Electric Current Tbrou h Conductors

_ ____
Can you recall?
f .
re
se 1. I)O you recall
that the flow of h ., · ,· · ;.,
1 . c arged part1c1e . . .. -
1e z. An e ectnc
. l h
current in a metau ·
ic conductor such
s m a conductor constitutes o current?
.-: . . , th ,
:s negative Y c arged particles 1-n th . . as a wire 1s due to flow of electrons, . e
• .h e wire. · ·
3· What 1s t e role of the valenc e e1ectro h. h · · .· - ·. .
ns w 1c o.r:e the ou_termost electrons of on atom?
Jl.l Introduction:
y
the plane P from time 1 to r + !).t, i.e. during the
X The valence electrons becoine d e- 1oca 1zed
.
1 time interval 6.t. Then the cun-ent is given by
e whc:n a large number of atoms come togeth er
in O metal. These are the conducti·on e 1ectrons / (/) = Jim 6.q --- (11.2)
l:!. t ➔ v !'),,[ • •
or free electrons
. constituting
. an elect nc
· cun-ent Herc . the cun-ent is expressed as the hm1t
when a potential difference is applied across the of the ratio 6.ql 6.t as 6.t tends to zero .
conductor.
The cu1Tent during lightening could be
11.2 t- 1 l. • ,. ''' l"Tcnt :
as high as 10,000 A, while the cun-ent in the
Consider an imaginary gas of both house hold circuit could be of the order of a few
negati vely and positively charged particles. amperes. Cun-en ts of the order of a milliampere
Fig. 11 . 1 shows th e negatively and positively (mA), a microampere (µA) or a nanoampere
charged particles flowi1 ~g randomly in various (nA) are c0mmon in semiconductor devices.
directi ons acro ss a r -me P. In a time interval
1 11.3 Flow of current through a conductor :
t, let the amount ot pos itive charge flowing A cuITent can be generated by positively
in the forward direction be q ' and the amount or negati vely charged particles. In an
of negative charg e flowing in th e fo rward elec tro lyte, both positively and negatively
direction be q·. charged pm1icles take part in the conduction.
I
1n a metal , the free electrons are responsible
c{ I o-+ .Q,_ fo r co nduction . These electrons flow and
c{ .Q,. "'o I - tJ'
?-+ ge nerate a net current under the action of an
?-+ c{ .Q,. :I ?-+~ 0,?-+ c{ appli ed electric fi eld . As long as a steady
~ .Q,.c{ I ?-+ ?-+
I
?-+
fi eld ex ists, the electrons continue to flow
in th e form of a steady current. Such steady
?-+ c{ : d, R electric field s are generated by cells and
Fo rwa rd
Di rection batteries .
p
1 ., 1 I I I l•" I . h, 1rc-ed p urtt c k s Do you know ? 1--- - - - - - ---
Thus the net charge fl owing in the fo rward Sign convention : The direction of the
d irec tio n i~ q = q - er.
For a stead y !low, thi s cun-cnt in a circuit is drawn in the direction
qu an tit y is pro porti o n a l to the tim e /. T he rati o in which positively charged pa,rticles would
move, even if the current is COIJ.&tituted by
q i~ de fi ned as th e c urrent /.
the negatively charged particles, electrons,
I - lf --- ( 1 I . I ) which move in the direction opposite to that
SI un it of th e c urrc{, t is a mpere (A), that of the the electric field. We use this a s ~,qonvention.
charge and time is co ulo mb (C) a nd seco nd (s) 11.4 l)nft speed :
respectiv ly. Imagine a copper rod witli. no current
Let 1 be the cun-ent vary ing wi th time. Let fl ow ing through it. Fig 11 .2 shows the
llq be th e amount of net charge fl owing ac ross schematic of a conductor with the free electrons

-------------@ ~-----------
in random motion . There is no net motion of L --- (I l .4)
t= -
these electrons in any direction . If electric field ~,
is applied along the length of the copper ·rod,
From the Eq . (I l.l), and Eq. (ll.3), the current
and a current is set up in the rod, these electrons
nA le A
still move randomly, but tend to 'drift' in a 1 == _q == - - = n AV,, e --- (l 1.5)
particular direction. Their direction is opposite t LI V,,
Hence
to that of the applied electric field . I J
V =- =- --- (l 1.6)
Direction 'of electric field : Direction of an c1 nAe ne
·. electric field at a point is the direction of the where J = /IA is current density. J is uniform
force on the test charge placed at that point. over the cross sectional area A of the wire. Its
The electrons under the action of the un it is A/111 2
applied electrjc field drift with a drift speed V,r I --- ( 11. 7)
Here, J = -
The drift speed in a copper cond uctor is of the A
order of l 0-4 m/s-1o-s m/s, whereas the electron From Eq. (ll.6), tl
random speed is of the order of I0c, rn/s. - -- --- (11 .8) d
.l = (ne) V c1
Fo r electrons, ne is negative and ] and V,1
r
have op posite directions, V" is the drift ve locity.
Example II.I : A metalli c wire of diameter
0.02m contains l on free electrons per cubic C

Fig. ! 1.2: Fr"'C ckctr,)1b r 1:..llll., .. 11ot1on meter. Find the drift veloci ty for free electrons, I
;nside the com.lu . .'.tl."- having an electri c current of I 00 amperes e
How is the current through a conductor flowing thro ugh the wire .
related to the drift speed of electrons? Figu1e (Give n : charge on electron = 1.6 x 1o-19q
11 .3 shows a part of conducting wire with its C
Solution: Gi ven
free electrons having the drift speed V" in the (
e = I. 6 x 10-19 C
direction opposite to the electric field £ . '
I 1. I n = I 028 electrons/m 3

(\) 00 0 0 0000 ") D = 0.02m r = D/2 = 0 .01m

\ 0 0 0 00 . I = I00A

--
T
<c-- V = _!- = _ l _
v ,J " 11 e 11 Ae
C u r r c 111 I where A is the cross sectional area of the wire.
Fig_ I 1.3: Conductinu w1rL· with Lhi..: opplied A = rcr2 = 3.142 x (0 .01 )2
electric field .
It is assumed that all the electron move with
= 3.142 X lQ-4 m2
the some drift speed Vt1 and that, the current / is V_ 100
the same throughout the cross section (A) of the d 3. l42 x l0-4 x l0 28 1.6xl0-19
wire. Cons ider the length L of the wire. Let n be
1 10 2+4- 9
= ---
the number of free electrons per unit volume df 5.027
the wire. Then the total number of electrons i'n' Vd = ilQ-3 X 0.1989 = 1.9 X 1Q-4 m/S
the length Lof the conducting wire is nAL . Th'e
total charge 'in the length L is, Example I 1.2 : A copper wire of radius 0.6 mm
q = '.n A L e --- ( 11 .3) carries a current of l A. Assuming the current to
where e is the electron charge. be uniformly distributed over a cross sectional
This is total charge that moves through area, find the magnitude of current density.
any cross se~tion of the wire in a certain time
interval I ,

- - - - - - - - - - - . c@ ~ - - - - - - - - - -
 cion: Given IS called
sou
I . Reciprocal of resistance
r = 0.6 mm= 0.6 xJ0-3 m con:d uctance .
/ = IA
C = !_ --- ( I I. I 0)
J =?
R
Area of copper wire = rcr The unit of conductance is sicmens or (O)
-1

= 3.142 (0 .6)2 X 10-6

X . . t
Example 11.3: A Flashlight uses ~o · .
I 5V
=: 3 .14 2 X O.3 6 X lQ- 6 batteries to provide a steady current of 0.5A rn
= l. l 3 l l X 10-6 111 2 the filament. Determine the resistance of t h c
I l glowing filament.
J=-=-----
A 1.1311 x 1o-(, Solution:
J = 0 .884 6
x 10 A/m 2 R = V = _2_ = 6.00
11.5 Oh m's law : l 0 .5
The relationship between the current .-. Resistan ce of the glowing filament is 6 0 n.
through a conductor and applied potential Physical origin of Ohm's law :
difference was first discovered by German
We know that electrica l conduction in a
scientist George Simon Ohm in 1828 AD . This conductor is due to mobile charge carriers, the
relationship is known as Ohm 's law.
e lectrons . lt is a ss umed that these conduction
It states that " The current / through electrons are free to mn ve inside the volume
a conductor is directly proportional to the of the conductor. During their random motion ,
potential difference V applied across its two e lec tron s collide with the ion cores within the
ends provided the physical state of the conductor conductor. It is- ass umed that electrons do not
· is unchanged". co llide with each other. These random motions
The graph of current versu s potential average to zero . On the application of an
difference across the conductor is a straight line e lectric field E, the motion of the electron is a.
as shown in Fig . l 1.4 combination of the random motion of electron s
clue to collisions and that due to the eiectric
Ci ood Condt1ctor- .- -~ I dea l Ohm 's I field £ . The electron s drift under the action of

r
V
·--·-------·--- ...the field E and move in a direc tion opposite to--
the d irecti on of the field E .
Consider an electron of mass m subjected
to an electric field E:..__T he t~rce experienced by
,_ the electron will be F = e E . The acceleration
Fig . 11.4 : 1-V cu rve for a conductor. experienced by th e electron will then be
In general, I oc. V eE
a = - --- ( 11 . i 1)
V m
or V= IR or R =
1, --- (11.9)
The type of collision . the conduction
Where R is a propo1iionality constant and is
electrons undergo is such that the drift velocity
called the resistance of the conductor. The unit
aft_a ined before the collision has noH1ing to do
of resistance is ohm (0),
l Volt with the drift velocity after the collision . After
10 = - -- - the collision, the electron will move in random
lAmpere
direction, but will still drift ·in th.e direction
If potential differepce of 1Volt across opposite to E _.r;
a conductor produces a current of 1Ampere
:hrough it, then the resistance of the conductor Let -r be the average time between two
IS IQ, successive collisions . Thus on an average , the

-------------<@ >---- - - - - - - -
clt',.: tn,11s· wilt llutttttl . · . , u Lrtlt I · . spccd I·. -=-= a r vacuum tubes. junction diodes thern1 · ' t co
. ' , IS Ors
where, · • tt
t1 ls .t
h .' ~1ecckruttllll qivcn by l.:q ( 11 . 11 ).
' Resistance R tor such non-linear dev· etc.
ices at 0 Ill
Also nt um· lJl\' L, 1,, •ins·t unt o 1• time. the uvl;'rugl;' particular value of the potential diftei·
•· •• • : ence v ·
l_i_11 ti
Sf)l'l'd l)l th1..· l'IL·1..·tn,11 will llls.·l) l)•' given by. is
~ V.t = ar -
I. rom h] . t I I . It). . 11V dV
R = l1111 - = -
. t·Fr •11 - •0 11/ di --- ( I 1.16)
I" -= ur = - -· --- ( I I . l 2)
II/ where e V is the potential difference betw
een
Frum the Fq . (II .h) und L::q . ( 11 . 12 ). thc two values of potential
l_ __-- - 11V
I .., = cf:r 11V
- --- ( I I . I J J V -..,- to V+-
.., ,
II <' Ill
\Vhich ni\'CS and 11I is the corresponding change in the rrc.

1:· l l
- Ill
, - .I
e · 11r --- ( 11.14)
current.
11. 7 • kctrical F nc:»-)!~ THI Ptm l'I':
lHl
m<

Consider a resistor AB connected to 0

or. f.' = p.l. wl!L'r1..· f' 1, ·li ,· rcsistivity of the fit.
mtitcriu I und cell in a circuit shown in Fig . 11 .6 with current
flowing from A to B. The cell maintains 0 on
Ill en,
p =--.- - -- ( I 1. 15) potential difference Vbetween the two tenninals
Ill ' r of the res istor. higher potential at A and tower Wl

at B. Let Q be the charge tlm,ving in time t:it 1S

Fur ll ni\'l'll mutniul /II , // , C:'2 and T will
be constunt and 11 will ulso be constant, p th rough the resi stor from A to 8 . The potential vil
di !Terence V bctwecn the two points A and B, is he,
is independent nf /::. tlic cxtcnwlly applied
equol to the amount of work IV. done to carry a of
electric lield .
I I I \ of fhl' ( )hm', Ian.
unit posi tive churgc from 1\ to U. It is given by
w 11,
Ohm ·s Im,· is obeyed by vorious materiu ls V=Q . 11' I {! --- ( 11. 17) pc
and <le, ices. The lkvicl's tcir which potentiul A B Oil
di tforence (I) versus current (/) curw is n Us
~traight line pussinn through ori9in , inclined -v-
to F-ox is . tll'L' ca lled lineor tkviccs or ohmic
devices ( Fi~J - I I A) . Rcsistanec of these devices
i:- C(lllStont. Severo! conductors obey thc Ohms + wl
luw. Th1..·y follow the linl'llr /- 1' churactcristic .

ur
I ,lJ. 1 l 6 .. \ simple ct tu "1th ll cell ond u lir
Non Ohmic de , ice
( J\rl) Ullll!I ) re:--, -.11,r f,
Thc cell provicks this cncrgy through the L'l
charge Q , to the n:sistor J\13 where the work is th·
V (volts) performed. When the chorgc O flows from the
- . I
hinhcr potcnt,ol poin t A to the lowcr poh.:nt,o . S,
I I l 111\ l 1,,r 111111 < >11 111 11.. point B. 1.1..·. throunh o dccr1..'l1Se in plitcntiol tif I
volue I'. it s putent1ul 1..·ner1JY derrcoscs by an \\
Th1..· devices for wlrn:h t h1..· /- / · L' t1rn; i-. not umount I'
I\ (I - (_) 1· I .\r I . --- (11 . 18)
0
struiqht line us shown 111 hfJ . 11 .5 ore culled
nnn-ohmic devices . Thl',V do not obey the whcrc / is current due to the clwrgc Q flowing
13
<.)hm ·s low und the resistrn1c1..· or these dcviccs in ti111c !'.). / . Whcrc will this cnergy go'? .Y
15
is u fw,ctll111 or ,,. or /: c.q. liquid electrolytes . 111c principle of conservation of energy. it

.- - - - -------@ -----------
 r
converted into some other fom1 of cucrgy.
lrl .8 Resistors:
)rs etc. In the limit as !::.t--.. 0, 1
;!Sat a ' Resistors ore used to lin1i t the c urn..:i it
JU folfowing through a parti-:ular path of u circuit._
ce Vis dt = I. V --- (1 l.19)
Commercially available resistors ore mainly of
dU tWll ty pes :
11.16) Here, dt i: po_wer, the timi..: rate of transfer of Carbon res is tors und Wire wo und
energy and 1s given by, resistors . High value resistors ure 1110.,; tly carbon
;!tween resistors . They arc small and inexpensive . The
dU
P = -dt = I. V --- (11 .20) values of these resistors are colour coded to
We can al so say that this power is mark their values in ohms . The colour coding
transferre~ b~ the cell to the resistor or any i:-; stanclar<lized by E lectronic Industries
m the Assc c iation (EIA). One s uch resistor is s hown
other device Ill place of the res istor, such as a
motor, a rechargeable battery etc . in Fig . I..;.'~·:_ . ~
7;.... ~ ~ - - -- --s-<:~
Because of the presence of an electric
i to a field, the free electrons move across a resistor
:urrent
ains a
and there would be an increase in their kinetic // ~
I "l d1gn :? ml d1 g11 Mult 1pl 1l'r
l o krl'm.:I.! I ''.~, ,
energy as they mov e . When th e e lectron s collide
minals
with the ion cores the energy gained by them
l lower Fig 11.7 : C...irbon co 1 ,o 11 ( u rcsic;tor
is shared among the ion cores . Consequently,
ime lit Colour code :
vibrations of the ions increase, resulting in
,tential
heating up of the resi stor. Thus, some amount Colours 1st 2nd Multiplier Tolerance
td B , is
of energy is dissipated in the form of heat in a
: arry a digit digit
,en by resistor. The energy di ssipated in time interval
Black 0 0 1/ 10"
Mis given by Eq . ( 11 . 18). The energy di ss ipated
1
11.17) Brown 1 I " I0 ± 1%
per unit time is actually the power di ss ipated
XI 0 2
and is given by Eq . ( 11 .20) . rRed 2 2 ±2%
1
Using Eq . ( 11 .20) , and usi ng Ohm 's law, V= JR , 'Orange 3 3 X ]0
vi , r
Ye ll ow 4 4 X I 04
·. P = - = f-R --- (11.:?! )
R Green 5 5 x I 0'

It is the power di ssiro1ion ocross a resistor Blue 6 6 X I O"

which is responsible for heating IL up . For Vio let 7 7 1/ I o-
example, the filament of on electric bulb heats Gray 8 8 X I 0'
up to incandescence, rodiafr1g o ut hea t and 09
om! u White 9 9 X ]
light.
For Gold x J0 ' ±5%
Example 11.4 : An electric heater takes 6A
gh the current from a 230\' suppl y line. ca lculate For Si lver X I 0·2 ± 10%
vork is No co lo ur - ± 20%
the power of the heotcr and electri c energy
:lm the
consumed by it in :') hours . Easy B)tes :
,ten ti al
1tial of Solution : Given Findin9 it difficult to memorize the colour
by an I= 6A, V = 230V code: sequence? No need to worry, w e have a
We know that. o ne liner which will he lp you out " B . B . Roy in
P=- t x V = (6A) (? '.H)V) = DX0 W G reat Britain has Very Good Wife' ' ~- '
I l. 18)
P = l.JX kW 1 11
lowing l3 R RO y G B
~ If
G w
o? By Energy consumed = Power x time
This funny one liner makes it easy to recall
.,,, it is = ( 1.38 kW) x (5 h)
the sequence, t: f digits and multipliers .
-= 6 .90kWh(l.0Kwh =- 1 unitofpower)
= 6 .9 units of electrical energy.

----- - - - - - - - - <@ > - - - - - - - - - - - - -

 In the four band resistor colour ,, code Because of se ri es combination , the .
, . suppl
illustrated in the above table, the first three voltage betwee n two res istors R and R . Y
. I l I , 2 is V
bands (closest together) indicate the valt1e in an d v:! ' respective y one
.
t 1c some cu
rrcnt /
,
ohms. The first two bands indicate two nu,Iibers flows through the resi stor R , and the re .· .
. . sistor
and third band often called decimal multiplier. R2 . i.e. in series combmat1on ,. supply vo lt age is
.
The fom1h band separated by a space from the divided and the current remams the same 111 •
. all
three value bands, (so that you know which end the resistors .
to start reading from) , indicates tolerance of the R1 R2
resistor.
Example
v,
i. Colour code of resi stor is
Yellow Violet Orange Gold
Value : 4 7 10-' ±5%
i.e . 47 x }0 3 = 470000 = 47k0±5 %
The value of the resistor is 47k0 ±5% +
ii. From given values of resistor; find the· co lour
Fig . 11 .9: Scril.'.s combination of two
bands of thi s resistor l

3300 = 33 x l0
rc::,istors R und R
3 3 10 1
Accordi ng to Ohm 's low,
Orange Orange Brown tolerance band V)
R = V, R -
11.8.1 Rheostat: I I 2 - 1- --- ( 11 .22) (

A rheostat shown in Fig . 11 .8 is an

adj u stable resistor used in applicati ons that Tota l voltage V= V,+ V2 --- ( 11.23)
require adj ustment of cun-ent or resistance in From equation .... ( 11.22) and ( 11.23)
on electric circuit. The rheostat can be used to we write
adj ust pote ntial difference between two points V = l (R,+R) --- ( 11 .24)
in a ci rc uit, change the inten sity of lights .and .-. V = JR --- ( 11 .25)
contro l the speed of motors. etc . Its resistive '
Thus the equivalent resistance of the series
element can be a metal w ire or a ribbon, carbon
circuit Rs= R I+R:!
films or a conducting liquid , depending upon
th e application . In hi -ft equipment, rheostats are When a number of resistors are connected
used for volume control. in series, the equivalent resistance is equal to
coi! of wir~ the sum of individual resistances .
For n numhe r of res istors,
1= 11

R, = RI+ R )+ R,+ ........... + R =

- .c, II
LR; --( 11.26)
;~ 1

II. Parallel Combination of Resistors:

terminal A
Fig . 11 .8: Rheostat.
11.8.2 Combination of Resistors:
I. Series combination of Resistors :
In series combination of resistors, these are
connected in single electrical path as shown in
Fig 11 .9 . Hence the same electric cun-ent flows
through each resistor in a series combination .
In the parallel combination, the resistors
are connected in such a way that the same
voltage is applied across each resistor.
A number of resistors are said to be
connected in parallel if all of them are connected
between the same two electrical points each
having individual path a s shown in Fig. 11 . l O.
In parallel combination the total current .1
is divided into I and I as shown in the circuit
I 2

-----------® ------------
-- . gram Fig . 11 .10, whereas vol ta V
't

d1° . ge across
ly In remams the same .•::xam11lc 11 .S: Calculate i) total resistance and
1l1e ' 11 )-total
/ R1 current in the following circuit.
I
I RJ= 30, R2= 60 R = 50 V = 14V
'
Jf
R, .f '

s
ll
- R2

I
+
+
14V
Fig . 1i .10 : Two resistors m parallel
Circuit diawom
combination.
Solution:
I = 1,+ 12 -- (11.27) i) Total resi stance = RT= RP+ R3
where I, is current flowing through R and J is
. t h rough R . ' R/{2 = 3 X 6 = 2.Q
RP =
current fl owing 2
2 R, + R2 9
When Ohm 's law is applied to R RT= 2 + 5 = 7.Q
I
Total Resistance = 7.Q
V = I,R I i.e. I ,= ; --- ( 11.28a)
I ii) Total current :
Ohm 's law applied to R 2
. V I = _!_=l 4V
1. e . ! 2 = - --- ( 11 .28b) RT 7.Q
R2
I = 2A
From Eq . ( 1 1.27) and Eq . (11.28) , iL9 Specific Resistance (Resistivity):
V V ·· At a particular temperature, the resistance
! = - +-.
R, R2 of' a given conductor is observed to depend on
V the .nature of material of conductor, the area of
If, [ =- its cross-section, and its length .
RP
It is fo und that resistance R of a conductor
of un iform cros~ section is
i. directly proportional to its length /,
_I = - J + - I , --- (11.29) i.e. Roc l
RP R, R2 ii. inversely proportional to its area of
where Rp is th e equi valent resi stance in parallel cross section A ,
combination . . R l1.e . oc A
If n resistors R 1, R2, Rr ....... , Rn are
From i and ii
connected in parallel , the equivalent res istance
l
of the combination is given by R= p A --- (11.31)

.!__ = _!_ + _j__ + _j__ + ······ ····· ·_j__ =

R,, RI R2 R3 R,,
t ~ - ()
,-1
1.30)
where p is a constant of proportionality and
it is called specific resistance or resistivity
Thus when a number of resistors are of the material of the conductor at a given
connected in parallel , the reciprocal of the temperature .
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the From Eq. ( 11 .31 ), we write
reci procal s of individual resistances . RA
p=- --- (11 .32)
l

- - - - - - - - - - - - ----1,q G)> - - - - - - - - - - - -
 SI unit of resistivity 1s ohm-meter. Conductivity : Rec iprocal of r esistiv
· ity
Res is tivity of a conductor is numericallv the called conductivity of a material. is
re sistance per unit length, and per unit ar~a of l
C5 = - R
cross-section of material of the conductor. ;62, p
I.l' ·when, R = ID, A = lm2 and l = Im,
then, p = lDm ·,:· 1 I .m
SI unit of cr is : ( 01111 Ji.e . siemens/meter
Table 11 .1 : Resistivity of various materials
. Material Resistivity p Material · Resistivity p
(O.m) (O.m)
F1
Conductors Semiconductors te
Silver 1.59 X lQ· 8 Carbon 3.5 X lQ·S
Copper 1.72 X J0.·8 Germanium 0 .5
Gold 2 .44 X 10-s Silicon 3 X 104
Aluminium 2.82 X lQ·S Insulators
Tungsten 5.6 X lQ·S Glass 1011 _10 13
Iron 9.7 X J0· 8 Mica 1011 _10 15 ofre,
Mercury 95 .8 X lQ·S · Rubber (hard) 1013_ 1016 som,
N ichrome ( alloy) 100 X lQ·S Teflon 1Q l6 of r,
Wood (maple) 3 X 10 8 rests
Example 11.6 : Calculate the resistance per Again, the SI unit of p is chos
metre. at room temperature, of a constanton temr
unit(£) V/m V
( a lloy ) wire o f d iameter 1.25mm . The resistivity 2
-rn=O.m degn
unit(J) A lm A
oi" constantan a t room temperature is 5.0 x I()·"
Qm. ln terms of condu ctiv ity CT of a materiaL from
Solution: p = 5 .0 x 10- 7 nm (11.33), Fort
d = l. 25 x 10- 3 m 1-
J = - F -= u f: --- ( 11.34)
r = .625 x 10- 3 m p
C r0ss-sectional Area = m·2 ------- - --- -
For a particular resistor, we had (Eq. 11.9) ·
. . . R4
Res1st1 v 1tv p
. =-l the resistance R given by ' ~ -
~ ~
. R R=V
Resistance per meter = - He
I J
lill]
R p 5 x 10- 7 Compare this with the above Eq (li.33).
t.e . = - - - ----- Th,
I A (0 .625 x 10- 3 ) 2 x 3. l,.Q 11.10 Variation 0 s1~ta .1tce with Cel
TeP'pe atPf~ ide
R = 0.4 I .Om- 1

I R esistiv ity of a material varies with Exa,

• temperatu re . l.t 1s a prope1iy of material. Fig. resis1
Rcsistdrtce per metre= 0.41 0111· 1

11 . 11 sho\.\s the vor iot ion of res istivity of coee

Res istivi ty p. is a property of a matcr1bl
copper as a fu nction of temperature ( K). lt can resis·
while the res istance R refers to u parti cular
he seen that the vari ation is linear over a certain
o bj e ct . S imilarly, the electric field E at o .po i it range of temperatures . Such a l inear relation Sol u
is s nec ified in a materia l with th e pot e ntial can be expressed as ,
d i !Te rence across the resistance, and the current
P = r·"'u
n [ 1+ a( T - T )] -- - ( l ! .35) d
rk nsi 1y J in a materia l instead of th e. c urrcnl / - o ,

in 1h c ,-c, istor. Then fo r an isotrop ic moterial. w here 7:)is the chosen reference temperature an
E ro in the rcs isti ,·itv at th e chosen rernperature.
p ·- - or E ::- p.T ---- (II 11) for example. Tu ca;1 be 0 C.
- .1 0

- - - - - - - - - - - - <@ >------------ -
 -11
·------
~·.,,·,
I , -,. -.{
·~.
. _.,

Res is tivi ty o f Copper

' Rr= 2.5 x 1.32
10

Resistivity 8
RT = 3.3.0
l oh.rn 6 R T. Superconductivity :
4 We know that the resistivity of a
2 metal decreases as the temperature decreases.
In case of some metals and metal alloys, 1 •
(0.()) 200
400 600 800 I 000 1200 the resistivity suddenly drops to zero at a 1
Tcmpcrnture( K)
particular temperature (T ). This temperature ',
fig . 11 .11: Resistivity as a function of is called critical temper~ture, for example,
temperature {K) . mercury loses its resistance completely to
In the above Eq. (11.35), zero at 4.2K.
Superconductivity can be harnessed so a s to
a = P - Po = R - R0
be useful for mankind. It is already in use in
p 0 (T - 1~) R0 (T - T0 ) ---(11.36)
obta ining very high magnetic field ( a few
Here, a is called the temperature coefficient Tesla) in superconducting magnet. These .
ofresistivity. Table ( 11 .1) shows the resistivity of magnets are used in research quality NMR
1
some of the metals . The temperature coefficient spectrometers. For its operation, the current
of resistance is defined as the increase in carrying coils are required to be kept at a I
resistan ce per unit original resistance at the temperature less than the critical temperatme I
chosen reference temperature, per degree rise in of the coil material.
temperature. The unit of a is c-1 or °K-1 (per 0
l 1.11 ElcctromotiYe force (emf):
degree celcius or per degree kelvin) . When charges flow through a conductor,
From Eq. ( 11.36) a potential difference has to be established
R = R 0 [l + a (T - T0)] --- (11.37)
between the two ends of the conductor. For a
For small difference in temperatures, steady flow of charges, this potential difference
I dR is required to be maintained across the two ends
a = - ·- --- (11 .38) of the conductor, the terminals. There is a device.
R0 dT
that does so by doing work on the charges,
,-- --- ~
thereby maintaining the potential difference.
Do you know?
1-- - - -- - - - Such a device is called an emf device and it
Here, the temperature difference is more provides the emf c:. The charges move in the
important than the temperature alone. conductor owing to the energy provided by th~
Therefore, as the sizes of degrees on the emf device. The device supplies this energy . .
Celsius scale and the Absolute scale are through the work it does.
identical , any scale can be used. You must have used some of these emf
Examp k 11 .7: A pi ece of platinum wire has devices. Power cells, batteries,Solar cells, fuel
resi stan ce of 2.5 .0. at 0° C. ff its temperature cells, and even ge11erators, are same exampl~
coeffic ient of res istance is 4 x 10-3/°C. Find the 0f emf dev icesR familiar to you .
I
resistance of the wire at 80" C.
. : ... ~' ·' f•
• --~~;•. y..,.
Sol ution : ~ -~~~-t~,(--~~

R0= 2.5 D , . .. ;,.,,. .....

. ,., . ,,:- . ·-
a = 0.004/"C , .... .. 1- .•

T - 0 = T = 80° C +

R,,.= Ro< I+ aT)

RT= 2.5 (I + 0 .004 x 80) = 2.5 (1 + 0 .32) Fig. l l l2 : Circuit with emf device .

-----------------~ --------~--
 Fig . l 1. 12 shows a circuit with an emf fonn the potential difference across its two
•
devic_e and a resistor R . Here, the emf device terminals ( V) .
keeps the positive terminal (+) at a higher V= £ - (I) (r) ~ --- (11 .40)
electric potential than the negative terminal(-). The negative sign is due to the fact that the (
The emf is represented by an arrow from current J flows through the emf device from th
the negative tenninal to the positive terminal. negative terminal to the positive terminal. e 11
When the circuit is open, there is no net flow By the application of Ohm 's law Eq . (l 1.9),
of ·charge carriers within the device. When V = JR · in
connected in a circuit, there is a flow of carriers Hence JR = £ - Ir --- ( 11.4 I) ce
- fron~ one terminal to the other terminal insrne·--er-- ---- --- · te.
the emf device. The positive charge carriers J = _£_ In
move towards the positive terminal which acts R+r --- (11.42)
ar
as cathode inside the emf device. Thus the Thus, the maximum current that can be Fi
positive charge carriers move from the region of drawn from the emf device is when R = O, i.e. pc
lower potentia~. energy, to the region of higher £
potential energy which is cathode inside the I ,,,ax = -; --- (11.43)
ac..
emf device . Here, the energy source is chemical
This is the maximum allowed current
in nature. In-·a Solar cell, it is the photon energy
from an emf device (or a cell) . This decides the
in tl-ie Solar radiation.
maximum cun-ent rating of a ce ll or a battery.
Now suppose that a charge dq flows
11.12 Cells in Serie(i: Pc.
through the cross section . of the circuit (Fig .
11.12), in time dt. In a series combination , cells are connected to
in si ngle electrical path , such that the positive H
It is clear that the same amount of charge
terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
dq flows througllout the circuit, including the
tenninal of the next cell , and so on. The terminal V
emf device. It enters the negative tenninal (low
voltage of battery/cell is equal to the sum of w
potential terminal) and leaves the posi tive
voltages of indi vi dual ce lls in series, as shown 0
terminal (higher potential terminal). Hence.
in Fig 11.1 3 a .
the device. must do work dw on the charge dq ,
Fi gure shows two 1.5V cells in series. This
so that it moves in the above manner. Thus we
combination pro vi des total voltage of 3.0V
define the emf of the emf device.
(l .5x2).
dw + +
t: =- --- (11.39)
dq
The SI unit of emf is joule/coulomb
(J/C). .
l .5v 1.5v
Jn an ideal device, there is no internal
Fig . l l .13 (a) : Cells in parallel.
re.sistance to the motion of charge carriers . The I +-
emf of the device is then equal to the potential
difference across the two terminals of the
device. In a real emf device, therejs an internal
resistance to the motion of charge carriers .
If such a device is not connected in a circuit,
+VB,
z.--C __ +-,__
I

Fig . 11 . 13 (b) : Cells in parallel.

there is no cunent through it. In that case the The equivalent emf of n number of cells
C
emf is equal to the potential difference across in series combination is the algebraic sum of e
the two terminals of the emf device connected their individual emf. The equivalent internal (
in a circuit, there is no current through it. If a resistance of n cells in a series combination is
current (I) flows through an emf device, there is the sum of their individual internal resistance.
e
an internal resistance (r) and the emf(£) differs V = It: - I . Ir
I I
--- (11 .44)
! I

-----------@ -----------
 r
Advantages of cells in series.
'O Considering Eq. ( 11.49) and Eq. ( 11 .S0) we can
• (i) The cells connected in series produce a
larger resultant voltage. write,

(ii) Cells. which are damaged .can be easily

Le
identified, hence can be easily replaced.
te tt.13 Cells in parallel:
rcq ='ir2
--
), Consider two cells which are connected 'i +r2
in parallel. Here, positive terminals of all the
1 1 1
cells are connected together and the negative i.e. - = - + -
terminals of all the cells are connected together. rcq 'i r2
In parallel connection, the current is divided
--- (11.51)
among the branches i.e. I, and 12 as shown in rcq 'i r2
Fig. 11.13b. Consider points B 1 and B having .h
potentials VB and VB ~ respectively.
2 For n number of cells connected in parallel wit
For the 'first cefl the potential difference emf E I' E2, E3, ..... . , E" and internal resistance r1'
) across its tenninals is, r2, r3, .... .. , rn

1t V= VB - VB = c 1 - / 1r 1 --- (11 .45) _l = __!_ + _!_ + _!_ + ........... + _!_ ___ (11 .52)
I 2
1e s -V r cq 'i r2 r3 r,,
I =-' - --- (11.46)
' r1
Point B I and B 2 are connected exactly similarly and S eq = ~ + S 2 + ............. + £n
d to the second cell. r eq 'i r2 r,,
Hence, considering the second cell we write, --- (11 .53)
E 2 -V Substitution of emfs should be done
V = VBl - V 8 = E 2 - I 2r 2 l 2 = r,, --- ( 11 .4 7)
7
We know that I = I,+ 12 -
algebraically by considering proper ± signs
Combining the last three equations, according to polarity.
S V S2 V • Advantages of cells in parallel : For cells
is J =--1.. - -+- - - --- ( 11.48) connected in parallel in a circuit, the circuit
V will not break open even if a cell gets
damaged or open.
• Disadvantages of cells in parallel : The
voltage developed by the cells in parallel
Thus, connection cannot be increased by
increasing number of ce11s present in circuit.
11.14 Types o · Cl~lls ·
I Electrical cells can be divided into several
categories like primary cell, secondary cell,
fuel cell , etc.
V s ,,i +s2,, / __.J2_
r1 + r2 fj+ r2 ---( 11.49) A primary cell cannot be charged again. It
If we replace the cells by a sing~e cell can be used only once. Dry cells, alkaline cells
Is
connected between points B 1 and B 2 with the are different examples of primary cells. Primary
)f
emf Ecq and the internal resistance r cq as in Fig. ce11s are low cost and can be used easily.
Jl
(11.13b), But these are not suitable for heavy loads.
is
Secondary cells are used for such applications.
then ,
The secondary cell are rechargeable and can be
V= E cq - Ir cq --- ( 11 .50) reused. The chemical reaction in a secondary
cells is reversible. Lead acid cell, and fuel cell

------------~ ~-----_..._ ____

 r
r ~ondLJP/,; c.clh . u:.ud ii . Curr{.~1l in eoch resbtrJ:-- :
, i; xw11p ICh () ...i.
rn 1.: Kotnc .I . j ly ·1n vi.;hicles and owcr Towl c.11rrem I m r.he circuit is.
. 11 11 • y Ii'! WIC( WI( C
<ll'.H 1u er · · , h. h lood c:urrents . 1. Choose c
. . , whid1 n;quirc ig . c: 14
nppl1co1111111, . ·ll . thut con ven f= - - = - =2A.
Solur t:cll K ore sct:on~ury cc, s P'-: - r 0- J · i) You o
Solur cncroy into clc<.;tncul energy. . 60W
Consid..."7 resistors between A and B.
1:uc1 cells vehicles (FCVsJ ure elect~c: at 23(
Let I_ be the current through one of the resistl
vehidcs thut use fuel cells instead of le.ad ac1_~
40 resistors and ( be the currenr in the other
hotteries to power the veh icles. Hydrogen b (A) 2:
resi5tor
Used os a fuel in fuel cells. The by~ product I / -4 = / _/ 4 (C) 6(
·
after its burning is water. Th is . is
· · impo rtont
that is. I_= ( from symmetry of the two arms. ii) Whic
in terms of reducing emission of greenhouse condl
But I - I. = I= 2A
gases produced by traditional gasolin_e fueled
:. I = / _= 1.-\ (A) tr,
vehicles. The hydrogen fuel cell vehJcles are
thus more environment friendl y. . that is. the current in each 40 resistor is lA, the (C) el
Example 11.8: A network of resistors 1s current in 10 resistor beni.-een B and C would iii) Arhe
connected to a 15 V battery with internal be 2..\.
(A) t
resistance 1 n as shown in the circuit ~ ow. consider the resistances between C resist
diagram . and D
(B) tc
i. Calculate the equivalent resistance, Let I, be the current through one of the 6 in an:
ii. Current in each resi stor, O resistois and I, be the current in the other the Cl 1
iii. Voltage drops V AB' V8 c and VDC resistor.
~ ~ ~~ (C) tl
I_, x 6 = I , x 6
e~A il: instru.
l ==if=;.<=====1
~e I .= I = l..\
That is. cu~ent~in each 6 0 resistor is lA (D) n
curre1
iii . \ ·oltage drop across BC is r ac
iv) The,
r-3C = 1 x 1 = 2 x 1 = 2\'
stretc
\'oltage drop across CD is rm is hal
I'CD = J x RCD = 2 x 3 =6V (A) 51
Solution :
[:-:ote : Total , ·oltoge drop across AD is = (C)4F
i) Equivalent Resistance (Re) =RA8 +R 8 c-r RDc 4V..L2V- 6V= l 2V. \,·bile its emf is 14V. The
4x4 6x6 v) Mass·
RAB= - = 20, RCD= -=30 loss of the Yoltoge is 2V]. the sc
4+4 6+6
R8 c= 1n their
Internet m y friend ratios
R=R
T eq
= 2 + 1 + 3 = 6Q
h ttp s :/ /ww,v. bri tannica . com /sci ence/ (A) l ·
:. Equivalent Resistance is 6 n
superconductivityphysics (C) l .
vi) The ·
2V i:
of 0.
be
(A) I
(C)
vii) 100
rest
to J
res1