What is knee voltage?
Ans. In the forward bias characteristic ofp-n-junction diode, the current for initial forward voltage is low and its~
a sudden rise beyond a certain voltage called as knee voltage.
Q7. Which is the most frequently used material to make semiconductors?
Ans. Silicon and Germanium.
· d
Q8. How does temperature effect the electrical conductivity of sem1con
. . . . uctors?
Ans. Electncal conductivity mcreases with increase in temperature.

142
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN p

eO REDMI NOTE 8
00 Al QUAD CAMERA
 ·ch factors affect the conctuctivit" f
W)l1 rs affecting
· t h c conducttvity
.
fJ
O a 1na1 , · ,
Qq. enn\?
facto . o n material·
_.\oS•, [)lttice structmc and . .
ic strncture of constttucnt cle
Ato 111 1ncnts
' l is the difference between resist· . ' ·
\\fll!l , . ' lV1ty of CO
otll• conductors have very low resistivity, WhHe se ~ductors and semiconductors'?
\oS• ,,11at do you understand by intrinsic se . 1n1conductors have medium resistivity.
,1tl•
\iv
,.emiconductors are called , 1-11tr. .m1co11du ctors?
" 011fC " 1ns1c s •
s r' , · tr·111sic' prope1fo of tl . em,conduct , l )
\O·' -~ an in 'J le material and tl ors · The presence of charge carriers (electrons and ho es
th
~tectrons (ne) ~s equal_t? e number of holes (,:es~ a:e 0 ?tained as a result of thermal excitation. The number _of
,dth an effective positive charge. Ii) tn tntnnsic conductors. Holes are essentially electron vacancies
,,That do you understand by extrinsic 8 . .
, vv •· emiconduct . ?
01~• fbe number of charge caniers can be chan ed ~rs .
5
~0 • iconductors are known as extrinsic s g_ by doping' of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors. Such
seOl . · ein1conductors.
W}lat is the difference between n-type and -t .
Q13• ._x. nee between n-type and p-ty _P :Ype semiconductors?
111S,
p1uere • duct ors, ne > > pe sein1conducto rs..
type sermcon n
/V"
w~ "
Wp-type semiconductors n1, > > ne
What do you understand by p-n junction?
4
Ql · ·unction is the 'key' to all semiconductor d · ·
;.ns,p-nJ_ • Of~TY\""'obile ion-cores d .d evices. When such a junction is made, a ' depletion layer' 1s formed
0ns1stmg ll.ll.U-1. evo1 of their el tr • • . • · · b ·
c . . ec ons or holes. This 1s responsible for a Junction potential amer.
at happens to Junction potential barriers in ..-1 0 d b. d. .
Q15, Wh . . ' rwar ias an m reverse bias?
~orward bias, the barner 1s decreased wh·1 1 e the b arner
• . . ·
;.ns, In '
1
. . . mcreases m reverse bias. Hence, in forward bias current
. ore (mA) while 1t 1s very small (µA) · b' . . . .
1s rn m reverse 1as m a p-n Junction diode.
Ql 6, What do you understand by _forwa~d bias?
AJIS. When an external voltage V is ~pphed across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal, it is said to be forward biased. In case of forward
bias the current will not be large for small voltage up to 0.4 V. Once voltage is raised beyond this, the current
rises in p-n junction in forward bias.
Ql7. What do you understand by reverse bias?
Ans. When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and n-side to the positive terminal, it is said to be reverse biased. Reverse biasing increases
barrier potential and as a result there is hardly any flow of current. When voltage becomes too high then there
is sudden flow of high reverse of current.
{vtVAvOCE)
QI. Wba1 1s Z mer rliode . .
A · . · ~ 1·t8 10· ventor C. Zener. It 1s des1gned t0
n~~ 1t a special purpose semiconductor diode, named a er
15 0 Perate
re,erse bias in the breakdown region and used as a voltage regulator. ~n,
Q 2 What 1s LED or light emitting diode? ·
A ns., L h E • • . . h' h l tron excitation by a bias voltage results
ig t nutting Diode is special type of diode m w ic e ec .
1
generation of light. n¾
Q3. Zener diode is used for which purpose?
Ans. Zener diode is used as voltage regulator.
Q4. What is reverse current? What constitutes it?
Ans. The current due to reverse bias voltage is known as reverse current. It is due to minority carriers.
QS. What are minority carriers?
Ans. Free electrons in p-type semiconductor a:nd holes in n-type semiconductor, are known as minority earners.'th
are generated due to breaking of covalent bonds. ~
Q6. Is Zener effect common in all diodes are only in Zener diode?
Ans. Zener effect is common in all semiconducting diodes but breakdown voltage is very sharp in case of
diode. 2en~

Q7 • Reverse breakdown voltage depends on which factors?

Ans. It depends upon the level of doping of n-and p-sides of the diode. I
QS. How does Zener voltage differ for Germanium and Silicon?
l
Ans. Zener voltage for Germanium is less than that of Silicon, for same order of doping.
Q9. What is an ideal diode? I
Ans. Diode which offers zero resistance in forward biasing and infinite resistance in reverse biasing, is called an idea\
diode.
 \.! \\ \ b r t on cna •~ am l'h t~i m fi,nn1111t,n i,t u rninbo\\ 'I I11. h are as follows resp~ctively:
\ n, t mi t •sses W c • trum of hght a
R \ :i. fl'O l)t pnman ramb..'" un ,,h l''- lhn..·c proct: I t resulting in spec PPearing .
e- 'tmn. rdlt,·tilm and d1.spl'r'!-tl'n l,f light m "atr1 droP e s re compared to blue in the atru I~ the
Q... \\ b, d0 't I scaHcrs ,no f ky . t d Osph .,
n '' e , ('(' 1.;}.:, "~ , tl' l1.'. l ,dthl1ugh , mlct co our blue colour o s ms ea of seein . ere?
\ m,. Our\ \'t'S "' . I t So we see g V10J
· an: mon' '\."N rn c to Nm.' rolour thnn lo v1o c · ' et Co
QJ. \\n.,, d)t" k.
\! " ~ ~ <lJ'll)t'a: t\'d dunng mommg and evcnH
. . 1g? t1 ugh atmosphere. This results 1•
I\
Ao,. ~t '-lm~·~,'-\: · ar,c· ~unns~ lilt' hght has to rowr a larger distance tiro wavelength ID · 'ble spech-..11 relliov
· tbe visi
co1P1.I"- k • • b vw· g Ionges •iuni h a1
· ;.,1;l\"lrtg sh1.1 ner " a, elengtl1s. Red colour 1s · 8 euee r·
S"'i'X~ars~ red d W1ng morning and evening. ,,1.~)

Q4 . \\ bar d() >ou understand by angle of a prism? .

\ns• The- aog1e bet\\ ·een zwo sides
· 1 of the pnsm.
of prism is called ang e
··
Q5. \\·ba, do .,·ou understand by the angle of 1llllllmum deviation? f . 'dence Its value decreases • /
b gle o wc 1 With ·
Ans Th 1 . . •
• • : aog ~ o_f den atzon inside a prism depends on t · e an le of deviation starts increasing. The le increase
~ ::-le of mc1dence up to a certain degree. After that t~~ ang an le of deviation. ast Poss·~
'alue of angle of deviation in a prism is called the 11lllllIDllill g ~
Q6• Does th e angle of minimum deviation Dm depend upon the colour of light? fD
An v B · different so the va1ues o m are also ct·~
1
· s. 1 es. ecause the angle of deviation for different co1ours is J.J.ere
different colours. nt ~
- lT'h . . . f ergence e angle of deviation D and th
Q • n. at 1s the relatwn between angle of incidence z, ang1e O em ' e an~e
pnsmA? ~
Ans. LA , LD = i + e.
Q8. What is angular deviation? On what factors it depends?
Ans. ~e angle between the emergent rays of any two colours is called angular deviation. It depends on angle
pnsm and refractive index. ~
Q9. What do you understand by refraction? .
Ans. When a light beam passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium the direction ol
propagation of light beam changes at the interface of two media. This phenomenon is called refraction.

126 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS·J1

• j
 .. sndl"s luw?
at ii-. h
, \ 11"11 I \:\. stntc:s I Ill
•1f":,. II • •
,,.,. :,:11l . ·nw incident
•
n.t), th1.• rdnactcd rnu II Ile in the
i;,."
ar
c1l I1nt· ·
:,; 11111.• P 1
.., unct the no rnl.l I to the tnfcrt11c c at the pt'll nt 0
1 ,n~1dcnc.•c. n
1
r1t1.· r.1 tio of' th..- sint.• of tht.• nnglc O f,
(;O mc,dc,•
sin , ,cc to the ~,nc of nnglc of refr u.:t11nn ,s con stu11I .
r !-.I 11
•. ,.. is an!! It' o, inc.·idt.•ncc and •,.· i. · n,. mcl.11um
,,·:;;·::_~._p1;d to thl.' first mcdiun1. s angle of refraction and n is the refractive index of the second
,, 1 i, , l,u unfkrstand o, optica J d .
.11 .11 l t • • cns1t:y'>
'' • .. 11 ti1.•nsi~ is a relat" c ten11. ln ca · h

l
1
~•' l1,11<• ~ct·
fi t se of t,v d' is more l o.n
\at•· t -it l,f tht' rs _nu:: tun1 t_1en 1 .,_,. ..._ _; and in t 0 tnect1a, if refractive index or the second me ium • in arcd
th• • first med1un1. In this case the 1· I hat case second d' . ·ct t be optically denser co _P
11
'tht. tg 1t bean1 b d me mm is sa, o d medium.
•lf't.· diamonds brilliant? en s towards the normal when it enters the secon
\\ h) • .
11 ;. fh•• ..-rincal angle of drn:mond-air intern
. d'amond So d'1
.
ace ts very
an1onds are vei:y b . . small (about 24.4°). Because of this there i·s total reflection
I. . 1
,,,,.. ,-Jieht IO · •

l,11.
,, -
!ic>" do optica
· I fib nlhant
res transn1it signals to lar e .
tical fibres are niade in such a way ti
.
g distances?
\ti~ C!tfie absorption of light inside them Tll~t total reflection of light takes place inside them Further there is very
\
• II • 1Is enable · · ·
,bat do you understand by dispersi f s opttcal fibres to transmit signals over large distances.
J \\ on o light?
l>1 · fbe phenomenon of splitting of lio-Iit • .
os- . "' into Its con . .
\ ~ Refraction of light happens through Which lponent colm.u-s IS known as dispersion.
QI='· Whenever the ray of light travels fro th
of e fo llowing?
01
\Os. one medium t 0 .
· pispersion of light takes place throu h . another; obliquely; refraction of light takes place.
Q16- . g Whtch of th :6 ll -
ecause of umque shape of prism li h e o owing?
.\JJS· 13 • . f . . , g t rays of d:i.ffc
· TlllS IS the cause O dispersion of light thr . erent wavelengths emerge from the prism at different angles.
oughpnsm.

,, ,, TO DETERMINE REFRACTl\11: , ... .

 ~
~,-✓~ , , • • called asp herical mirror.
QI "'1181 oo , ~u undC"rsUmd b, a <.phcnc:aJ n 11 m"'r ·c sphere. the mirror 15 • •
A.1111. l\-bcri the' n:-ff("( tmg surface 1:r- part of 'cry Jorg · . ? . . In case something 1s llle
t ,1ical nni-ror pos1t1ve. a 8\lt ~c;\
tive · So ' ev ery C\.uan
Ql lVhat 111;; the sign com enrion m case o f !-pl_'- . • t tight are taken as_ . taken as nega:
AJtL All measurement-. m rh1.• dm.'cfion of the mctdcn . ht comes then 1t is red at the back of the tnin-,..,. t\~
m fbc- oppc>site d.inx·tron from where t IlC me · idcnt 11g '
d the quantl· ty measu ..
'-'t ,,vvl\\
. . t 1·vc value an
measured m front of nurror "tII haYc ncga • fi rrnation?
ha, e positive , aJue. . . . r in terms of 1ro~ge O of convex mirro .
d onvex m1110
er than° . the object, w h"l
1 e in case
bile
rs 1111.a~~i
in case of convex
Q3. What ,s tbe dinerence between a concave an
1
Ans. In case of conca,·e mirrors images are usually . ~~g images are usually real, w tni:rt~l:~
are smaller than objects. In case of concave murnrs
images are virtual. · f a spherical mirror?
Q4. What is the relation between focal length and ra d.
~us of curvature
. o
mirror.
1 fi ed in case of concave mirror'?
Ans. The radius of curvature is double of focal length m a sphenca .
.
QS. When an object is at infinity then what will be the positwn
· · f image °. orm.
ave mirror. ·
Ans. If object is at infinity then the image will be formed at focus m cone _
Q6. In which condition a virtual image is formed in concave mi1:or? . . s formed by concave mirror a d
s. When object is placed between F and p then an enlarged vrrtua1 image 1 n. t\\t
image is behind the mirror. . . .
· h
7. When a ray is passing parallel to the principal axis of mirror w ere Wl ·n ·1
1 c ross the pnnc1pal
. axis .
after refi.ect1,rn_')
. . . . . • ·
s. The ray parallel to the pnnc1pal axis will cross the pnnc1pa1 axis a t £ocus after reflection. ·
• What are the laws of reflection?
·• Laws of reflection are:
(a) Angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal. . .
(b) Angle of incidence, angle of reflection and normal to the reflecting surface at the point of mcidence lie
the same plane.
at is mirror formula?

r or formula is:

.
~ere,fis the focal length, u is the distance
f
of
v u
object and vis the
1
or/= - -
vu
v+u
distance
1
- +-
1

of image.

Pt:>Al'Tl~AI ~.,., ... ,.. .. .

 real unngc'/
11
, ,,, i!' ...,·h1dt cmn he tnkcn on n
,, 11 . r11.1!?c sc-~ 0 " (:armed
111· flt",, of mirrc>r. ,~ c •lt<:'(f 'f'i: ~, \ re\\ hntlP,~· ,~ n\wn')'
tl,." ti"<1fl 1 ... ;,.,uni unngc ? tn'\,\g.: 11\ ,; i ~~f ti\l\"\'01
,~ ,,1 b
,i
m,11 ,~11,!l<II~ " ,1t1ch i;.1nnn1
.,
c- tllkt.~n ~n
n wnx, ,, ""· <'Ml""-"'
I 11n•1~~ IA u l -.vnJ
" "i;
I• ·11•· ,rt1 '-chind the nurn.~r. l
I
i! 1 11cd •· • "'~' vntn.:-.1 tm ,........, In t~\"c of nHn'u1·. L\ v ,·tua • '
1
,i" ,,f1
1 . -11 ,,
.,,c pf ,n,~r ...
·a11 run kc "'"'hl
• ........ unnR ? · ._,,,
,,•11•~.,, ,:. 111 i1n11: ,o
.,ti· (,,11•· •nl' t'f n11n-r•r ...-un never 11 1 ,.
11.
Jfl • ,,11 1··ti''•·
•
f
'....,,,. nnl l'l">ll\'l.''( n1irror:
11.,_cnrc" 11 itnno"'~
~,,.I· ,,,1,11•~ 111'
1
" • "'" •

•"" ffND THE FOCAL LENGTH O

J.t_,'t' ,
~111-:f"l',. nh, ays fom1s a 'trtua1 hna F A. CON"EX MIRROR USING A CONVEX \.SNS
gc, hence ·1 ,
A•' ,11 t s focal l ength cannot be found direct l Y·
.111(1 fc>CBl length of a convex niino .
fV I tht' r. us1ng a
,' ti"',;alS Required convex lens.
,µte ·cal bench • Four uprights
, l~P::_, scale • Pins • Convex 1nt..-.,,.u,